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Observations on the effect of ejection of stomach oil by the fulmar Fulmarus glacialis on other birds

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... Chemical substances of birds occur in many forms, such as plumage odor (e.g., Jones 1993), feces (Swennen 1968, Jones and Gentle 1985, Jones and Roper 1997, stomach oils (Swennen 1974, Jouventin 1977, Wenzel 1986, and blood (Jones and Black 1979). Birds also have a variety of glands that produce sebaceous substances, including the uropygial (preen) gland, anal gland, salt gland, salivary gland, ear (wax) glands, and even epidermal cells called sebokeratocytes (Lucas and Stett enheim 1972, Jacob and Zisweiler 1982, Menon and Menon 2000. ...
... Cott noted that the carcasses of some birds were less palatable than those of others when presented to potential mammalian predators (i.e., humans, domestic cats) or invertebrate scavengers (hornets). Other avian species are reported to produce noxious or unpalatable substances, apparently during defensive situations; examples include Northern Fulmars (Fulmaris glacialis), which spit stomach oils at intruders (Swennen 1974), and the malodorous "nest feces" of Northern Shovelers (Anas acuta) and Common Eiders (Somateria mollisima), which are sprayed over eggs when an agitated adult is fl ushed from the nest (Swennen 1968). More recent studies discuss another kind of avian chemical protection. ...
... Many species exhibit obvious malodorous defenses against intruders. The fulmars and some other procellariiform birds spit stinking stomach oil on avian or mammalian invaders (Swennen 1974 ;Clarke and Prince 1976 ). Unsurprisingly, hatchlings are especially prompt to release such an unpleasant-smelling liquid in order to defend themselves. ...
... This trait supports the defensive function of this secretion produced only in great spotted cuckoo nestlings. 2. Until now, avian-produced malodorous volatiles have been mainly associated with uropygial glands, as in hoopoes (Cramp 1998 ), or with oils expelled from digestive organs, as in procellariiformes (Swennen 1974;Clarke and Prince 1976 ) and nestlings of Eurasian rollers . Interestingly, these two common origins are not the source of the defensive secretion of cuckoo nestlings. ...
Chapter
The roles and importance of avian-produced odorous secretions have been largely underestimated. This is mainly due to the supposed absence of a sense of smell in birds, and few studies have been carried out on the ecological relevance of olfactory cues in birds. Despite this, some notable breakthroughs related to avian chemical-mediated interactions have been published during the last 50 years. Nowadays, this field of research is attracting increasing interest from the scientific community. As expected, varied organic compounds, ranging from ubiquitous to highly specific, and from non-volatile to volatile, are being found to be of major importance and provide explanations for various behaviors observed in birds. Even well-known and long-studied relations, such as interspecific brood parasitism, are subject to this renewed interest. For a non-evicting brood parasitic cuckoo, we recently revealed unforeseen implications of malodorous secretions produced by the juvenile cuckoo when frightened by an intruder. Such emissions contribute to the protection of the entire nest against mammalian and avian predators, reducing or cancelling out anticipated negative effects of parasitism on average host fitness. In this particular case and depending on the predator pressure, the production of the repulsive secretion by the cuckoo chicks may thus turn the initial parasitic situation into a mutualism. This is the first time such a reversal of situation has been documented thoroughly. Evolutionary consequences resulting from this phenomenon might include the lack of defenses against brood parasites observed in hosts, and an absence of the classic arms race seen in other interspecific host–brood parasite cases. The conclusive evidence of this unexpected fluctuation from parasitism to mutualism was obtained with long-term field monitoring, translocation of nestlings, chemical analysis of natural secretions, synthesis of an artificial blend mimicking the foul-smelling defense, and repellency tests on representative host nest predators. Here, we review the ways that some bird species use their sense of smell and olfactory information to interact with the environment, congeners, or predators. After this synopsis, we relate how our modern approach, combining evolutionary ecology and odorous signaling in birds, led to recent novelty in the field of host–brood parasite interactions. In the final stage, we present our further directions and perspectives for research related to the importance of stinking defensive secretions in interspecific brood parasite interactions.
... [86][87][88][89] Pheromones in birds Chemical compounds of birds can be found in a variety of forms, including blood, stomach oils, faeces, and plumage odor. [90][91][92][93][94][95][96][97] The uropygial (preen) gland, salt gland, salivary gland, anal gland, and ear (wax) glands are among the glands that generate sebaceous compounds in birds. In addition, the epidermal cells called sebokeratocytes of birds also produce sebaceous substances. ...
Article
The uropygial gland or preen gland is a complex holocrine structure present only in birds, and plays an important role in avian communication and reproduction. This gland produces preen oil, which helps birds maintain intact plumage, plumage colorage, but also possesses antibacterial and anti-predator properties, and the evidence for these claims is still in infancy. Preen gland harbour a large number of microbiota among which as many as 110 are bacterial genera dominated by Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, etc., families, and the roles of these microbes are largely unknown. However, these microbes are believed to maintain symbiotic relationship with the host and exert positive effects in the host’s physiology and behaviour. Many studies have proven that these microbes produce chemical cues as metabolic by-products that modulate the host’s behavior. In birds, these symbiotic microbes are needed for normal growth, development and even reproduction. Earlier findings about preen gland microbiota of birds connect it to good feather condition, recent evidences connect it to antifungal and antimicrobial activities. Although preen gland plays a major role in bird’s development, symbiotic microbes of preen gland seem to play a crucial role in reproduction and pheromonal communication. Here, we review the role of microbes present in avian preen gland in production of chemical signals and document the relationship between the microbes and preen gland in chemical communication.
... Most prey species develop morphological, physical, behavioral, and chemical defenses that are effective for escaping predation at specific stages of this sequence (Nelsen et al. 2014;Walker et al. 2018;Sugiura 2020a). Fluid-spraying is of a diverse range of such defensive traits (Eisner et al. 2005), and is used as a defensive tactic by many terrestrial animal groups including mammals (Stankowich 2012;Fisher and Stankowich 2018), birds (Swennen 1974), reptiles (Rosenberg et al. 1984;Middendorf and Sherbrooke 1992;Melville et al. 2004;Sherbrooke and Middendorf 2004;Berthé et al. 2013), amphibians (Brodie and Smatresk 1990), velvet worms (Baer et al. 2017), scorpions (Eisner et al. 2005;Nisani and Hayes 2015), whip scorpions (Eisner et al. 2005), spiders (Yap and Li 2009), and insects (Eisner et al. 2005). ...
Article
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Chemical secretions are an effective means by which insects can deter potential enemies. Several terrestrial insects spray these liquids directionally toward enemies, but little is known about spraying behavior in aquatic and semiaquatic insects. The larvae of Osmylus hyalinatus (Neuroptera: Osmylidae) are semiaquatic, inhabiting the edges of small streams and ponds where they encounter multiple enemies on land and in water. The larvae of this osmylid sprayed a hyaline liquid from the anal opening if disturbed in either air and water, although the spray appeared slightly viscous in water. The liquid was stored in the posterior half of the hindgut and sprayed directionally toward an artificial stimulus. Spraying allowed the larvae to escape biting by ants, and to repel them in 90% of encounters. Spraying caused the regurgitation of 71% and 60% of all larvae swallowed by terrestrial frogs and aquatic newts, respectively. Aquatic fishfly larvae released 30% of captured larvae due to spraying. Most of the larvae that repelled ants or were regurgitated by amphibians survived, but those released by fishfly larvae were killed by heavy biting with the mandibles. This is the first report of effective liquid spraying by insects in water, and also within the order Neuroptera.
... This oily defence mechanism can have severe consequences for the attacker, whose feathers may lose water repellence as a result of the oil and thus become waterlogged, resulting in drowning. After experimenting with the efficient defence mechanism in captivity, where several fatalities occurred in other seabirds coming close to spitting fulmars, Swennen (1974) concluded: 'Still it is remarkable that the Fulmar should have such a dangerous weapon at its disposal. The final destruction of an opponent after only a slight confrontation seems rather excessive.' ...
Thesis
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In the framework of the EU JPI PLASTOX project, this PhD project focused on the effects of ingested plastic on marine wildlife and in particular the northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis). Plastic ingestion by fulmars was studied on Iceland and on Svalbard. Trophic transfer of plastic between predators and their prey was explored, by quantifying plastics ingested by prey fish from the Arctic Ocean and the North Sea. Ingested plastics were categorized according to their material characteristics. A mixture of relevant microplastics was created to be used in environmental impact studies. Experiments were conducted to investigate the transfer of chemicals from ingested plastic to northern fulmars. Furthermore an updated literature overview of species affected by plastics is provided.
... In a separate category, the Northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis) sprays partially digested fish oils on competitors and predators (Swennen, 1974). This behavior has been classified as maleficent use of chemicals, since the chemicals per se are not toxic, but are able to inflict injuries or damage on the target animal (Dumbacher and Pruett-Jones, 1996). ...
Article
Until very recently, toxicity was not considered a trait observed in birds, but works published in the last two decades started to shed light on this subject. Poisonous birds are rare (or little studied), and comprise Pitohui and Ifrita birds from Papua New Guinea, the European quail, the Spoor-winged goose, the Hoopees, the North American Ruffed grouse, the Bronzewings, and the Red warbler. A hundred more species are considered unpalatable or malodorous to humans and other animals. The present review intends to present the current understanding of bird toxicity, possibly pointing to an ignored research field. Whenever possible, biochemical characteristics of these poisons and their effects on humans and other animals are discussed, along with historical aspects of poison discovery and evolutionary hypothesis regarding their function. Copyright © 2015. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
... It is very likely that the bathing methods of water birds can also be considered as an adaptation to the problem of waterproofing. The loss of waterproofing may have serious consequences for the bird, Victims to fuel-oil or stomach-oil of the Fulmar (Swennen 1974)are usually doomed to death. Two-sided wetting of feathers (like land birds often do) interferes with the waterproofing of those· feathers (section 5). ...
Article
The use of active chemical defence against predators is relatively rare in birds. Among others, it has been reported for some members of family Cuculidae whose chicks, when threatened, expel dark foul-smelling liquid from their cloaca. Apart from the brood parasitic great spotted cuckoo Clamator glandarius, however, this phenomenon has not yet been systematically studied in any other cuckoo species. Here we investigated the repellent behaviour in the evicting brood parasite, the common cuckoo Cuculus canorus, parasitizing the great reed warbler Acrocephalus arundinaceus. We explored whether production of secretions varies with chick age or size, and tested its presumed repellent function against various types of predators. We found that the production of secretions commenced at the age of approximately eight days, then gradually increased and decreased again shortly before fledging. Furthermore, we experimentally confirmed a more intensive repellent effect of the secretions on mammal predators than on avian predators, such as raptors and owls. The secretions have, however, no effect on corvid predators, probably because these scavengers often consume malodorous food. Further experimental studies together with phylogenetic comparative analyses are needed to elucidate the origin and function of this intriguing phenomenon both in parasitic and non-parasitic cuckoos.
Article
: Recent research into the origins and compositions of the stomach oils unique to sea~birds of the order Procellariifonnes is reviewed. The sources of these oils, most of which contain mainly wax esters and/or trigIycerides, is discussed in relation to the presence of such compounds in the marine environment. A number of functions are proposed as the ecological roles of the oils, including their use as slowIy~mobilisable energy and water reserves for adults and chicks and as defensive weaponry for surface-nesting species. Suggestions are made for further research, particularly into physiological and nutritional aspects.
Article
Full-text available
Many vertebrates use noxious or deterrent chemicals as defense against predators, parasites, and/or microbes. Putatively adaptive chemical defenses have been described for fish, salamanders, frogs, toads, snakes, lizards, and even mammals. For some of these groups, e.g., frogs and toads, chemical defense may be the primary means of protection from predation. In contrast, no birds are listed in recent indices of chemically-defended animals (see Species Index, Toxicon Vol. 1–27, 1990), and birds have generally been thought not to use chemical defense.
Article
1. An account is given of observations on three pairs of marked Fulmars. The young were brooded for very irregular periods, and in one pair the female took the greater share. 2. In the first two to three weeks of the chick's life it does not recognize its parents. and treats them as intruders to be repelled. The parent has a characteristic method of approach with which the chick gradually becomes familiar. 3. A small but distinct territory around the nest-site is defended by the chick and parent birds. 4. Feeding takes place at any time during the day, but the chick is probably not fed daily during the first week or two. During its first two to three weeks the chick does not show any interest in its parent and has to be stimulated before feeding takes place. When older, the chick is able to recognize its parents and also initiates the feeding process. 5. In four case it was shown that the chick was fed on semi-digested food material, not oil.
Article
It is suggested that the squirting of oily fluid by the young Fulmar is a defence mechanism primarily against winged predators and that it has played an important part in enabling the species te extend its range from the Antarctic to the North Atlantic. The adaptation supports the view that the Fulmar is of Antarctic origin. The onslaught of air-borne predators is so swift that any delay in squirting might involve disaster to the chick; consequently parents arriving within range are as liable as anything else to be received with a squirt. Apparently oil-squirting evolved as a defence mechanism of the young bird and enabled the ancestral stock to abandon cavity-nesting.
Article
The anatomy and histology of the proventriculus in several species of petrels were examined and compared with the conditions in other birds. The proventriculus in petrels is comparatively very large and its mucosa is raised into longitudinal ridges; it thus has a much greater surface area than in other birds. The presence of lipoids other than triglycerides concentrated in large quantities, particularly in the outer parts of the epithelial cells of the proventricular glands of petrels, is demonstrated. Lipoids in the corresponding cells in other birds are minute in quantity. The probability that these lipoids represent the stomach oil, or its precursor, immediately before secretion, is discussed and compared with other theories about the origin of the oil. The observations provide strong evidence, but not absolute proof, that the oil originates in the cells of the proventricular glands. Suggestions about the possible function of petrel stomach oil are discussed. The oil may supplement the secretion of the preen gland; it may be an excreted by‐product of the metabolism of excessively fat foods; or it may play an important part in water metabolism, especially in the nestling. Without further work, none of these theories can be upheld or refuted, and it is possible that all are partly correct, for they are not mutually exclusive. Many petrels shoot stomach oil from the beak when they are disturbed. The possible origin of this habit from the escape reaction, found in many birds, of vomiting up the stomach contents when alarmed, is pointed out.
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