Rainwater Harvesting for Agriculture in the Dry Areas
Abstract
Dry areas suffer not only from limited rainfall but also ʼnatural leakage’-90% of rainwater is lost directly or indirectly, and is unavailable for agriculture or domestic use. Water harvesting is a low-cost, easy-to-use, environmentally-friendly way to recover a large part of this lost water. How does water harvesting work? Which sites or areas are best suited and how can these areas be identified? How to design, build and maintain a water harvesting system tailored to local needs? How can water harvesting contribute to combating land degradation, enhancing food security and adapting to climate change? This book provides the answers. The book is based on many years of research, training and development by three of the world’s leading experts in water management and agriculture. It is authoritative, comprehensive, and easy to read, containing practical examples, many illustrations and little jargon. This volume will be of great interest to researchers, development workers, farmers, policymakers, students of the natural sciences-in fact, anyone interested in efficient, sustainable management of water resources and agriculture.
... Water harvesting can be defined as a method of harnessing water for use in any form of system or technique that collects, stores, and increases the availability of intermittent surface runoff and groundwater in arid/semi-arid regions (Bruins et al., 1986;Oweis et al., 2012;Prinz, 1996). Water harvesting not only provides water for irrigation purposes but also it may provide potable water for animal and human consumption. ...
... The four sub-groups are rooftop (courtyard) harvesting, micro-catchment harvesting, macro-catchment harvesting, and floodwater harvesting. The surface water harvesting group is classified based on the catchment scale and also considers storage strategies and water harvesting purposes (Oweis et al., 2012;Tuinhof et al., 2012;Yemenu et al., 2014). ...
... In most arid/semi-arid regions, these mechanisms are applied. In the case of courtyard water harvesting, rainwater is collected from condensed soil, concrete surface, or ground coated with plastic (Mekdaschi & Liniger, 2013;Oweis et al., 2012). ...
Climate change, rapid urbanization, and population growth have intensified global water scarcity, increasing reliance on groundwater resources. One of the most effective solutions to this crisis is artificial groundwater recharge through floodwater harvesting, which captures surface runoff and facilitates controlled infiltration into aquifers. Floodwater harvesting techniques, such as check dams, recharge basins, and injection wells, are designed to capture and store excess runoff, allowing controlled percolation and groundwater replenishment. This study provides a comprehensive review of artificial groundwater recharge techniques, categorizing them into surface (spreading), sub-surface, and indirect methods. A total of eleven techniques were analyzed, including recharge basins, check dams, injection wells, and induced recharge methods, which have been successfully implemented in various regions. The review highlights the benefits of artificial recharge, such as improved groundwater storage, reduced soil erosion, and enhanced water quality. However, challenges such as aquifer contamination, sediment clogging, and inefficient recharge structures remain significant barriers to implementation. The study also examines the environmental impacts of artificial recharge, addressing both positive aspects (such as ecological restoration and energy savings) and potential drawbacks (including land subsidence and aquifer pollution risks). A special focus is given to Egypt, where floodwater harvesting has been implemented in Sinai using check dams and surface recharge techniques. Despite its potential, groundwater recharge in Egypt remains underutilized, necessitating further research into sub-surface recharge methods and alternative energy solutions such as solar-powered recharge systems. The findings Geography, Earth Science and Environment: Research Highlights Vol. 6 Floodwater Harvesting for Groundwater Recharge: Techniques, Challenges and Applications 59 emphasize the need for integrating hybrid recharge methods, optimizing energy-efficient approaches, and assessing long-term environmental impacts to enhance recharge sustainability and support global water security efforts.
... The very first RWH structures were constructed in southern Jordan over 9000 years ago to provide drinking water for humans and animals [5]. Over 6500 years ago, Iraqis started to use RWH structures in a simple form in order to provide water for domestic and agricultural use [6]. Water harvesting systems were also used in China and India some 4000 years ago [7]. ...
... Zay (small pits) combined with bunds (ponds with a semicircular form that are used to collect rainwater) were often used in the west of Africa. These methods were critical to the successful creation of settlements in the desert [6]. In addition, the ancient Greeks demonstrated remarkable ingenuity in the advancement of hydraulic infrastructure and small-scale constructions. ...
... It helps gather relevant literature from various sources like dissertations, recent journal articles, books, reliable web pages, organisational reports, and conference proceedings [29]. The country with the most publications related to RWH site selection was Iraq (12), followed by Iran (8), Egypt (7), Jordon (6), and Saudi Arabia (5); see Figure 6. ...
Water shortage is a concern in arid and semi-arid regions across the globe due to their lack of precipitation and unpredictable rainfall patterns. In the past few decades, many frameworks, each with their own criteria, have been used to identify and rank sites for rainwater harvesting (RWH), a process which is critical for the improvement and maintenance of water resources, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. This study reviews the present state of the art in rainwater harvesting site selection for such regions and identifies areas for additional research. The results of a systematic review performed based on two major databases of engineering research, Scopus and Engineering Village, are presented. Sixty-eight relevant studies were found and critically analysed to identify patterns and unique features in the frameworks used. The results of this study show that 41% of the frameworks consider both biophysical and socioeconomic criteria, whereas the remaining 59% of the frameworks depend on biophysical criteria alone. The importance of each criterion is encapsulated through a suitability score, with 21% of the frameworks using a binary (0 or 1) indicator of whether the site matches a criterion or not and the other frameworks using graded scales of differing granularities, with 52% using a low-resolution scale of 1 to 3, 4, or 5, 7% using a medium-resolution scale of 1 to 10, and a further 7% using a high-resolution scale of 1 to 100. The remaining 13% of the frameworks did not specify the scale used. Importantly, this paper concludes that all existing frameworks for selecting RWH sites are solely based on biophysical and/or socioeconomic criteria; ecological impacts, the consideration of which is vital for building RWH systems sustainably, are currently ignored.
... Since thousands of years ago, local communities of drylands have developed rainwater harvesting systems to obtain freshwater from the small fraction of the landscape that generates runoff [15,16]. Although runoff represents less than 5% of annual rainfall in drylands [6,17,18], it has a key role at collecting freshwater, making cattle production possible in these areas [19][20][21]. ...
... Rainwater harvesting has been proposed as one of the few alternatives to solve the problem of water access and food production in drylands of the world in the last two decades [10,16,[58][59][60]. Some authors highlight three main advantages of rainwater harvesting: (i) people solve water access locally, (ii) it is a very versatile and adaptable technology especially for low-income regions, and (iii) it is part of the cultural identity and traditions of the peoples who have practiced it since ancient times [15,16,61]. ...
... Rainwater harvesting has been proposed as one of the few alternatives to solve the problem of water access and food production in drylands of the world in the last two decades [10,16,[58][59][60]. Some authors highlight three main advantages of rainwater harvesting: (i) people solve water access locally, (ii) it is a very versatile and adaptable technology especially for low-income regions, and (iii) it is part of the cultural identity and traditions of the peoples who have practiced it since ancient times [15,16,61]. However, to solve largescale water access problems, countries or states opt for other alternatives, such as laying aqueducts, pumping groundwater tables, or seawater desalination [28,[62][63][64]. ...
Citation: Niborski, M.J.; Martin, O.A.; Murray, F.; Jobbágy, E.G.; Nosetto, M.D.; Paez, R.A.; Magliano, P.N. Modeling Rainwater Harvesting and Storage Dynamics of Rural Impoundments in Dry Chaco Rangelands. Water 2023, 15, 2353. Abstract: Transporting water to supply livestock is one of the great challenges of the drylands. Ranchers usually make impoundments, filled by runoff, to access freshwater for cattle supply in flat rangelands. The aim of this study was to understand rainfall-runoff generation and water storage temporal dynamics of impoundments in the Dry Chaco rangelands (Argentina). Thus, we instrumented six impoundments over three consecutive years and analyzed water storage data by developing a probabilistic model. For all impoundments, the rainfall event size thresholds to generate runoff presented values between 15 and 33 mm. Once they reached this threshold, the water gain response slopes presented values between 19 and 99 m 3 mm −1. Loss patterns of water storage were described by exponential or linear functions. The predicted water storage dynamics presented high accuracy with the observed time series for all impoundments (RMSD between 380 and 1320 m 3). The model only needs daily rainfall and air temperature to be run, making it easy to be used by scientists, ranchers, or local decision makers. It may be used to explore the hydrological functioning of small and seasonal water bodies of different sites of the world exposed to drought episodes caused by high climate variability and/or climate change.
... The terrace method can be used in areas where annual rainfall is between 200 and 600 mm. Although construction can be performed by hand, heavy machinery may be needed, and installation, maintenance costs and labor requirements are high [65]. ...
... The method is found in areas with an annual rainfall of 350-600 mm and is commonly used on flat land or slopes approaching 5%. On flat terrain, small pits are used to conserve or retain moisture in the soil rather than for water harvesting [65]. ...
... Ridges can be constructed on land, with slopes ranging from 1% to 50%. This method is ideal for growing forage crops and hardwoods in dry climates, and sorghum, millet, cowpeas and beans in semi-arid regions [65]. ...
The significance and effective use of water, one of the most basic requirements for sustaining vital activities, is gaining importance every day. Population growth and unprogrammed industrialization accelerate the consumption of available water resources. However, drought, as a result of climate change, poses a threat to water resources. Factors such as the exhaustibility of water resources, rapid population growth, unscheduled industrialization and drought increase the tendency towards alternative water resources. Rainwater harvesting is based on the principle of using the rainwater falling into the regions after it is stored. Water collected through rain harvesting can be utilized in many different areas, such as agricultural irrigation, landscape irrigation and domestic use. Among agricultural activities, the idea of water harvesting in greenhouse areas comes to the fore. Due to the gutters on the greenhouse roofs, water can be stored. In Antalya, which has about half of the greenhouses in Turkey, the amount of water in the rain harvest that can be obtained in greenhouses is 224,992,795.8 m3 per year. Monthly calculations throughout the year showed that the minimum water can be harvested in August (938,447.53 m3) and the maximum (54,771,210 m3) in December. Therefore, it is thought that some plant water consumption can be met by building sufficient storage in areas close to the greenhouse.
... (A). I and A are all relevant to üü ü = ; üü ü = (6) When the values of I and A are known, the absolute electron negativity values (μ), the absolute hardness (η), the chemical potential (μ), and the softness (S) calculated by the following expressions (Pearson 1963 ...
... These quantum chemical parameters were measured using Eqs. (6)(7)(8) and classified as having these values measured in different solvents. The most common cause is that the ionization potential (I) and the electron affinity (A) were related to E HOMO and E LUMO . ...
... Laboratory bioassays on effect of storage periods on the virulence of BHA isolate of HaNPV were also carried out. The bottles containing formulated viral product were stored for the period of 3,6,9,12,18 and 24 months under refrigerated conditions at 4 0 C. At the time of experiment, the respective formulated products were diluted in distilled water to achieve the desired concentrations of 2 x 10 9 POBs/mL. Ten µL aliquots of different treatment were spread on semi-synthetic diet using a blunt end glass rod (Diet plug bioassay). ...
During investigations; homology model of 3D-structure was built for sequence of polyhedrin protein of Helicoverpa armigera nucleopolyhedrovirus, containing 246 amino acids (Accession: ACI05106.1 GI: 205946055), and evaluated through multiple tools/ applications to judge extent of accuracy in light of existing crystal structure. Further, in vivo experiments were conducted and determined response of different adjuvants with HaNPV and their efficacy. The pooled mean mortality of larvae exposed to virus mixed with 5% green tea and 5% rice bran filtrates (8.3 larvae per 25 plants) was differ significantly from control (15.8 larvae per 25 plants), suggesting that UV protectants & diet enhancer (mannitol) has ability to protect stability of virulence of the virus, under field conditions. The minimum percent pod damage of 8.6% and maximum yield of 1604.8 Kg ha-1 at harvesting was recorded with formulation of indigenous BHA virus isolate @ 2.2 x 105 POBs mL-1 mixed with Roket @50 ppm; followed by formulation with mannitol (@ 1% + green tea 5% + 5% rice bran filtrates) with percent pod damage of 16.8 % and yield of 1045.8 Kg ha-1 of chickpea. Furthermore, in vitro toxicity of fresh virus suspension @ 250 mL ha-1 was recorded more toxic in terms of percent mortality and LT50 (5.65 days). However, three months stored HaNPV formulations [(A) mannitol @ 1%+ green tea@ 5% and (B) mannitol @ 1% + green tea 5% + 5% rice bran filtrates] were more effective in larval reduction with LT50 of 7.89 and 6.00 days, respectively. Virus mixed with 5% green tea and 5% rice bran filtrates gave stability to formulation up-to one year with LT50 of 7.64 days. Findings showed that HaNPV formulations with mannitol (B) have potential that can be used in integrated manner with other IPM practices, to reduce the use of toxic synthetic pesticides in chickpea.
... RWH in the context of this paper is defined as a designed approach to collecting and storing rainwater on either small or large scales (De Trincheria et al., 2017). Further detailed explanations can be found in Aroka (2010), Oweis et al. (2012), and Man'gera (2017), among others. ...
... According to Mutschinski and Coles (2021), support for rural water infrastructure is not sufficiently targeted or invested in, due to the different challenges (e.g., water scarcity, increased demand, and poor management) in the Kenyan water sector (Chepyegon & Kamiya, 2018;MoWIS, 2022;Mulwa et al., 2021). As an approach to promote water supply in rural areas and further strengthen the resilience against climate change, self-sufficient approaches like RWH offer attractive solutions with various economic, social, and ecological advantages (Man'gera, 2017;MBungua, 1994;Odhiambo et al., 2022;Oweis et al., 2012). While this approach is supported by the government, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and external organizations, there are no clear guidelines or processes in Kenya for funding, technical assistance, or promoting community collaboration associated with RWH systems (Mulwa et al., 2021). ...
The African Water Vision 2025 emphasized the disadvantages of the rural population in the context of water supply infrastructure, water management, and access. The vision extolled the virtues of providing improved decentralized governance and localized actions to deliver on this agenda. Furthermore, policies and investment should support climate resilience, by strengthening the security and availability of adequate water quality and quantity in rural communities, for example, by mainstreaming the adoption of rainwater harvesting systems. This is reflected in the government policy alignment towards enabling a devolution of responsibilities to regional and local political structures, while addressing concerns linked with water availability, climate change, and its impact on a country's water resources in Kenya. Despite efforts through different strategic plans and policies, there is a perceived gap between the general understanding of the importance of the RWH system at the national level and actions at the operational level in the counties. An absence of formal policy frameworks and coordination of investments has resulted in insufficient adoption and implementation of RWH systems in Kenya to date. This is despite the fact that in some counties, RWH systems are considered a key solution for increasing climate resilience and suggestions for improvement have been formulated by the affected communities. This analysis shows that RWH systems strengthen the resilience of rural populations but are dependent on a well‐formulated governmental structure, which could be improved by refining national policies and investment in RWH systems.
... The concept of water harvesting is believed to have started 4000 years ago in the Middle East (Oweis et al., 2012). Globally, there has been an increased interest in water harvesting, particularly in arid and semi-arid areas, due to the growing scarcity and inter-sectoral competition for water among diverse uses (Kerr & Panager, 2001;Sameer & Jones, 2010). ...
... Globally, there has been an increased interest in water harvesting, particularly in arid and semi-arid areas, due to the growing scarcity and inter-sectoral competition for water among diverse uses (Kerr & Panager, 2001;Sameer & Jones, 2010). In some regions of sub-Saharan Africa, the traditional techniques of water harvesting like the "Caag" and the "Gawan" systems in Somalia, "Hafirs" in Sudan and the 'Zay' system in West Africa have also been reported by Oweis et al., (2012). Harvesting, collecting and diverting runoff water for productive usage is widespread across the world (Africa Development Bank, 2007). ...
This study explored the potential of surface runoff water collection into borrow pits with an aim to promote livestock and wildlife potentials in Laikipia County, where the Rumuruti –Maralal bitumen road passes. Survey data on livestock and wildlife water demands; Cooks method for determination of surface runoff water collection potential, borrow pits locations, and their capacities were determined while area meteorological data and literature review enriched them. The results from the above were computed, which helped to determine the would-be benefits of water collection in the borrow pits. The study has demonstrated the greater potential that borrows pits rehabilitation. Water collected in them can highly support livestock and wildlife production. This study recommends the replication of this practice in other ASALs areas to help exploit their full potential.
... Land use compatibility Applied in agricultural land [31]. ...
... Model outputs indicate that soil erosion decreases by up to 30% in the subbasins where RWH ponds are applied. Previous studies have found that RWH techniques reduce soil erosion, improve soil structure, and enhance soil water retention capacity [31,46]. Figure 6 present the monthly severity of the agricultural and hydrological droughts at each subbasin. ...
Preventive Drought Management Measures (PDMMs) aim to reduce the chance of droughts and minimize drought-associated damages. Selecting PDMMs is not a trivial task, and it can be asserted that actual contributions to drought alleviation still need to be adequately researched. This study evaluates the effects of three potential PDMMs, namely, rainwater harvesting ponds, forest conservation, and check dams, on agricultural and hydrological drought severity. The Soil Water Assessment Tool is used for hydrological modeling and representing PDMMs. The threshold level method is applied to analyze droughts and evaluate the impact of PDMMs on drought severity. Findings show that rainwater harvesting ponds applied on agricultural land reduce the severity of agricultural droughts and hydrological droughts, particularly during the first months of the drought events observed in the rainy season. Results also reveal that forest conservation contributes to reducing the severity of hydrological droughts by up to 90%. Finally, check dams and ponds in upstream subbasins considerably reduce agricultural and hydrological drought severity in the areas where the structures are applied; however, they exacerbate drought severity downstream. The analysis was developed in the Torola River Basin (El Salvador) for the period spanning 2004 to 2018.
... Historical evidence of RWH technology has been found in numerous countries, including Iran, Syria, Palestine, Jordan, Tunisia, and Egypt (Sacolo and Mkhandi 2021). The most commonly used RWH techniques in ponds and pans include oak walls, dams, terraces, and inBltration basins (Oweis et al. 2012). ...
This study uses seven criteria (i.e., rainfall data, water runoff, slope, drainage density, geology, soil, and land use/cover) to investigate rainwater harvesting in the Erbil Watershed in the Kurdistan Region of northern Iraq. The Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) layer was used to calculate the storage capacity of each dam. The drainage density and a contour line layer with 5-m intervals were used to determine suitable dam locations. Thirty-seven per cent of the study area is suitable for water harvesting, while 26% is only moderately suitable, and the remaining 37% is very poorly suitable. Most of the research area is primarily covered with clay, interspersed with thick beds of conglomerate, which is indicative of the type of sediments present in the area. The thickness, pebble size, and percentage of conglomerate decrease towards the south and southwest from the highlands (up to 900 m) that form in the study area's northern and northeastern regions, where the slope is approximately 2.34%. Based on the volume and height of the dams, calculated from the TIN layer, three locations were suggested. These dams have a combined water capacity of approximately 35 million cubic meters.
... Both rainwater harvesting techniques -stone bunds and RWH pond were installed based on the concept of catchment area -cropping area (Oweis et al., 2012). Stone bunding, an in-situ RWH (5 m long and 40 cm high) was installed using stones at the upper zone in order to slow down the run off volume and prevent soil erosion (Fig. 2). ...
More than 90% of rainfed croplands in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are severely affected by highly intermittent rainfall and frequent drought limiting crop productivity in the region. Besides, 27.1% of the population in SSA are currently food insecure and this is likely to increase with the current rapid population growth in the region. Soil erosion and water scarcity remain to be the core problem affecting agricultural productivity of smallholder farming. In the current study, we analysed rainwater harvesting assisted small-scale agroforestry system in order to mitigate both soil erosion and water scarcity issues simultaneously. The system included in-situ rainwater harvesting, soil organic amendment (raw poultry litter, poultry litter biochar, wood ash) and an agroforestry system (AFS) containing maize, barley- Eucalyptus globulus all intercropped in a holistic approach. The effect was evaluated on selected soil parameters and crop yield in a field experiment on a completely randomized design. The treatments were poultry litter (PWAFS), poultry litter biochar (BWAFS) wood ash (AWAFS) with supplementary irrigation (WAFS) and agroforestry system AFS (control). The first three treatments contained poultry litter, poultry litter biochar and wood ash along with rainwater harvesting respectively while the fourth treatment contained only rainwater harvesting. Besides, a control plot-AFS was assigned with neither rainwater harvesting nor soil organic resources. The result indicated that BWAFS increased the pH by 19.4% followed by AWAFS and PWAFS (9%). Maximum and minimum SOM (2.26%, 1.21%) were observed under BWAFS and the control (AFS) respectively. BWAFS significantly increased Av.P by 78.1% while WAFS increased by 40% compared to the control. Similarly, BWAFS and PWAFS had significant effect on maize yield with increase by 74% and 36% respectively. The study concluded that integrating rainwater harvesting and soil amendment with agroforestry systems can enhance crop yield and soil nutrient levels. Therefore, such agricultural practices should be adopted by smallholder farmers in areas with limited water and nutrients levels.
... Water is a fundamental resource for agricultural, industrial, and domestic use (Oweis et al.,2012). When water becomes scarce, it can have a profound economic impact. ...
Water is essential for human survival, economic growth, and environmental sustainability. However, rural South Africa faces ongoing challenges in delivering reliable and clean water due to infrastructural inadequacies, climate variability, and historical disparities. Addressing these water supply issues is critical for reducing poverty, improving health outcomes, and fostering sustainable development in rural areas. This study utilises a mixed-methods approach within a positivist framework, collecting data through document analysis, self-administered surveys, and structured interviews with various stakeholders across four rural settlements in the Joe Gqabi and Gert Sibande District Municipalities. The primary aims are to evaluate water accessibility and reliability, examine the impact of water scarcity on poverty, investigate the availability of water infrastructure, and assess the effects of water supply on health and education. Findings indicate that deficient water infrastructure and intermittent supply significantly disrupt daily life, educational access, and healthcare services. Health risks due to contaminated water were prevalent, leading to waterborne diseases. Socio-economic impacts included exacerbated poverty, with particular challenges for female students in maintaining menstrual hygiene due to inconsistent water availability. The study proposes a sustainability model that integrates indigenous practices, such as rainwater harvesting and groundwater recharge, with modern water management technologies. This model, customised to local needs, underscores the importance of increased investment, integrated planning, and enhanced capacity-building in rural water management. By combining traditional and modern approaches, this model aims to improve water reliability, promote health, and support economic resilience in rural settlements.
... Applications: Rainwater harvesting is used in both rural and urban settings for agricultural irrigation, garden watering, and potable water supply. It is particularly valuable in areas with seasonal rainfall (Oweis & Hachum, 2009). ...
Soil science plays a pivotal role in addressing some of the most pressing challenges
in agriculture, environmental sustainability, and land management. This chapter
explores the practical applications of soil science through a series of case studies that
highlight its importance in various fields. From improving agricultural productivity
through precision farming techniques to restoring degraded lands and mitigating
climate change, soil science provides essential tools and knowledge. Case studies
from diverse geographic regions demonstrate how innovative soil management
practices, such as conservation agriculture, organic amendments, and soil fertility
management, have led to significant improvements in crop yields, soil health, and
ecosystem resilience. Additionally, the chapter examines the role of soil science
in urban planning, infrastructure development, and environmental conservation,
illustrating its broader impact beyond traditional agricultural contexts. By integrating
scientific research with real-world applications, this chapter underscores the critical
role of soil science in promoting sustainable land use and enhancing food security,
while also addressing global environmental challenges.
... Therefore, people in such dry areas rely on alternate water sources, such as rainwater. According to Oweis et al. (2012), rainwater harvesting (RWH) increases the amount of available water by storing rainwater for local consumption or moving it to another area. An RWH system comprises a catchment (a region contributing to rainfall-runoff), a storage facility, and a target (stored water user). ...
Alternative water sources are necessary in developing nations because surface water is not always accessible, and groundwater is depleted. In such situations, rainwater harvesting is considered a promising sustainable water resource management solution. Numerous studies have been conducted to determine suitable locations for rainwater harvesting (RWH) using bottom-up approaches applied to large watersheds. The bottom-up methods begin with various geographic criteria and end with regions suitable for RWH intervention, even considering the distance from settlements to be one of the criteria, excluding urban areas from RWH site identification. This study developed a top-down methodology that began with the distributed pinpoint locations of potential RWH sites, as determined by distributed flow accumulation values produced from a digital elevation model (DEM), and then filtered out the sites based on various criteria in the context of urban areas. The flow accumulation values were apportioned according to the flow-contributing area of each RWH site. Five flow-contributing areal scenarios corresponding to 1 km², 2.5 km², 5 km², 7.5 km², and 10 km² were considered in this study, as it is challenging to choose a suitable location for RWH sites in urban zones for efficient water storage owing to a variety of land uses. Based on this technique, a case study was conducted in Jaipur, Rajasthan, India, where it was found that the volumetric potential of rainwater storage is maximum (403,679,424.9 cu. m) for 1 km² and minimum (169,951,322 cu. m) for 10 km² flow contributing areal distribution per RWH site.
... Applications: Rainwater harvesting is used in both rural and urban settings for agricultural irrigation, garden watering, and potable water supply. It is particularly valuable in areas with seasonal rainfall (Oweis & Hachum, 2009). ...
... The effectiveness of V-shaped and semi-circular bunds in MCWH has been documented for promoting tree growth and crop production (Zougmoré, Zida, and Kambou 2003). These structures, strategically spaced to facilitate sufficient catchment for runoff, store water in front of the bunds, thereby nurturing tree growth (Bruggeman, Tubeileh, and Turkelboom 2004;Oweis, Prinz, and Hachum 2012). ...
The productivity of olive in the northwestern coastal zone of Egypt is significantly constrained by drought and low organic matter in the soil. This study addresses these challenges by exploring the synergistic effects of olive mill wastes (OMW) application and micro-catchment water harvesting techniques on soil properties, runoff, moisture storage, and rainwater harvesting efficiency. Field experiments were conducted over two winter seasons, employing different micro-catchment structures (semi-circular and triangular bunds) and OMW applications. The results revealed that the integration of semi-circular bunds with OMW application (T4) substantially increased rainwater harvesting efficiency by 67.7% and 46.4% in the first and second seasons, respectively. Additionally, T4 and T5 exhibited reduced runoff by 47.8% and 41.3% in the first season and 49.4% and 38.9% in the second season, respectively. T4 significantly enhanced soil organic matter , soil macronutrients (N, P, and K), and micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu) compared to the control (T1). The study highlights the effectiveness of T4 in improving soil moisture, reducing soil erosion, and enhancing soil fertility. This integrated approach involving OMW application within a semi-circular bund as a water harvesting system proves to be a promising strategy for sustainable olive cultivation in arid conditions. ARTICLE HISTORY
... Applications: Rainwater harvesting is used in both rural and urban settings for agricultural irrigation, garden watering, and potable water supply. It is particularly valuable in areas with seasonal rainfall (Oweis & Hachum, 2009). ...
Soil and water conservation techniques are essential for sustainable land management,
particularly in the face of increasing environmental challenges such as soil erosion,
water scarcity, and climate change. Recent advancements in these techniques
have focused on enhancing effectiveness, efficiency, and sustainability. Innovative
methods include the use of advanced technologies such as remote sensing and GIS
for monitoring and managing conservation efforts, the development of precision
agriculture practices that optimize the use of soil and water resources, and the
application of integrated conservation strategies that combine traditional practices
with modern technologies.
Emerging techniques like contour farming, terracing, and the use of cover crops
continue to play a vital role in preventing soil erosion and improving soil health. At
the same time, advancements in water conservation, such as the adoption of drip
irrigation systems, rainwater harvesting, and the implementation of water-efficient
technologies, have significantly improved water use efficiency and reduced wastage.
Additionally, the integration of conservation practices into broader land management
frameworks has led to more resilient agricultural systems and better adaptation to
climate variability.
These advancements underscore the importance of ongoing research and innovation
in soil and water conservation. By leveraging new technologies and practices, it is
possible to enhance soil fertility, improve water availability, and sustain agricultural
productivity while minimizing environmental impacts.
... Overall, modelling and field studies on PDMM focus on one specific measure. Assessment of measures' performance mainly relies on interventions' effectiveness in increasing infiltration and water availability, improving soil water-holding capacity and preventing land degradation or desertification (Basche, 2017;Beets and Beets, 2020;Oweis et al., 2012;Sanz et al., 2017;Wambura et al., 2018;Yadav et al., 2018). While these criteria provide relevant insights into the measures' applicability for drought management, there is a lack of information on the water deficit reduction during drought periods and measures' contribution to drought alleviation is not explicitly appraised. ...
... Water Harvesting is defined as appropriate for the current study area: "Collecting rainwater that flows in the valleys of the basin, by building appropriate dams, and establishing lakes behind the dam to exploit the water in dry periods and use it for domestic purposes, agriculture, livestock, and making it tourist areas, as well as increasing groundwater recharge". There are several methods for enhancing Iraq's management of its water resources, Increases in knowledge, application, and administration (management) of rainwater harvesting systems are also a result of this interest [2,3]. The continual examination of water in terms of both qualitative and/or quantitative factors is done in order to ensure the sustainability of this gathered water [4]. ...
Water harvesting has become one of the topics of concern to most water specialists, due to its importance in managing water and preserving it from squandering. Wadi Al-Mohammadi is an example of a valley that needs the application of water harvesting and the exploitation of rainwater at all levels, being one of the main valleys in the Iraqi desert where surface water is lacking. The outcomes for water harvesting were derived using the SWAT model. Morphometric, the basin’s shape is far from being circular. Climatologic, the trend line indicates a clear increase in the total rainfall, relative humidity, temperature, and solar radiation, while the trend line indicates a decrease in the wind speed during the observed period. The main contributor to the total flow of Wadi Al-Mohammadi basin was surface runoff of about 99%, the base flow of about 1%, while the groundwater flow did not contribute any amount of that water. The annual average flow discharge was 0.138 m ³ /s with the average annual water volume being about 4.366 Mm ³ , while the average annual water volume calculated from runoff was about 4.651 Mm ³ . Dam 1 is the best-selected site with a suitable index of 97.5 followed by Dam 5, and Dam 2 with a suitable index of 95 and 90, respectively. Hence it falls under the category of highly suitable. The Dam 3 site falls within the modestly suitable category. Finally, the site of Dam 4 could not be established, because they had a suitability index of less than 70.
... This should be possible just with the assistance of the local area in general. The water gathered in this manner is mostly used for the artificial re-energizing of groundwater and also can be a source of agriculture (Oweis, 2012). The requirement for water harvesting has arisen because of the current peculiarity of industrialization, urbanization, and broad water-utilizing present-day ways of life. ...
... Generally, 7 mm, representing 6% of the influx, is converted to runoff, and only a negligible amount of 0.02 mm, representing less than 1%, is retained as storage. Our findings are consistent with those reported in [54], where the authors observed that in arid environments, over 90% of the precipitation is lost via evapotranspiration. Similar findings were noted in the nearby United Arab Emirates, where a negative trend of 0.5 cm yr −1 in groundwater levels was found; this would translate into aquifers not being recharged rapidly enough to compensate for human withdrawals, compounded by extremely high evapotranspiration rates [12]. ...
Globally, climate change is triggering shifts in water availability, especially across arid and desert landscapes similar to that in Yemen, where precipitation patterns are increasingly erratic. Here, we use water budget calculations, drought metrics, and trend analyses to examine climatic water deficits, with the aim of unraveling irrigation demands and overall water stress across Yemen. The results indicate that 94% of the influx is lost back to the atmosphere via evapotranspiration, 6% is converted to runoff, and only a negligible amount, generally less than 1%, is retained as storage. The results also show an unrelenting, statistically significant water deficit increase of 0.17 mm yr⁻¹ on the Sen’s slope, at the critical Z-value of 0.005 across the country, for the past 63 years. Our findings challenge the conventional understanding of water deficits across Yemen and suggest that the country’s water resources situation is direr than was earlier documented. Further results show that while the water shortage mosaic across the country experiences interannual variations, their occurrence is significantly intensifying. As such, an immediate and radical modernization of integrated water management systems, including concerted investments in irrigation and artificial recharge wells, especially across the Arabian Sea Coast, the Red Sea Coast, and the Highlands, is strongly recommended.
... There are numerous approaches to improving water resource management in Iraq, including the use of rainwater harvesting techniques (Al-Khafaji et al., 2021). Increases in knowledge, application, implementation and administration (management) of rainwater harvesting systems are also a result of this interest (Ben Mechlia and Ouessar, 2004;Oweis et al., 2012). The sustainability of this harvested water is also necessary and is done through continuous evaluation of water in terms of quantitative and qualitative . ...
Received: 3 December 2022 The biggest problem that people face in their lives is the water crisis, especially in developing countries. It is considered an obstacle to people's survival and the continuation of agriculture, livestock, and so on. The establishment of lakes behind the suggested dams is one of the possible solutions to deal with this problem and remediate it. Wadi Al-Mohammadi is one of the main valleys that flow in Western Desert and flow into Euphrates River. It is considered an important area, because of its many characteristics, including its relatively large area, and the amount of water drained through. Using ArcGIS to process all the data used with Spatial Analyst Supplemental tools to estimate the storage capacity for each reservoir. Six factors are considered when determining the location of the barrier or dam. The site of Dam 1 is the best-selected site with a suitable index of 97.5. It is followed in the second degree by the site of Dam 5 and then the site of Dam 2 with a suitable index of 95 and 90, respectively. Hence it falls under the category of highly suitable. Dam 3 site falls within the modestly suitable category. Finally, the sites of Dam 4 could not be established, because they had a suitability index of less than 70. The analysis shows that the suggested lakes in Wadi Al-Mohammadi basin have good storage capacity with the possibility of utilizing them to prevent the risk of floods, storing water in drought seasons, irrigation capabilities, and take advantage of them as tourist areas.
... This soil is considered within the (FAO) classification of soil that is suitable for cultivation, especially for the cultivation of winter crops that depend on rainfall, such as wheat and barley (FAO,1977).This soil occupies an area of (246.6 km) with a percentage of (56%) of the total area of the study area. This type of soil occupies a large area within the central parts of the study area, especially the low-slope, non-moderate lands, which include the plain lands and the stomachs of the main valleys of the study area [10,11]. ...
The scarcity of water resources constitutes a real problem facing man on an ongoing basis, especially with the exacerbation of environmental degradation and drought that affected large parts of the globe. With the increase in the number of the earth's population, the world is in need of more water sources for various activities. The study of the importance of water harvesting in its economic and environmental advantages lies in the impact on increasing and improving the productivity of agricultural crops by providing additional water at a low cost using supplementary irrigation. Remote sensing and applications of informatics systems are used to detect the best sites for the application of rainstorm water collection methods. This study aims to produce a map of the optimal sites for water harvesting methods to benefit from the water at the site of its fall without waiting for it to reach the downstream in Jimen Basin. This site is characterized by the presence of geological formations that have an important role in the application of water harvesting such as solid formations that allow the construction of dams within the basin. The study analyzed a lot of data on air temperature, solar radiation, relative humidity, evaporation, and rainfall amount. The geological formations, natural plants, and types of soil were also studied. It was found that Jimen Basin is very suitable to be used as a water harvesting basin to develop the region around the basin which is semi-arid. In conclusion, the proposed lake can help provide the possibility of establishing a residential city and also be a promising tourist site.
... RWH system selection depends on three main parameters: the catchment area (runoff area), storage facility (reservoir or pounds above the ground, in the soil profile, or in underground storage containers), and finally the purpose (Ali, 2017). Three categories of RWH systems are distinguished depending on catchment size (Mbilinyi et al., 2005;Oweis et al., 2012). The first category is in situ RWH, where the rainfall is captured, stored and used in the same area where it fell. ...
... These characteristics indicate that this canal may have collected rainwater from the upper part of the rock and diverted it through other canals to the lower part. Its use, therefore, could be related to agricultural supply (Bruins, 2012;Oweis et al., 2012). This type of canal has been documented in the Petra region (Amr et al., 1998;Bellwald, 2008), in the Wadi Feinan (Newson et al., 2007;Crook, 2009), in the Negev (Avner, 2002;Bruins, 2012) and Umm al-'Ala (Lindner et al., 1988). ...
The efficient management of water resources to supply the needs of societies in territories where water is a scarce and limited resource has been essential throughout time. The site of Sela on the southern Transjordan plateau is unique for understanding water management in this semi-arid area. The analysis of hydraulic installations has allowed us to characterise its hydro technology and spatial distribution in the settlement. To this end, the hydraulic facilities have been identified, documented, and analysed in detail through two archaeological surveys (2015 and 2016). Spatial analysis has been carried out by preparing extensive 2D planimetry and 3D reconstructions. The results obtained have made it possible to reconstruct the water supply system necessary for the subsistence of the societies that inhabited Sela over time. The system consists of canals, cisterns, and sedimentation basins for the collection, conduction, storage, and preservation of water, mainly from rain. Some of Sela's hydraulic structures may have originated in the Bronze Age (mid-late 2nd mill. BCE), but more secure dating is needed to substantiate this possibility.
... Flood management is particularly challenging for non-sedentary pastoral communities, as it was the case with communities in Afar, with extensive mobility to neighboring highlands for at least 5 months of the year in search for feed and water during the dry spells. Oweis et al. (2012) identified two differing management of flood-based systems, namely wadi-bed and off-wadi systems, depending on whether the flood is stored or diverted from its natural course to irrigate nearby rangelands. ...
... Flood management is particularly challenging for non-sedentary pastoral communities, as it was the case with communities in Afar, with extensive mobility to neighboring highlands for at least 5 months of the year in search for feed and water during the dry spells. Oweis et al. (2012) identified two differing management of flood-based systems, namely wadi-bed and off-wadi systems, depending on whether the flood is stored or diverted from its natural course to irrigate nearby rangelands. ...
... The objective of this study is to identify and make an inventory of RWH possible sites to enhance the availability of water by storing rainwater over the Tensift basin to partially mitigate the problems of water shortage in this region. All water-harvesting systems consist of the following components [12]: • A catchment: The area of the catchment varies from a few square meters to several square kilometers and can take the form of a rock, a paved road, a piece of farmland, or a roof. It is also known as a runoff area. ...
Water management has become one of the major interests in arid and semi-arid regions. Scientists have suggested different criteria and methodologies for the identification of suitable dam sites. According to our literature review, we have used two major methodologies for the selection of suitable dam site location: geographic information system and remote sensing (GIS/RS) and multicriteria analysis (MCA) integrated with GIS/RS. The most common criteria used for the selection of suitable dam sites were slope, rainfall, land use land cover, soil type, lithology, lineament density, and hydrographic typology. All the factors were superimposed to prepare the synthesis map of water-harvesting structures, each thematic layer’s weight was determined, and storage water potential indices were calculated using water accumulation conditions. According to the water-harvesting location map, where the spatial distribution of the excellent (5%), very good (9%), and good (17%) aptitude classes is established in the northeast and central parts of the westward zone, the average located in the center of the zone. Study and weak are located south of the map; the area of moderate (25%) to poor (44%) suitability is situated in the south and southwest zone. The MCA was validated using an existing dam across the study area, where the MCA provides for the dam located in the good and moderate zones. The approach adopted in this study can be applied for any other location globally to identify potential dam-construction sites. From the point of view of the literature of multicriteria analyses of water recovery, areas unsuitable for surface water harvesting and dam projects are suitable for groundwater recharge.
... Water harvesting measures such as check dams, Nala-bunds, percolation tanks and farm ponds form the most prevalent categories of RWH techniques (Oweis et al. 2012) across globe. Suitable zones for location of RWH and recharge structures are identified by integrating thematic layers viz., drainage order map with buffer, land use land cover, slope, soil and runoff potential maps in a GIS environment. ...
Holistic planning approach for judicious use of natural resources is critical for development in the current depreciating global climate scenario. Identification of suitable areas/sites for planning land and water conservation measures is critical for long-term management and sustainable development. Information of natural resources inventoried using very high-resolution satellite images when integrated using Geographical Information Systems will provide an appropriate planning tool for sustainable management of natural resources. Particularly, planning activities that are carried out by the integration of geospatial technologies such as remote sensing and GIS help in achieving sustainable development goals. In this study, land and water resources development plans were generated for Chharba Gram Panchayat (GP) of the Dehradun district, Uttarakhand state in Northern India. Long-term surface runoff potential for different meteorological conditions was analysed spatially over the study GP. Suitable sites for land and water management practices were identified using a multi-criterion decision-based approach. Various basic and derived thematic layers that include ground water prospects, terrain characteristics and soil distribution were included in the planning. Land use land cover information generated using high-resolution satellite data at 1:2000 scale is of great help for developmental planning. Water Resource Development plan indicated that nearly 0.6% (8.43 ha) and 8% (121 ha) of the area is suitable for check dams and farm ponds, respectively. The analysis revealed that this area under single cropped areas can be converted to intensive agricultural areas while nearly 35 ha area under agricultural plantations can be converted to agro horticulture. Further, land use under sparse scrub land can be converted to agroforestry. Thus, the suggested land and water resources development plans are expected to convert the existing land use pattern into more suitable categories as per its potential without jeopardizing the environment.
... These techniques or systems comprise mainly catchment, storage, and application areas. The shape and size of the catchment area used to classify water harvesting systems to the following [6,7,8] the analysis of the natural ground landscape before design any hydraulic project like water harvesting structures and dams is a very important factor for reducing disadvantages like siltation and increasing the operating life of these projects. The landscape includes three water lines; Contour, water divide, and drainage streamlines, and according to these lines, landscape is divide into three main shapes, main ridge, primary ridge, and primary valley [9,10,11]. ...
Water harvesting techniques developed globally during last decades with water crisis increasing and climate changes. The Yeoman keyline method are spread widely with increased used sustainable permaculture development. The objectives of this study are analysis and solve siltation problem in Dwerige weir and developing water resources in the river Basin area. The remote sensing data, field surveying and hydrologic data used to build this study approach.. The result of this study shows that a huge siltation quantity not considered in the weir design studies, which represented by sand sheet materials and eroded soils which washed by flooding and entered the reservoir through four main channels. Topography and hydrology of the study area are analyzed and the keypoints-keylines principle are used by selecting the suitable contour lines to dig trenches along them to control soil erosion by decrease flow velocity and holding part of floodwater to increase soil water content and recharge groundwater. The floodwater quantities are estimated in normal and storm cases, the extra drain water is also estimated and the methods to use these waters are suggested.
Bu çalışmada, Karahallı ilçesindeki yerleşmelerin geçmiş yıllarda içme, kullanma ve tarımsal sulama suyu ihtiyacının karşılandığı avgan ve bülke olarak adlandırılan geleneksel yağmur suyu hasadı yöntemlerinden üzeri açık sarnıçlar ele alınmaktadır. Karahallı ilçe sınırları dahilinde arazi çalışmaları gerçekleştirilmiştir. Avgan ve bülkelerle ilgili yapılmış olan çalışmaların tamamı incelenmiş eleştirisel düşünce ve objektif bakış açısıyla ele alınmış ve durumları analiz edilmiştir. Bu su hasat sisteminin etkinliği, verimliliği ve geleceğe yönelik beklentileri vurgulanmaya çalışılmıştır. Günümüzde fonksiyonel özelliklerini kaybetme tehlikesi ile karşı karşıya olan su hasat sistemi ilçe halkının geçmişte susuzluğa karşı verdiği mücadelenin sembollerinden biridir. Avgan ve bülkeler, yeraltı ve yerüstü suyu bakımından yeterli düzeyde bulunmayan veya kaynak sularının yerleşim yerlerine uzak ve erişimin zor olduğu yerlerde 1960’lı ve 1970’li yıllara kadar faal olarak kullanılmıştır. Topografik seviyenin altında kare, dikdörtgen veya silindirik gövdeye sahip şekilde oluşturulan bu yapıların ilçe genelinde toplam sayısı 407 olarak tespit edilmiştir. İlçedeki avgan ve bülkelerin toplam su potansiyeli 14285 m3’den fazladır. Jeomorfolojik açıdan yamaç ve mevsimlik akışa sahip akarsu vadilerinde yoğunlaşan avgan ve bülkelerin büyük bir kısmı kuru haldedir. Yüzeysel beslenme alanında yapılan müdahaleler nedeniyle sarnıçlar susuz çukurluklar haline dönüşmüştür. Bu yağmur suyu depolama yapılarında bakımsızlıktan dolayı duvarlarında bitki gelişimi sonucu yıkılmalar olmuş, hayvan ve insanların içine düşmesi nedeniyle içleri doldurulmuş ve sayıları azalmıştır.
The water crisis is a critical issue, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions where rainfall is limited. Rainwater harvesting systems have been introduced in many locations to capture what rainfall does occur, but selection of the optimum site is vital to ensure efficient capture and storage. Over the past few decades, a range of frameworks for ranking proposed rainwater harvesting sites on the basis of site suitability have been suggested. The goal of this study was to develop a robust methodology to extend these frameworks, which consider biophysical and socio-economic criteria only, to include ecological criteria in the site selection process. This is essential for ensuring environmental protection, maintaining biodiversity, water quality improvement, climate resilience, regulatory compliance and sustainability of the system. In this paper, the inter-relationships of ecological criteria are shown to be complex, with “independent” criteria affecting “mediator” criteria which then directly impact ecological standards, i.e. the “dependent” criteria such as number of aquatic organisms. It is shown how a robust combination of data analysis and expert opinion can be applied to determine relative weightings of the different ecological criteria, using temperature and light as examples of key independent criteria. The developed hybrid framework is applied to a case study of site selection in Erbil Province in Iraq, where both climate change and human actions have seriously reduced water supplies in the past twenty years, showing that inclusion of these ecological criteria changes the ranking of the sites compared to ranking without ecological considerations.
Climate change has an impact on the scarcity of sustainable water sources for plant water supply in a greenhouse. In the dry season, the availability of groundwater and surface water sources is insufficient to supply the crop water requirements. Adequate and consistent water supply is crucial to support the optimal growth and production of plants in a greenhouse. Rainwater harvesting can be an important alternative to mitigate water scarcity, reduce groundwater exploitation, and preserve environmental sustainability. This study investigates the reliability of rainwater harvesting from greenhouse roofs to supply the water demands of vegetable crops cultivated in the greenhouse surface area. The analysis was conducted based on rainfall depth values of a 20-year time series (2004-2023) from a representative rainfall station of the study area. The rainwater harvesting in the greenhouse can produce a capture volume of 25.43 m ³ (227.02 L/m ² ) with a cumulative capture volume of 2116.72 m ³ and 20.07 m ³ (179.19 L/m ² ) with a cumulative capture volume of 1643.82 m ³ , represents a mean monthly rainfall of 283.78 mm and a dependable rainfall with an 80% probability of 223.98 mm, respectively. The reliability of the rainwater harvesting system can fully supply the water needs of the vegetables-cucumber family, small vegetables, roots and tubers, and vegetables-solanum family, reaching 2.81 L/m ² .day, 2.95 L/m ² .day, 3.09 L/m ² .day, and 3.23 L/m ² .day, respectively. The average surplus of 18.91 m ³ was produced in the design based on the mean monthly rainfall depth and 13.55 m ³ in the dependable rainfall depth of 80% probability.
In recent years, Iran has been dealing with a significant problem. A consistent lack of rainfall, often distributed unevenly across different areas and times. Such weather issues have led to a growing demand for groundwater, resulting in serious social, economic, and engineering challenges in various regions. This study focuses on a thorough examination of the practicality of constructing a reservoir in Kariyan village, located in the Hormozgan province, capable of storing nearly one million cubic meters of runoff water. Various engineering analysis techniques were employed to understand critical parameters that determine the effectiveness of such infrastructure. These parameters include rainfall pattern, rate of evaporation, water pricing, the permeability of the reservoir, local geography, and proximity to the area where the water is needed. This research not only sheds light on the specific case of Kariyan village, but also provides a useful framework that can be applied to similar situations elsewhere. By adopting this comprehensive approach as a practical model, regions grappling with similar water resource challenges can improve their water management, reduce potential negative impacts, and move towards sustainable solutions. This study offers practical insights and strategies to improve water management in arid regions, facilitating sustainable solutions to address water scarcity challenges and minimize negative impacts on communities and ecosystems, also offering practical insights and strategies to ensure the preservation of this essential resource for future generations.
1. Giriş Dünya insan nüfusundaki hızlı artış su kaynakları üzerindeki baskıyı artırmaktadır (Ertop vd. 2023). Mevcut su kaynaklarının ancak %2'sinden daha azı kullanılabilir tatlı sudur (Lan-caster, 2019; Yıldız vd. 2022). Bu nedenle su kıtlığı, insanoğlunun 21. yüzyıldaki en önemli sorununu oluşturacaktır (Prinz, 2002). Son yıllarda küresel iklim değişikliği nedeniyle orman yangınları, seller ve özellikle uzun süreli kuraklık gibi aşırı hava olaylarının sıklığında ve şid-detinde büyük artış görülmektedir (IPBES, 2019). Küresel iklim değişikliğinin su kaynakları üzerinde mevcut baskıyı daha da artıracağı aşikârdır (Afzal vd., 2016; Yıldız vd., 2022; Ertop vd., 2023). Bu küresel eğilim ile birlikte Akdeniz Havzası'nda da kuraklıktan etkilenen alan-ların da genişleyeceği öngörülmektedir (FAO, 2019; Feng ve Fu, 2013; Turkes vd., 2020; Bağçaci vd., 2021). Halen dünya yüzölçümünün %41'i (6,1 milyar ha) kuraklıktan etkilenmekte olup, bu alanlarda küresel nüfusun neredeyse üçte biri (2 milyar) yaşamaktadır (FAO, 2019). Kurak-lıktan etkilenen alanlar özellikle son 60 yılda hızla artmıştır. Yapılan hesaplamalar Dünya'da her yıl ilave bir 10 milyon hektarlık alanın kuraklığın etkisi altına girdiğini göstermektedir (FAO, 2019). Yirmibirinci yüzyılın sonuna kadar, küresel kurak alan miktarında %10-23'lük bir artışın yanı sıra kuraklıktan etkilenen insan nüfusunda %50'lik bir artış olması (FAO,
The research described below proposes a spatial analysis of the hydraulic infrastructure, and settlement remains, as well as a topographic analysis of the site of as-Sila'/Sela on the southern Transjordan plateau. The authors designed Sela's first photogrammetric model from aerial photographs provided by the "Aerial Photographic Archive for Archaeology in the Middle East (APAAME)" project. This modelling has enabled the research team to locate new hydraulic structures, settlement remains, marks on vertical facing, and elevated or levelling platforms hitherto unidentified by a pedestrian survey; it was also possible to obtain more detailed direct and indirect relationships between these features. The 3D model has provided a reference for locating the various elements and correlating their surface with the topographic coordinates recorded by the total station during fieldwork. Additionally, a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) was derived from the 3D model to depict the flow direction of run-off. Through our analysis, we identified spaces for accessing, managing, and utilising available water resources, including settlement density and flooding zones. The hydrological analysis revealed potential run-off and flood-prone areas, guiding the location of hydraulic structures to prevent water contamination. This study highlights the importance of Sela's water supply systems and the technical expertise of ancient communities in their construction and management. The applicability and feasibility of the applied methodology emphasise its use as a powerful and indispensable tool to obtain a complete overview of the site. The results yield a comprehensive site mapping with a broader scope than previous research and provide a basis for further research, as well as for understanding the site's water supply and settlement patterns. Thus, this study enhances the hydro-technological investigation of Sela's water management and culture and contributes to its holistic analysis. Future studies can use the data to propose effective water management strategies and shed light on the social structures involved in water supply practices.
Water security concerns the sufficient availability of equitable access to water for humans and the ecosystem. Drylands are the worst geographical region affected by chronic seasonal drought and water crises due to their geo-climatic condition. Purulia district of West Bengal state in India has a long history of seasonal drought and summer water crisis which calls for some adaptive measures to sustain the water-secured future. The district has a unique identity with its significant concentration of indigenous communities who have been practicing different traditional resilient techniques to prevent the risk of water insecurity. This chapter highlights these traditional adaptive measures practiced by different indigenous communities in the district. Based on the secondary data sources and primary data collection through the focus group discussion (FGD) in different villages, we have thoroughly assessed the traditional water harvesting technologies for different purposes. This study also attempts to present the theoretical foundation of nature-based resource conservation and multi-level policy-driven approaches for securing water in the dry land rural setup. The result shows different levels of water harvesting systems in the district for multiple usages ranging from domestic usage to irrigation purposes on one side and the multiple government policy-driven approach on another for a secure water future for dry land rural development.KeywordsWater securityDry landsRuralIndigenousRiskResilience
Information on the extent and spatial distribution of soil erosion is essential for planning and implementing soil conservation measures. Remote sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS) concepts and tools are widely adopted in natural resources mapping, monitoring, and modelling. This chapter introduces the basic concepts of the RS and GIS and their applications in soil conservation. RS data acquisition and GIS software are particularly emphasised. The chapter includes the RS and GIS applications in land degradation, soil erosion mapping, and parameter estimation of various soil loss estimation models. The site selection for soil conservation structures is also discussed.
This study examines key factors influencing the economic benefit of rainwater harvesting on the household at the Mongla Upazila in the Bagerhat district of coastal Bangladesh. The household survey questionnaire was used to collect primary data from 1040 households. The Ordinary Least Square (OLS) regression analysis was applied to understand the relationship between economic benefit and factors that can affect economic benefit in the household. The empirical result shows that income (1.103**), storage capacity (0.574***), water price (32708.9***), age of rainwater harvesting (100.083***), and total cost (1.627***) positively impact economic benefit while the number of children (35.531**) has a negative relationship. The finding confirms the validity of statistical hypotheses. In addition, heterogeneity analysis was employed to test the model's strength and robustness check to validate the structural function and efficiency of the regression model. The finding concludes with policy recommendations, especially for rain-intensive countries that focus on (i) formulating and implementing rainwater harvesting policy; (ii) integrating rainwater harvesting as a tool for poverty reduction and achieving sustainable development goals; (iii) minimizing mismanagement of (rain) water that causes floods; (iv) initiate programme and take necessary steps for providing financial and non-financial incentive for rainwater harvesting in commercial, and non-commercial building.
Water scarcity and soil erosion are the main constraints small holder farmers are facing in Tigray, the northern most part of Ethiopia. Both very high and very low precipitation can cause a damage to agriculture which is the case in semi-arid regions like Tigray. While too little rainfall cannot support the growth of crops resulting in crop failure, the short but intense rainfall also causes a runoff thereby washing away essential soil nutrients. Installation of different micro/macro catchment rainwater harvesting can address both water scarcity and soil erosion if they are properly designed prior to construction. This research was intended to develop a methodology for identifying suitable rainwater harvesting (rwh) sites by using weighted overlay analysis. It also utilizes Ahp (analytical hierarchy process) as effective multi criterion decision making tool in eastern Tigray at Kilte Awlaelo district on an area of 1001Km2. This method was chosen because it is simple to use, cost effective, flexible and widely adopted .Physical, hydrological, climate and socio economic aspects were taken in to account during criteria selection. The result indicated four suitability classes with 8.74% highly suitable areas (85.25Km2); 56% suitable areas (550.75Km2), 30.8% moderately suitable areas (303.2Km2) and 4.46% less suitable areas (43.87Km2). The produced rwh suitability map was also validated by both ground truth on google earth pro and a field trip to the study site. Instu and ex situ rwh including bench terraces, wells, and Exclosure areas were identified during the field visit that verified the suitability model. Finally, depending on weight and scale of criteria and sub criteria that matched to each identified suitable areas, different micro catchment and macro catchment techniques of water harvesting are recommended. This methodology can be utilized as decision making tool for rwh practitioners, local and foreign organizations working on soil water conservation programs and policy makers during their early planning stages.
The watershed under investigation is located in northeast Libya and lies in arid (downstream) and semi-arid (upstream) regions with an aerial extent of 1511 km2. Rainfed agriculture and grazing form the regular economic activities of the local community, and they face challenges related to scarce water resources and soil loss due to less rainfall and higher runoff and evaporation. Exploiting Rainwater Harvesting (RWH) is one of the most promising solutions to these challenges. In this study, remote sensing (RS) and geographic information system (GIS) approaches have been employed in assessing the potential surface water and identifying potential RWH sites, which are both critical tasks for effective water resource management. The runoff was estimated using Soil Conservation Service Curve Number (SCS-CN) method, where the CN is computed by the LULC map generated from Landsat 8 OLI imagery that was intersected with the HSG layer. Moreover, due to the unavailability of rainfall data in the study area, the precipitation data from Multi-satellite Retrievals for Global Precipitation Measurement (IMERG GPM) was used in the runoff calculation, where the average ten-year runoff volume was estimated as 26.5 Mm3. The RWH suitability sites were delineated based on the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) method, where the criteria selection was performed based on a literature review, followed by weighted overlay analysis to determine the layer of suitable sites. The results showed that optimal and suitable sites cover 2.5% and 9% of the watershed, while the rest of the watershed is covered by moderate, marginal, and unsuitable sites covering 17.7%, 25%, and 45.7%, respectively. The watershed is found to have the potential to support RWH for soil and water conservation. Also, the RWH structures map was generated according to the indigenous dominant types.
Rainwater harvesting is an ancient practice that helped in meeting basic water needs and reduced water shortages mainly in arid and semi-arid regions. Rainfall, through runoff, can be captured downstream of a suitable “catchment” area. The capture and storage of rainwater can be beneficially used. Harvesting water depends not only on the rainfall amount, but also on its pattern and intensity and on the catchment and storage conditions. Storage is a vital component of rainwater harvesting systems and can be surface or subsurface reservoirs or simply a soil profile. Uses include domestic, agriculture, industrial and environment sectors. Micro-catchment rainwater harvesting (MIWH) systems are based on having a small runoff catchment, normally at the household or farm level. In MIWH, runoff flows as sheet flow downstream to a storage facility to be used later for various purposes. Among the most common MIWH types are the Household systems including rooftops and cisterns and the Farm and Landscape systems including contour ridges, bunds, small runoff basins and strips. This chapter provides an overall description of the types, uses and limitations of MIWH. It also presents cases where MIWH plays an important role in providing necessary water for people and agriculture in addition to combating desertification and coping with climate change in dry environments. The implementation of those systems, however, face several technical, social, financial, and environmental constraints. Recommendations to help overcoming those constraints are provided for the rural dry environments where the need for water and food is critical.
Bu çalışmada canlı hayatı için çok önemli olan suyun, bitip tükenmez ve
yeniden üretilebilir bir kaynak olmadığı gerçeğinden yola çıkarak Türkiye’nin en
kurak bölgelerinden olan İç Anadolu bölgesinde yer alan Aksaray ilinin mevcut su
kaynakları incelenerek bu kaynakların verimli bir şekilde nasıl kullanılabileceği
sorusuna cevap aranacaktır. Kaynakların 2/3’lük kısmının sulamada kullanıldığı
görülmektedir. Bu bağlamda yapılması gereken en öncelikli uygulamanın sulamaya
ayrılan miktarın azaltılması ve sulama için yeni kaynaklar bulunması olduğu
aşikardır.
İl sınırları içerisinde su hasadına uygun alanlarda hangi tekniklerle su hasadı
yapılabileceği, yağışın yoğun olduğu mevsimlerde jeolojik yapıya uygun su
hasadı tekniklerinin neler olabileceği ve bu teknikler ile hasat edilen suyun hangi
tür bitkilerin yetiştirilmesinde kullanılabileceği konusu irdelenmiştir. Tüm bu
uygulamaları gerçekleştirebilmek için Aksaray ili özelinde yerel yönetimlere düşen
görevlere de yer verilmiş ve önerilerde bulunulmuştur.
Restoration of the degraded rangelands in Jordan using mechanized water harvesting and native species planting has become key to enhancing and maintaining the productivity and resilience of fragile ecosystems. A balanced interaction between the rangeland's hydrology and vegetation states is vital for achieving long-term sustainability. To gain a better insight into the impact of restoration on surface runoff and erosion and its role in recovering the ecosystem functions, we used the Rangeland Hydrological and Erosion Model (RHEM) to simulate various vegetation scenarios. Our research aims to understand the rangelands' water and sediment dynamics and the vegetation transition states of the ecosystem through evaluating the current (degraded) situation, assess the restoration approach on improving the degraded status (restored), and investigate the long-term sustainability of the restoration approach compared with historical rangeland conditions (baseline). Several scenarios were developed with rangeland experts, local community representatives, and measurements at protected and restored areas to represent the rangeland conditions. We found that restoration of the degraded Badia areas will decrease annual surface runoff from an average of 23.5 to 19.1 mm/year and soil erosion rate from 3.3 to 1.3 tons/ha. With time, restoration can bring back rangeland water and sediment dynamics closer towards the baseline conditions, which were 16.9 mm/year runoff rates and 0.85 ton/ha/year soil loss. The results indicate that restoration is a promising methodology to restore the degraded ecosystem and approximate the environment's historical hydrological regime.
In the arid and semiarid region, countries such as Tunisia are facing increasingly more serious water shortage problems. Problems of water scarcity will intensify because of population growth, rise in living standards, and accelerated urbanization, which threaten the water supply in general and agriculture in particular, and lead to both an increase in water consumption and pollution of water resources. The main water harvesting techniques encountered in the Tunisia country can be subdivided into three major groups: runoff water harvesting, floodwater harvesting and spreading or spate irrigation using diversion dykes, and runoff water collection and storage. The common goal of water harvesting, conservation, and recharge is to secure water supply for annual crops, pastures, trees, and animals in dry areas. The dry areas on Tunisia are very rich in traditional, ancient water-harvesting systems. These must have been built on a sound foundation of indigenous knowledge.
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