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Partner similarity matters for the insecure: Attachment orientations moderate the association between similarity in partners’ personality traits and relationship satisfaction
Abstract
A longitudinal sample of romantic couples was used to examine whether attachment security moderates the association between partners’ personality-trait-similarity to each other and their relationship satisfaction. Replicating previous research, there were no bivariate associations between trait-similarity and satisfaction. However, partners’ perceptions of personality-similarity were associated with satisfaction. Attachment styles also moderated the curvilinear associations between partners’ trait-similarity and satisfaction. People with high attachment avoidance and low attachment anxiety (dismissing attachment) seemed to have an optimal level of similarity in which satisfaction was maximized at moderate levels of similarity. People with low avoidance and high anxiety (preoccupied attachment) exhibited the opposite pattern, expressing higher levels of satisfaction if their partner was highly similar or dissimilar to them.
... The dominance complementarity theory (Carson, 1969;Kiesler, 1983) has been widely applied to interpersonal interaction studies. Prior research has verified that roommate dyads with dissimilar neuroticism tend to produce more positive emotion and behavioral attraction compared to those with similar neuroticism (Hudson and Fraley, 2014). Applications of this theory have also identified a positive correlation between extraversion personality incongruence of leader-follower dyads and follower job engagement, and it were based on an increased balance of job resources and reduced conflicts (Chen et al., 2016). ...
... This finding is similar to a prior study that showed that neuroticism incongruence was beneficial for roommates and that there were more positive emotions and behavior among dissimilar neurotic roommates than similar ones (Luther and Benkenstein, 2017). However, this result is contrary to a longitudinal study of romantic couples that found that moderate congruence in neuroticism predicted higher levels of relationship satisfaction (Hudson and Fraley, 2014). Specifically, a male partner had lower relationship satisfaction in a relationship with dissimilar levels of neuroticism (Hudson and Fraley, 2014). ...
... However, this result is contrary to a longitudinal study of romantic couples that found that moderate congruence in neuroticism predicted higher levels of relationship satisfaction (Hudson and Fraley, 2014). Specifically, a male partner had lower relationship satisfaction in a relationship with dissimilar levels of neuroticism (Hudson and Fraley, 2014). These inconsistent results could be explained as follows. ...
Background
The dominance complementarity theory argues that effective and continuing interpersonal relationships require complementary dominance and submission values. This theory has been widely applied to interpersonal interaction studies. Although studies have demonstrated the correlation between neurotic personality traits and general well-being (GWB) in older adults, the interpersonal interactions and psychological mechanisms underlying this effect remain unclear.AimUsing this theory, we explored the effect of the neuroticism fit between older adults and primary caregivers on older adults’ GWB and examined the mediating role of psychological resilience (PR).Methods
One hundred sixty-one dyads of older adults and primary caregivers in nursing homes completed scales that included the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Revised Short Scale, the 10-Item Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale, and the GWB Schedule. We performed a cross-level polynomial regression, response surface modeling and mediating effect test to analyze the data.Results(1) Older adults’ GWB was higher when the neuroticism fit between older adults and primary caregivers was incongruent rather than congruent (p < 0.01). (2) In cases of incongruence, older adults’ GWB was higher only if their neuroticism was lower than that of their primary caregivers (p < 0.01). (3) In cases of congruence, older adults’ GWB was higher when the neuroticism of both sides was lower (p < 0.01). (4) PR partially mediated the relationship between neuroticism incongruence and older adults’ GWB (indirect effect = 0.14, p < 0.01).Conclusion
The neuroticism incongruence between older adults and primary caregivers was beneficial to older adults’ GWB and was partially mediated by PR.
... The results suggest only a small actor effect for similarity on relationship satisfaction (Furler et al., 2014). Finally, research of Hudson and Fraley (2014) tested the linear and quadratic association between personality similarity and satisfaction while controlling for main effects of self-reported personality. Their findings suggest a linear and significant relationship between traitspecific similarity for agreeableness and relationship satisfaction and a quadratic relationship between similarity on neuroticism and relationship satisfaction with moderate neuroticism similarity being optimal for relationship satisfaction (Hudson & Fraley, 2014). ...
... Finally, research of Hudson and Fraley (2014) tested the linear and quadratic association between personality similarity and satisfaction while controlling for main effects of self-reported personality. Their findings suggest a linear and significant relationship between traitspecific similarity for agreeableness and relationship satisfaction and a quadratic relationship between similarity on neuroticism and relationship satisfaction with moderate neuroticism similarity being optimal for relationship satisfaction (Hudson & Fraley, 2014). ...
... The study of Hudson and Fraley (2014) has additionally looked at attachment as a possible moderator and suggests that individuals with a preoccupied attachment style were most satisfied with their relationship when their partner was either very similar or dissimilar in personality. In contrast, individuals with a dismissing attachment representation benefitted most from a moderate similarity level with the partner. ...
Personality has been found to play an important role in predicting satisfaction in couples. This review presents dyadic research on the association between Big Five traits and both life and relationship satisfaction in couples focusing on self-reported personality, partner-perceived personality (how the partner rates one's own personality), and personality similarity. Furthermore, special attention is given to possible gender effects. The findings indicate the importance of self-reported as well as partner-perceived reported personality for the satisfaction of both partners. Specifically, the majority of studies found intrapersonal and interpersonal effects for neuroticism, agreeableness, and conscientiousness on life or relationship satisfaction. For the partner-perceived personality, intrapersonal and interpersonal effects were present for all Big Five traits. Partners' similarity in personality traits seems not to be related with their satisfaction when controlling for partners' personality.
... A possible explanation of this phenomenon may be that the relation between dyadic adjustment and similarity is not necessarily linear. It is, for instance, possible that moderate rather than high similarity between partners has a positive effect on relationship satisfaction (Hudson & Fraley, 2014). Personality similarity does, however, seem to have a much smaller impact on relationship satisfaction than the actor and partner effects (Weidmann, Schönbrodt, et al., 2017) and it is also possible that certain moderating factors, such as attachment style (Hudson & Fraley, 2014) or self-esteem (Weidmann, Ledermann, & Grob, 2017), can have a considerable impact on the relation between personality similarity and relationship satisfaction. ...
... It is, for instance, possible that moderate rather than high similarity between partners has a positive effect on relationship satisfaction (Hudson & Fraley, 2014). Personality similarity does, however, seem to have a much smaller impact on relationship satisfaction than the actor and partner effects (Weidmann, Schönbrodt, et al., 2017) and it is also possible that certain moderating factors, such as attachment style (Hudson & Fraley, 2014) or self-esteem (Weidmann, Ledermann, & Grob, 2017), can have a considerable impact on the relation between personality similarity and relationship satisfaction. ...
Evidence suggests that personality may influence romantic relationship quality in several ways. Quality of relationship can be affected by an individual's personality (actor effect), partner's personality (partner effect), by discrepancy between ideal and actual partners' personalities (discrepancy effect), or by similarity between partners' personalities (similarity effect). Most studies, however, focus on just one of these effects, their results are often ambiguous, and based on western populations. We tested all these effects at once in individuals from two distinct populations: Brazil and the Czech Republic. In total, 626 individuals in a long-term committed relationship completed the Ten-Item Personality Inventory for their own, actual, and ideal partner, and the Revised Dyadic Adjustment Scale. Hierarchical categorical regression analyses showed that the actor and partner effect contributed significantly, although weakly, to dyadic adjustment, while the impact of discrepancy and similarity was negligible. Explained variance was around 10% for the actor effect, around 30% jointly for actor and partner effects, and around 40% jointly for actor, partner, discrepancy, and similarity effects. The overall results were similar for both studied populations. Importantly, all reported effect sizes are small, which suggests that other factors contribute to dyadic adjustment more substantially.
... 93). In addition, that outcome seems to echo empirical findings that "similarity between partners reduces conflicts" (Acitelli, Kenny, & Weiner, 2001, p. 180) and that perceived similarity in (a) motives for being involved in the relationship (Hagemeyer, Neberich, Asendorph, & Neyer, 2013), (b) personality (Furler, Gomez, & Grob, 2014;Hudson & Fraley, 2014), and (c) political attitudes and personal values (Leikas, Ilmarinen, Verkasalo, Vartiainen, & Lönnqvist, 2018) is linked to increased relationship satisfaction. Moreover, whereas high relationship satisfaction typically is associated with secure attachment (see Eğeci & Gençöz, 2006) and with feeling understood during conflict (A. ...
... This reflects existing literature that relationship satisfaction can become enhanced by similarity between partners (Acitelli et al., 2001;Furler et al., 2014;Hagemeyer et al., 2013;Husdon & Fraley, 2014;Leikas et al., 2018;Reizer et al., 2014) and/or by a relationship's ability to offer opportunities for self-expansion (Aron et al., 1998;Fivecoat et al., 2015;McIntyre et al., 2015). (Sened et al., 2017;Smith et al., 2008), (f) Adlerian birth order (Crain, 2017), (g) Bowenian differentiation of self (Norona & Welsh, 2016), (h) Big Five personality traits (Furler et al., 2014;Hudson & Fraley, 2014;Weidmann, Ledermann, & Grob, 2017), (i) political attitudes and personal values (Leikas et al., 2018), (j) work-life balance (Yucel, 2018), (k) sexual satisfaction (Fallis, Rehman, Woody, & Purdon, 2016;Mark & Jozkowski, 2013;Yoo et al., 2014), (l) perception of mate value (Hromatko, Bajoghli, Rebernjak, Joshaghani, & Tadinac, 2015), and (m) consistency between ideal standards and perceived attributes in one's partner (Buyukcan-Tetik, Campbell, Finkenauer, Karremans, & Kappen, 2017). Conversely, detractors to relationship satisfaction include: (a) viewing one's partner's personality strengths as having significant costs (Kashdan et al., 2018), (b) incongruence of motives for being involved in the relationship (Hagemeyer et al., 2013), (c) hypermasculinity (Karakis & Levant, 2012;Lentz, 2017), and (d) inconsistent interpersonal behavior (Sadikaj, Rappaport, Moskowitz, Zuroff, Koestner, & Powers, 2015), dominant behavior (Sadikaj, Moscowitz, & Zuroff, 2017), shyness (Luster et al., 2013), and depression (Li & Johnson, 2018) in one's partner. ...
Chapman identified and described Five Love Languages (LLs), principal value systems by which individuals communicate and anticipate expression of affection: Words of Affirmation, Quality Time, Receiving Gifts, Acts of Service, and Physical Touch. Although Chapman’s model has become embraced by laypeople and helping professionals, it remains relatively underresearched. In this exploratory study, multivariate clustering procedures were used to identify profiles of combinations of LLs (as measured by Chapman’s Love Languages Personal Profile for Couples) in 100 couples. Emphasis was given not only to men’s and women’s primary LLs but also to differences between men and women within each couple as quantified by mean differences and Cohen’s d effect sizes thereof across the combination of all five LLs. In comparing the clustering variable means of the final cluster solution, it was found that the four profiles matched well and varied in a statistically significant manner. The relationship between the four-cluster solution and couples’ reported levels of global relational satisfaction (as measured by the Revised Kansas Marital Satisfaction Scale) also was assessed. Although no significant differences were found in the distress profiles across the four clusters (likely due to insufficient variability based on a majority nondistressed sample), results did suggest
a trend whereby couples were less likely to report distress the more their combination of LL preferences was congruent. This study makes several methodological contributions to an emerging literature on the LLs, and the results provide a foundation for further research, particularly on how Chapman’s model contributes to understanding the relationships between intimate relationships, self-development, and self-expansion.
... One of the most important limitations of both difference scores and profile correlations is that they assume one model (i.e., absolute similarity) without considering the fit of alternative models (Edwards, 1993;Nestler, Grimm, & Schönbrodt, 2015). Past research on personality similarity effects have typically compared models of main effects and absolute similarity with a model including only main effects (Dyrenforth et al., 2010;Furler et al., 2013;Hudson & Fraley, 2014; Table 1). ...
... In other words, complementarity might matter more than similarity as suggested by Carson (1969) and others who argued that two people may complement each other when they have equal levels of warmth, but opposite levels of dominance. Even for a single trait, both similarity and complementarity might contribute to well-being in romantic relationships, resulting in moderate levels of similarity leading to optimal well-being (Hudson & Fraley, 2014). Because difference scores and profile correlations treat actor personality, partner personality, and personality similarity as three separate linear predictors, they cannot adequately examine how each combination of actor and partner personality traits relate to well-being. ...
The current study aimed to conceptually replicate previous studies on the effects of actor personality, partner personality, and personality similarity on general and relational well-being by using response surface analyses and a longitudinal sample of 4,464 romantic couples. Similar to previous studies using difference scores and profile correlations, results from response surface analyses indicated that personality similarity explained a small amount of variance in well-being as compared with the amount of variance explained by linear actor and partner effects. However, response surface analyses also revealed that second-order terms (i.e., the interaction term and quadratic terms of actor and partner personality) were systematically linked to couples’ well-being for all traits except neuroticism. In particular, most response surfaces showed a complex pattern in which the effect of similarity and dissimilarity on well-being depended on the level and combination of actor and partner personality. In addition, one small but robust similarity effect was found, indicating that similarity in agreeableness was related to women’s experience of support across the eight years of the study. The discussion focuses on the implications of these findings for theory and research on personality similarity in romantic relationships.
... A hypothetical example for a linear association between similarity and satisfaction is that couples, which are very similar, report high relationship satisfaction, whereas couples that are dissimilar report low relationship satisfaction. However, recent evidence corroborates the notion that for some traits moderate similarity might yield the best effect on relationship satisfaction (Hudson & Fraley, 2014). Further, the results of difference scores and profile similarity differ commonly from results of polynomial regressions (Edwards, 1993;Edwards & Van Harrison, 1993). ...
... Further investigations might focus not on actual but rather on perceived similarity in romantic couples (Iafrate, Bertoni, Margola, Cigoli, & Acitelli, 2012;Tidwell, Eastwick, & Finkel, 2013). Moreover, evidence suggests important moderating factors explaining the association between personality similarity and satisfaction in couples (Hudson & Fraley, 2014), for instance the importance ratings of similarity on specific personality characteristics (Lutz-Zois, Bradley, Mihalik, & Moorman-Eavers, 2006). Further, the majority of couple research, including the current study, focuses on heterosexual couples. ...
Being with a well-matched partner seems essential for a happy relationship. However, past research on personality similarity in couples has reported inconsistent findings. The current study employs a dyadic polynomial regression approach to take into account linear and curvilinear associations between similarity and satisfaction. The concurrent results based on data of 237 couples suggest that beyond actor effects for neuroticism, agreeableness, and conscientiousness and partner effects for agreeableness, similarity plays a negligible role for relationship satisfaction. Longitudinally, two similarity effects emerged. First, if partners reported dissimilar neuroticism levels, male partner reported lower relationship satisfaction. Second, if both partners reported modest levels in openness, female partners reported higher relationship satisfaction. Implications for couples are discussed.
... A hypothetical example for a linear association between similarity and satisfaction is that couples, which are very similar, report high relationship satisfaction, whereas couples that are dissimilar report low relationship satisfaction. However, recent evidence corroborates the notion that for some traits moderate similarity might yield the best effect on relationship satisfaction (Hudson & Fraley, 2014). Further, the results of difference scores and profile similarity differ commonly from results of polynomial regressions (Edwards, 1993;Edwards & Van Harrison, 1993). ...
... Further investigations might focus not on actual but rather on perceived similarity in romantic couples (Iafrate, Bertoni, Margola, Cigoli, & Acitelli, 2012;Tidwell, Eastwick, & Finkel, 2013). Moreover, evidence suggests important moderating factors explaining the association between personality similarity and satisfaction in couples (Hudson & Fraley, 2014), for instance the importance ratings of similarity on specific personality characteristics (Lutz-Zois, Bradley, Mihalik, & Moorman-Eavers, 2006). Further, the majority of couple research, including the current study, focuses on heterosexual couples. ...
Being with a well-matched partner seems essential for a happy relationship. However, past research on personality similarity in couples has reported inconsistent findings. The current study employs a dyadic polynomial regression approach to take into account linear and curvilinear associations between similarity and satisfaction. The concurrent results based on data of 237 couples suggest that beyond actor effects for neuroticism, agreeableness, and conscientiousness and partner effects for agreeableness, similarity plays a negligible role for relationship satisfaction. Longitudinally, two similarity effects emerged. First, if partners reported dissimilar neuroticism levels, male partner reported lower relationship satisfaction. Second, if both partners reported modest levels in openness, female partners reported higher relationship satisfaction. Implications for couples are discussed.
... 3) Despite a relatively large body of empirical research on similarity effects in romantic relationships, there is yet no consensus about their existence. For example, some studies reported positive associations of partners' personality similarity with relationship satisfaction (e.g., Gonzaga et al., 2007), others found similarity effects only for specific traits (e.g., Hudson & Fraley, 2014) and some concluded to find no substantial effects of similarity (e.g., Gattis et al., 2004;Park et al., 2023;Watson et al., 2004;Weidmann et al., 2017). ...
A central assumption in lay and psychological theories is that people are attracted to potential mates who are similar to themselves in personality traits. However, the empirical findings on this idea have been inconclusive. Only a few studies have considered real-life dating contexts, and the statistical approaches they applied have sometimes spuriously identified similarity effects. In our study, 397 heterosexual singles (aged 18–28) participated in real speed-dates (N_dates = 940). Using dyadic response surface analysis, we investigated effects of actual similarity (similarity between self-reported personality trait levels) and perceptual similarity (similarity between an actor’s personality and his/her perception of the partner’s personality) concerning the Big Five traits. Neither type of similarity was related to initial romantic attraction. That is, the empirical evidence contradicted the idea that attraction occurs when people’s personalities match. We conclude that understanding initial attraction requires a deeper understanding of interpersonal dynamics in first encounters.
... Pada individu dewasa, gaya kelekatan biasanya dikonsepsikan dalam 2 dimensi, yaitu cemas dan menghindar (Hudson & Fraley, 2014). Dimensi cemas merefleksikan derajat di mana individu khawatir akan tidak dicintai, ditelantarkan, dan ditolak sementara dimensi menghindar merefleksikan derajat di mana individu menolak keintiman dan ketergantungan pada orang lain (Kane, dkk., 2007). ...
Kepuasan hubungan merupakan hasil evaluasi subjektif pasangan atas hubungannya. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui apakah ada hubungan antara gaya kelekatan dengan kepuasan hubungan wanita dewasa awal yang sedang menjalani pacaran jarak jauh. Penelitian ini bertipe kuantitatif dengan metode pengambilan data survei. Alat ukur yang digunakan adalah Experiences in Close Relationship-Revised dan Relationship Assessment Scale. Sebanyak 139 wanita berusia 18-25 tahun yang sedang menjalani pacaran jarak jauh berpartisipasi dalam penelitian ini. Hasil analisis data menunjukkan nilai Pearson Correlation r=0,730 dan signifikansi p=0,00 sehingga dapat disimpulkan bahwa terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara gaya kelekatan dengan kepuasan hubungan pada wanita dewasa awal yang sedang menjalani pacaran jarak jauh.
... Another study found that individuals tended to select those with similar personalities as friends (Bahns et al., 2017). Hudson and Fraley (2014) found a quadratic relationship between partners' personality-trait-similarity and relationship satisfaction among people with low avoidance and high anxiety. The existing conclusions seem to be inconclusive. ...
Whether birds of a feather flock together or opposites attract is a classical research question in social and personality psychology. In most existing studies, correlation-based techniques are commonly used to study the similarity/dissimilarity among social entities. Social network data comprises two primary components: actors and the possible social relations between them. It, therefore, has observations on both the dyads with and without social relations. Because of the availability of the baseline group (dyads without social relations), it is possible to contrast the two groups of dyads using social network analysis techniques. This study aims to illustrate how to use social network analysis techniques to address psychological research questions. Specifically, we will investigate how the similarity or dissimilarity of actor's characteristics relates to the likelihood for them to build social relations. By analyzing a college friendship network, we found the quadratic relations between personality similarity and friendship. Both very similar and very dissimilar personalities boost friendship among college students.
... For our study, the discussions of scientists about the main indicators of temporal prospects are especially valuable (Andersen & Thorpe, 2009;Hudson & Fraley, 2014;Ksendzova et al., 2015;Parks & Guay, 2009): ...
... The elastic net managed to cope very well with the large amount of highly correlated variables. Future studies could examine the possibility of unexplained non-linear personality-RQ association, such as those studied by Hudson & Fraley [46] or Joel, Eastwick & Finkel [10] through the application of non-linear ML methods like decision-trees. ...
To what extent is it possible to use machine learning to predict the outcome of a relationship, based on the personality of both partners? In the present study, relationship satisfaction, conflicts, and separation (intents) of 192 partners four years after the completion of questionnaires concerning their personality traits was predicted. A 10x10-fold cross-validation was used to ensure that the results of the linear regression models are reproducible. The findings indicate that machine learning techniques can improve the prediction of relationship quality (37% of variance explained), and that the perceived relationship quality of a partner is mostly dependent on his or her own individual personality traits. Additionally, the influences of different sets of variables on predictions are shown: partner and similarity effects did not incrementally predict relationship quality beyond actor effects and general personality traits predicted relationship quality less strongly than relationship-related personality.
... In line with IIT, our hypothesis regarding dominance congruence (Hypothesis 1) only considered a linear effect; however, to align with other polynomial regression research (e.g. Hudson & Frarley, 2014;Wilson, DeRue, Matta, Howe, & Conolon, 2016), we conducted a posthoc analysis evaluating the curvature along the line of congruence (a2 = b(FOL 2 ) + b(FOL * LDR) + b(LDR 2 )). Significant curvature suggests that the effect of leader-follower dominance congruence is curvilinear. ...
Across two studies, we explore the configurational effects of leader and follower dominance on dyadic relationship conflict and subsequent abusive supervision. Drawing from the central tenets of social dominance and interpersonal interaction theories, we propose that various leader-follower dominance combinations can incite abusive supervision via relationship conflict. We first suggest that when leaders and followers are both high on dominance, relationship conflict is likely to result. Furthermore, we suggest that when leaders and followers have incongruent dominance, relationship conflict is also more likely to occur. Finally, we propose that relationship conflict will mediate the relationship between these congruent and incongruent combinations and abusive supervision. Using polynomial regression and response surface analysis, we found support for our hypotheses, and reveal that both high- and low-dominance leaders are susceptible to conflict and subsequent abuse, depending on their followers’ dominance. Our research contributes to the existing literature on antecedents of abusive supervision by integrating the role of dominance using configurational and relational perspectives.
... Thus, it is possible that the lower reliability might have led to the underestimation of similarity effects on well-being. Although it is worth noting that our results mostly converged with other studies that utilized measures of varying lengths (e.g., Dyrenforth et al., 2010;Furler et al., 2013;Hudson & Fraley, 2014;Weidmann et al., 2017), additional studies examining similarity within couples using more reliable measures of personality traits are needed. ...
The current study examined actor, partner, and similarity effects of personality on a variety of well-being indices, including both global and experiential measures of well-being in 2,578 heterosexual couples (N = 5,156 individuals; M
age
= 51.04, SD = 13.68) who completed the 2016 Wellbeing and Daily Life supplement to the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID). Among actor effects, those for conscientiousness, agreeableness, extraversion, and neuroticism were the most robust predictors of well-being. Among partner effects, conscientiousness and neuroticism were the most robust predictors of well-being. Consistent with past research, similarity effects on well-being were generally small and not always significant. The results are discussed in the context of experiential conceptualizations of well-being and operationalizing similarity in relationship research.
... In line with IIT, our hypothesis regarding dominance congruence (Hypothesis 1) only considered a linear effect; however, to align with other polynomial regression research (e.g. Hudson & Frarley, 2014;Wilson, DeRue, Matta, Howe, & Conolon, 2016), we conducted a posthoc analysis evaluating the curvature along the line of congruence (a2 = b(FOL 2 ) + b(FOL * LDR) + b(LDR 2 )). Significant curvature suggests that the effect of leader-follower dominance congruence is curvilinear. ...
... In contrast, Luo and Klohnen (2005) found positive associations between similarity and marital quality for personality-related domains, but not for attitude-related domains. In a recent study, Hudson and Fraley (2014) found couple's similarity in agreeableness and emotional stability linked to relationship satisfaction. ...
Kittel, K., Alonso-Arbiol, I., y Bretaña, I. (2021). Apego adulto y variables asociadas a cambios en la satisfacción marital a lo largo del tiempo: Una revisión sistemática. En J. Rodríguez Góngora, J. C. Rodríguez Rodríguez, M. Martínez de San Vicente, J. A. Rodríguez Rodríguez, Burgos Videla, C. G., y C. I. Bojórquez Díaz (Eds.), Psicología Siglo XXI: Una mirada amplia e integradora (pp. 259-287). Dykinson.
Previous research has shown that personality similarity plays a negligible role in explaining the life and relationship satisfaction of couples. However, similarity in more proximally measured personality (i.e., facets) might explain additional variance in partners' well-being. The current study examined if in a sample of 1294 female-male romantic couples individual and partner personality traits and facets were associated with life and relationship satisfaction in expected ways. Similarity in personality traits and facets was not robustly associated with either life or relationship satisfaction of partners. The results are discussed in the context of the predictive validity of personality facets.
Who is willing to be in a close relationship to an individual with high narcissism, and how do individuals with high narcissism perceive their friendships? Three aspects of narcissism were distinguished (agentic, antagonistic, neurotic) to determine their association with four aspects of friendship quality (appreciation, intimacy, conflict, dominance). In the first study, a dyadic perspective was taken to observe whether friendship quality differs depending on the dyadic narcissism level of friends. As hypothesized, individuals in dyads with higher narcissism perceived their friendship quality as lower, compared to individuals in dyads with lower narcissism. More conflicts were perceived across narcissism aspects. Dyads with high antagonistic narcissism also perceived lower appreciation and intimacy. Results were interpreted in favor of the assumption that maladaptive traits are tolerated by those who possess these traits themselves. In the second study, a longitudinal perspective was taken to examine interactional effects of narcissism and friendship quality across 4 measurement occasions. On a within-person level, individuals scoring lower than usual on narcissism were found to subsequently perceive higher appreciation, and those perceiving lower appreciation than usual subsequently increased in antagonistic narcissism. Results suggested that the effects found in relationship formation tend to generalize to relationship maintenance. Overall, this work expanded previous research on narcissism and social relationships by observing relationship quality in long-term friendships including a dyadic as well as a longitudinal perspective. To answer the question of who is willing to be friends with someone high in narcissism, results suggest that it would be individuals who also score high on narcissism. In regard to the question of how individuals with high narcissism perceive their friendships it was found that they tend to be willing to accept lower friendship quality.
A central assumption in lay and psychological theories is that people are attracted to potential mates who are similar to themselves in personality traits. However, the empirical findings on this idea have been inconclusive. Only a few studies have considered real-life dating contexts, and the statistical approaches they applied have sometimes spuriously identified similarity effects. In our study, 397 heterosexual singles (aged 18-28) participated in real speed-dates (Ndates = 940). Using dyadic response surface analysis, we investigated effects of actual similarity (similarity between self-reported personality trait levels) and perceptual similarity (similarity between an actor’s personality and his/her perception of the partner’s personality) concerning the Big Five traits. Neither type of similarity was related to initial romantic attraction. That is, the empirical evidence contradicted the idea that attraction occurs when people’s personalities match. We conclude that understanding initial attraction requires a deeper understanding of interpersonal dynamics in first encounters.
Issues concerning caregiving behavior in attachment theory have been overlooked, even though it is an essential factor of the theory. In this paper, we reviewed previous studies on caregiving to explore why there is a lack of research and to determine future directions. To begin, based on research pertaining to parent-child relationships and intimate adult relationships, we defined caregiving in the context of attachment theory. In addition, we outlined the idea of a behavioral system and an internal work model (IWM) that can become a basis of research, or a process of formation and development of the caregiving system and the IWM, including the problems to be investigated in future studies. Then, some problems in the research of intergenerational transmission of attachment and intimate adult relationships were suggested as the reason why the research on caregiving behavior has been delayed in attachment theory. Moreover, it was also indicated that the proximate occurrence mechanism of caregiving behavior was not clarified as a cause. We suggest a new model and some future directions.
Due to competitive constraints, service firms aim to create positive experiences for customers. Scholars demonstrate that focal customers are influenced by other, unfamiliar customers present at the time of service creation (e.g. Brack & Benkenstein 2012; 2014; Martin 1996). Taking other customers’ influence into account serves as background of the customer-to-customer (C2C) interaction field of research (Miao 2014; Verhoef et al. 2009). Especially for credence goods like hospital services interactions determine service experience (Miranda et al. 2012).
This research tested 6 models of the independent and interactive effects of stable personality traits on each partner's reports of relationship satisfaction and quality. Both members of 360 couples (N = 720) completed the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire and were interviewed about their relationship. Findings show that a woman's relationship happiness is predicted by her partner's low Negative Emotionality, high Positive Emotionality, and high Constraint, whereas a man's relationship happiness is predicted only by his partner's low Negative Emotionality. Findings also show evidence of additive but not interactive effects: Each partner's personality contributed independently to relationship outcomes but not in a synergistic way. These results are discussed in relation to models that seek to integrate research on individual differences in personality traits with research on interpersonal processes in intimate relationships.
Three experience-sampling studies explored the distributions of Big-Five-relevant states (behavior) across 2 to 3 weeks of everyday life. Within-person variability was high, such that the typical individual regularly and routinely manifested nearly all levels of all traits in his or her everyday behavior. Second, individual differences in central tendencies of behavioral distributions were almost perfectly stable. Third, amount of behavioral variability (and skew and kurtosis) were revealed as stable individual differences. Finally, amount of within-person variability in extraversion was shown to reflect individual differences in reactivity to extraversion-relevant situational cues. Thus, decontextualized and noncontingent Big-Five content is highly useful for descriptions of individuals' density distributions as wholes. Simultaneously, contextualized and contingent personality units (e.g., conditional traits, goals) are needed for describing the considerable within-person variation.
This personal historical article traces the development of the Big-Five factor structure, whose growing acceptance by personality researchers has profoundly influenced the scientific study of individual differences. The roots of this taxonomy lie in the lexical hypothesis and the insights of Sir Francis Galton, the prescience of L. L. Thurstone, the legacy of Raymond B. Cattell, and the seminal analyses of Tupes and Christal. Paradoxically, the present popularity of this model owes much to its many critics, each of whom tried to replace it, but failed. In reaction, there have been a number of attempts to assimilate other models into the five-factor structure. Lately, some practical implications of the emerging consensus can be seen in such contexts as personnel selection and classification.
This article explores the possibility that romantic love is an attachment process--a biosocial process by which affectional bonds are formed between adult lovers, just as affectional bonds are formed earlier in life between human infants and their parents. Key components of attachment theory, developed by Bowlby, Ainsworth, and others to explain the development of affectional bonds in infancy, were translated into terms appropriate to adult romantic love. The translation centered on the three major styles of attachment in infancy--secure, avoidant, and anxious/ambivalent--and on the notion that continuity of relationship style is due in part to mental models (Bowlby's "inner working models") of self and social life. These models, and hence a person's attachment style, are seen as determined in part by childhood relationships with parents. Two questionnaire studies indicated that relative prevalence of the three attachment styles is roughly the same in adulthood as in infancy, the three kinds of adults differ predictably in the way they experience romantic love, and attachment style is related in theoretically meaningful ways to mental models of self and social relationships and to relationship experiences with parents. Implications for theories of romantic love are discussed, as are measurement problems and other issues related to future tests of the attachment perspective.
Although much has been learned from cross-sectional research on marriage, an understanding of how marriages develop, succeed, and fail is best achieved with longitudinal data. In view of growing interest in longitudinal research on marriage, the authors reviewed and evaluated the literature on how the quality and stability of marriages change over time. First, prevailing theoretical perspectives are examined for their ability to explain change in marital quality and stability. Second, the methods and findings of 115 longitudinal studies—representing over 45,000 marriages—are summarized and evaluated, yielding specific suggestions for improving this research. Finally, a model is outlined that integrates the strengths of previous theories of marriage, accounts for established findings, and indicates new directions for research on how marriages change. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The goal of the present research was to examine the coregulation of partner-specific attachment security in romantic relationships. We studied a sample of 172 couples 5 times over 1 year. At each assessment wave, partners independently completed a self-report measure of their security in the relationship. We operationalized attachment coregulation both as direct impacts (i.e., prospective effects of one partner on the other) and coordination (i.e., correlated changes across time). Results indicated that, after taking into account people's prototypical levels of security, changes in security were coordinated within couples.
We examined the relevance of personality to relationship satisfaction in intimate couples from a typological point of view. Based on a sample of 133 couples, relationship satisfaction was predicted by the personality types of both relationship partners (each self-rated and partner-rated) resulting from the Big Five factors. Furthermore, interrater agreement of personality type and dyadic similarity were also used as predictors. The results showed that self-rated personality was hardly instrumental in predicting relationship satisfaction. For both sexes, relationship satisfaction seemed to depend mainly on how the person‘s personality was rated by his or her partner. Neither interrater agreement nor dyadic similarity had any influence on the relationship satisfaction of men or women. The applicability of the typological approach in this area of research is discussed.
In this literature review we explore inconsistencies in studies relating self-reported adult attachment to romantic partner preference. Such studies have tested one of three hypotheses: that individuals prefer partners with a similar attachment style, a complementary attachment style, or the attachment style most likely to offer attachment security. Consistent with all hypotheses, secure individuals prefer similarly secure partners. Discrepancies are found, however, regarding insecure individ- uals' preferences. Evidence supporting similarity and attach- ment-security hypotheses is primarily reported in research on attraction to hypothetical partners. Evidence supporting the complementarity hypothesis comes from research on matching between partners in long-term relationships. We suggest that individuals' working model of other may be more salient during initial attraction, whereas individuals' working model of self may be more salient during relationship main- tenance. We discuss these findings, focusing on individuals' needs for self-enhancement and self-consistency in relation to partner preference and attachment style.
The present study examined the relation between the type of relationship onset on the one hand and the degree to which partners have similar personalities and relationship quality on the other hand. It was hypothesized that partners who fell in love at first sight, relative to partners who got involved more gradually, entered into intimate relationships more shortly after they met, would have mates with less similar personalities, especially with regard to levels of extraversion, emotional stability and autonomy, and would report relatively low levels of relationship quality. In a sample of 137 married or cohabiting couples, it was found that, as predicted, partners who fell in love at first sight became romantically involved more quickly, and showed more dissimilar personalities with regard to levels of extraversion, emotional stability and autonomy. Partners who fell in love at first sight did not report lower relationship quality. Instead, partner personality trait similarity was related to relationship quality as a function of both relationship onset and specific personality traits.
To evaluate the impact of actual and perceived similarity on interpersonal attraction, we meta-analyzed 460 effect sizes from 313 laboratory and field investigations. Results indicated that the associations between interpersonal attraction and both actual similarity (r = .47) and perceived similarity (r = .39) were significant and large. The data also indicate that (i) actual similarity was important in no-interaction and short-interaction studies, (ii) there was a significant reduction in the effect size of actual similarity beyond no-interaction studies, and (iii) the effect of actual similarity in existing relationships was not significant. Alternatively, perceived similarity predicted attraction in no-interaction, short-interaction, and existing relationship studies. The implications of perceived similarity, rather than actual similarity, being predictive of attraction in existing relationships are discussed.
Although much research has been conducted to test the role of couple similarity in partner selection and predicting relationship satisfaction, previous research was limited to couples in well-established relationships. The current study examined couple similarity in a sample of 117 couples who recently started dating (dating length⩽six months). The early dating couples showed strong to moderate similarity on demographics (age and ethnicity), personal interests, values, and political attitudes but weaker similarity on a range of personality domains. With regard to satisfaction prediction, the absolute difference tended to be a better predictor than the profile similarity. However, couple similarity overall was not a strong predictor.
Previous research has shown that the personalities of both partners are associated with the qualities of their romantic relationship. This study extends this literature by examining whether or not reports of negative relationship interactions mediate the effects of personality traits on judgments of relationship satisfaction and quality. Participants were 337 couples from the Family Transitions Project who completed a comprehensive personality questionnaire and several scales measuring relationship behaviors and satisfaction. Negative Emotionality and Communal Positive Emotionality were related to both self- and partner reports of relationship satisfaction. These associations were substantially mediated by negative relationship interactions. Discussion furthers the ongoing rapprochement between intrapersonal and interpersonal approaches to the study of romantic relationships.
This research investigates the extent to which a quality that initially attracts one person to another in a romantic relationship is a positive dimension of the same overall characteristic that leads to subsequent disaffection - i.e. a `fatal attraction'. Three hundred and one college women and men were asked to think of the most recent romantic relationship they had that ended, and to list qualities that first attracted them to that partner and characteristics they later `least liked' about that partner. Results indicate that there were approximately 88 instances (in 29.2% of the breakups) of what appeared to be `fatal attractions'. Certain types of characteristics, such as exciting and different, were also more likely to be `fatal' than others. Additional findings point to sex differences in attracting qualities, with, for example, males reporting significantly more qualities than females in the Physical category. Implications of the results for dialectical relationship theories are discussed.
This research applied three different models of complemen- tarity to romantic ideals, romantic obtainment, and the quality of romantic relationships: (i) Carson's (1969) model of inter- personal complementarity (i.e., individuals similar to each other on warmth, but opposite on dominance, are most compatible); (ii) Wiggins's (1979) model of complementarity (i.e., individuals whose personalities occur in a manner predicted by social exchange theory are most compatible); and (iii) the model of similarity (i.e., individuals with similar personalities are most compatible). Study 1 examined the personality traits of 169 single male and female participants and the personality traits they found most desirable in romantic partners. Using randomization tests of hypothesized order relations and Pearson correlations, results suggested
Individuals' selves are malleable in romantic relationships. Specifically, individuals integrate characteristics of partners into their self-concepts to further closeness/intimacy goals (Aron, 2003). Unfortunately, this malleability during relationships predicts self-concept change/ confusion if a relationship ends (Slotter, Gardner, & Finkel, 2010). The current research investigated one potential moderator of these effects: attachment anxiety. Individuals who experience elevated attachment anxiety desire greater closeness/intimacy in their relationships than their less anxious counterparts. Thus, their self-concepts may be especially malleable in romantic relationships. Testing these hypotheses, three studies using undergraduate samples demonstrated that elevated attachment anxiety predicted individuals' selves being more malleable during romantic relationships (Studies 1 & 2) and being more susceptible to change/ confusion should the relationship end (Studies 3A & 3B).
Two experiments examined whether interpersonal complementarity or similarity influences people's satisfaction with dyadic interactions. Participants in complementary partnerships (submissive people with dominant partners, dominant people with submissive partners) reported more satisfaction than did those with similar partners. In Study 1
complementarity referred to the match between the participants' self-reported interpersonal style (dominant or submissive) and the role enacted by a confederate (dominant or submissive). In Study 2 participants interacted in pairs, and
complementarity referred to the match between one participant's interpersonal goals and the other's overt behavior. Participants whose goals were complemented by their partners' behavior were more satisfied with the interaction than those whose goals were not. In both studies satisfied participants perceived their partners as similar to themselves. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Three studies were conducted to examine the correlates of adult attachment. In Study 1, an 18-item scale to measure adult attachment style dimensions was developed based on Hazan and Shaver's (1987) categorical measure. Factor analyses revealed three dimensions underlying this measure: the extent to which an individual is comfortable with closeness, feels he or she can depend on others, and is anxious or fearful about such things as being abandoned or unloved. Study 2 explored the relation between these attachment dimensions and working models of self and others. Attachment dimensions were found to be related to self-esteem, expressiveness, instrumentality, trust in others, beliefs about human nature, and styles of loving. Study 3 explored the role of attachment style dimensions in three aspects of ongoing dating relationships: partner matching on attachment dimensions; similarity between the attachment of one's partner and caregiving style of one's parents; and relationship quality, including communication, trust, and satisfaction. Evidence was obtained for partner matching and for similarity between one's partner and one's parents, particularly for one's opposite-sex parent. Dimensions of attachment style were strongly related to how each partner perceived the relationship, although the dimension of attachment that best predicted quality differed for men and women. For women, the extent to which their partner was comfortable with closeness was the best predictor of relationship quality, whereas the best predictor for men was the extent to which their partner was anxious about being abandoned or unloved.
According to the attraction–similarity model, relationship quality leads to perceptions of partner–self similarity. Relationship quality and perceived similarity then provide psychological benefits for the perceiver. Across 3 studies, relationship quality positively predicted perceptions of similarity. Study 1 indicated that for moderate, but not low, relationship-relevant traits, individuals projected the self onto the dating partner as a way of perceiving similarities. In Study 2, priming high, as opposed to low, relationship quality led to greater perceived similarity on the moderately relevant traits. Study 3 indicated greater perceived similarity between self and dating partner than between self and average same-gender student on the moderately relevant traits. Relationship quality and perceived similarity with the dating partner on the moderately relevant traits also predicted psychological benefits.
Two studies of romantic couples examined the circumstances under which complementary goal-pursuit strategies (specifically, the pairing of a relationship partner who prefers to pursue goals eagerly with a relationship partner who prefers to pursue goals vigilantly) lead to positive relationship outcomes. As hypothesized, couples who reported higher levels of goal congruence (Study 1) or greater self-other overlap (Study 2) benefited from complementary regulatory focus orientations. We suggest that such benefits stem from the advantages provided by the availability of both eager and vigilant strategic preferences, which allow complementary couples to “divide and conquer” goal pursuits as a unit so that both relationship partners can take on their preferred eager or vigilant strategic role. We further suggest that goal congruence is necessary to capitalize on these proposed advantages of complementary eager or vigilant goal-pursuit strategies.
Two studies demonstrated that global and relationship-specific models of self and other are correlated but not redundant constructs. Relationship-specific models were operationalized in terms of significant role relationships (Study 1) and salient relationships (i.e., frequent interactions; Study 2). Longitudinal analyses (Study 1) suggested that specific models generalized to global ones over time and that global models had a small but significant effect in shaping specific models over time. Through an event-sampling method, Study 2 assessed the quality and intimacy of daily interactions over a 7-day period. In hierarchical linear modeling analyses, both global and specific relational models explained the experience of daily inter-actions within relationships. This research highlighted that relational or attachment models can be considered global and specific representational structures, reflecting relational and individual differences. How do people organize their thoughts about their various close relationships and use them to make sense of their daily social experience? To what extent do beliefs and expectations for one relationship generalize to others? How do people's beliefs and expectations about relationships in general guide their experience of social interactions relative to their more relationship-specific beliefs and expectations? Attachment theory, first proposed by Bowlby (1969, 1973, 1980) to explain the parent-child bond in infancy, is a broad-based theory that suggests that over repeated interactions with a close in the development and execution of these studies. We also thank the following research assistants who worked on these projects: for their helpful com-ments on these studies and drafts of this article.
This article compiles results from a century of social psychological research, more than 25,000 studies of 8 million people. A large number of social psychological conclusions are listed alongside meta-analytic information about the magnitude and variability of the corresponding effects. References to 322 meta-analyses of social psychological phenomena are presented, as well as statistical effect-size summaries. Analyses reveal that social psychological effects typically yield a value of r equal to .21 and that, in the typical research literature, effects vary from study to study in ways that produce a standard deviation in r of .15. Uses, limitations, and implications of this large-scale compilation are noted. In 1898 Norman Triplett published an early experiment in social psychology, about an ef-fect of the presence of others on task perfor-mance. In the 100 years since Triplett's inves-tigation, many social psychological effects have been documented. The current article summa-rizes the best established of these findings, with data from more than 25,000 research studies and 8 million people. Our goal is to quantify the magnitude and variability of social psychologi-cal effects. We begin by considering previous summaries of social psychology, note some un-resolved issues, and review developments that permit a century of scholarly work to be quan-titatively described. For present purposes, we follow Manstead and Hewstone (1995) in re-garding social psychology as the study of "the reciprocal influence of the individual and his or her social context" (p. 588).
ABSTRACT Although personality characteristics figure prominently in what people want in a mate, little is known about precisely which personality characteristics are most important, whether men and women differ in their personality preferences, whether individual women or men differ in what they want, and whether individuals actually get what they want. To explore these issues, two parallel studies were conducted, one using a sample of dating couples (N= 118) and one using a sample of married couples (N= 216). The five-factor model, operationalized in adjectival form, was used to assess personality characteristics via three data sources—self-report, partner report, and independent interviewer reports. Participants evaluated on a parallel 40-item instrument their preferences for the ideal personality characteristics of their mates. Results were consistent across both studies. Women expressed a greater preference than men for a wide array of socially desirable personality traits. Individuals differed in which characteristics they desired, preferring mates who were similar to themselves and actually obtaining mates who embodied what they desired. Finally, the personality characteristics of one's partner significantly predicted marital and sexual dissatisfaction, most notably when the partner was lower on Agreeableness, Emotional Stability, and Intellect-Openness than desired.
Three studies evaluated the reliability and validity of the Investment Model Scale, an instrument designed to measure four constructs, including commitment level and three bases of dependence–satisfaction level, quality of alternatives, and investment size. In all three studies, reliability analyses revealed good internal consistency among items designed to measure each construct. Also, principal components analyses performed on scale items revealed evidence of four factors, with items designed to measure each construct loading on independent factors. Studies 2 and 3 examined associations of model variables with instruments measuring diverse qualities of relationships and assorted personal dispositions. As anticipated, Investment Model variables were moderately associated with other measures reflecting superior couple functioning (e.g., dyadic adjustment, trust level, inclusion of other in the self), and were essentially unrelated to measures assessing personal dispositions (e.g., need for cognition, self-esteem). In addition, Study 3 demonstrated that earlier measures of Investment Model variables predicted later levels of dyadic adjustment and later relationship status (persisted vs. ended). It is hoped that the existence of a reliable and valid Investment Model Scale will promote further research regarding commitment and interdependence in ongoing close relationships.
The five-factor model has recently received wide attention as a comprehensive model of personality traits. The claim that these five factors represent basic dimensions of personality is based on four lines of reasoning and evidence: (a) longitudinal and cross-observer studies demonstrate that all five factors are enduring dispositions that are manifest in patterns of behavior; (b) traits related to each of the factors are found in a variety of personality systems and in the natural language of trait description; (c) the factors are found in different age, sex, race, and language groups, although they may be somewhat differently expressed in different cultures; and (d) evidence of heritability suggests that all have some biological basis. To clarify some remaining confusions about the five-factor model, the relation between Openness and psychometric intelligence is described, and problems in factor rotation are discussed.
Most research on adult attachment is based on the assumption that working models are relatively general and trait-like. Recent research, however, suggests that people develop attachment representations that are relationship-specific, leading people to hold distinct working models in different relationships. The authors report a measure, the Relationship Structures questionnaire of the Experiences in Close Relationships-Revised (ECR-RS; R. C. Fraley, N. G. Waller, & K. A. Brennan, 2000), that is designed to assess attachment dimensions in multiple contexts. Based on a sample of over 21,000 individuals studied online, it is shown that ECR-RS scores are reliable and have a structure similar to those produced by other measures. In Study 2 (N = 388), it is shown that relationship-specific measures of attachment generally predict intra- and interpersonal outcomes better than broader attachment measures but that broader measures predict personality traits better than relationship-specific measures. Moreover, it is demonstrated that differentiation in working models is not related to psychological outcomes independently of mean levels of security.
The authors examined the effects of social hindrance and support on negative and positive relationship-specific feelings in three daily diary studies. Study 1 showed that hindrance and support independently predicted positive relationship feelings, but only hindrance predicted negative feelings. Study 2 used new measures of hindrance and support and showed that hindrance and support independently predicted same-day relationship feelings but that the effects of hindrance were stronger in magnitude. Study 3 yielded similar findings using the new measures of hindrance and support and controlling for morning feeling. These asymmetrical crossover effects suggest that bad is only stronger than good when it comes to bad outcomes; they also support the distinction between aversive and appetitive relational processes.
Past research on the link between personal characteristics and marital satisfaction has taken either an individual or a dyadic approach. The individual approach examines how self and/or partner characteristics are associated with satisfaction, whereas the dyadic approach focuses on couple characteristics such as couple similarity. The current research was designed to integrate both approaches. A modified Actor-Partner Interdependence Model (Kashy & Kenny, 2000) was proposed to test simultaneously the contributions of self characteristics, partner characteristics, and two types of couple similarity (level similarity measured by the absolute difference score and shape similarity measured by the profile correlation) in predicting husbands' and wives' marital satisfaction. This model was tested by structural equation modeling in two large, nationally representative, urban samples (N=536 and 537 couples) from China. The results were largely replicated across four personality domains and two value domains, suggesting that all predictors tended to make independent contributions to satisfaction except the absolute difference score.
How is personality stability possible amid the myriad of social changes and transformations that characterize a human life? We argue that by choosing situations that are compatible with their dispositions and by affiliating with similar others, individuals may set in motion processes of social interchange that sustain their dispositions across time and circumstance. To test this proposition we examined mate selection, using data on married couples from two ongoing longitudinal studies at the Institute of Human Development, University of California, Berkeley. Consistent with other research, the results point to homogamy as a basic norm in marriage. More important, the results show that marriage to a similar other promotes consistency in the intraindividual organization of personality attributes across middle adulthood. We offer some speculations for a more relational approach to the problem of individual continuity and change.
This article explores the possibility that romantic love is an attachment process--a biosocial process by which affectional bonds are formed between adult lovers, just as affectional bonds are formed earlier in life between human infants and their parents. Key components of attachment theory, developed by Bowlby, Ainsworth, and others to explain the development of affectional bonds in infancy, were translated into terms appropriate to adult romantic love. The translation centered on the three major styles of attachment in infancy--secure, avoidant, and anxious/ambivalent--and on the notion that continuity of relationship style is due in part to mental models (Bowlby's "inner working models") of self and social life. These models, and hence a person's attachment style, are seen as determined in part by childhood relationships with parents. Two questionnaire studies indicated that relative prevalence of the three attachment styles is roughly the same in adulthood as in infancy, the three kinds of adults differ predictably in the way they experience romantic love, and attachment style is related in theoretically meaningful ways to mental models of self and social relationships and to relationship experiences with parents. Implications for theories of romantic love are discussed, as are measurement problems and other issues related to future tests of the attachment perspective.
Although much has been learned from cross-sectional research on marriage, an understanding of how marriages develop, succeed, and fail is best achieved with longitudinal data. In view of growing interest in longitudinal research on marriage, the authors reviewed and evaluated the literature on how the quality and stability of marriages change over time. First, prevailing theoretical perspectives are examined for their ability to explain change in marital quality and stability. Second, the methods and findings of 115 longitudinal studies--representing over 45,000 marriages--are summarized and evaluated, yielding specific suggestions for improving this research, Finally, a model is outlined that integrates the strengths of previous theories of marriage, accounts for established findings, and indicates new directions for research on how marriages change.
Although personality characteristics figure prominently in what people want in a mate, little is known about precisely which personality characteristics are most important, whether men and women differ in their personality preferences, whether individual women or men differ in what they want, and whether individuals actually get what they want. To explore these issues, two parallel studies were conducted, one using a sample of dating couples (N = 118) and one using a sample of married couples (N = 216). The five-factor model, operationalized in adjectival form, was used to assess personality characteristics via three data sources-self--report, partner report, and independent interviewer reports. Participants evaluated on a parallel 40-item instrument their preferences for the ideal personality characteristics of their mates. Results were consistent across both studies. Women expressed a greater preference than men for a wide array of socially desirable personality traits. Individuals differed in which characteristics they desired, preferring mates who were similar to themselves and actually obtaining mates who embodied what they desired. Finally, the personality characteristics of one's partner significantly predicted marital and sexual dissatisfaction, most notably when the partner was lower on Agreeableness, Emotional Stability, and Intellect-Openness than desired.
General methodological difficulties are discussed, particularly; the need to discuss similarity only with respect to specified dimensions, loss of information involved when configurations are reduced to indices, the need to interpret a similarity index as a relative rather than as an absolute measure, and the general non-comparability of scale units involved in profiles. The measure D is presented. This is, for two profiles, the sum of the squared deviations of corresponding scores, and is a general expression for dissimilarity (distance in the hyperspace of k variates). 27 references.
The authors review the theory of romantic, or pair-bond, attachment as it was originally formulated by C. Hazan and P. R. Shaver in 1987 and describe how it has evolved over more than a decade. In addition, they discuss 5 issues related to the theory that need further clarification: (a) the nature of attachment relationships, (b) the evolution and function of attachment in adulthood, (c) models of individual differences in attachment, (d) continuity and change in attachment security, and (e) the integration of attachment, sex, and caregiving. In discussing these issues, they provide leads for future research and outline a more complete theory of romantic attachment.
This study contributes to the literature on compatibility in courtship by seeking to identify empirical links between social homogamy, similarity in leisure interests and role performance preferences, and the dynamics of premarital relationships. Data were collected from 168 working-class and middle-class couples married for the first time in central Pennsylvania during the early 1980s. The more similar individuals' role performance preferences and leisure interests were to those of the other sex in the sample, the more compatible they were with the person they married. Nonetheless, even after controlling for how likely individuals were to find a compatible mate in the population of other-sex persons, people tended to be better matched than they would have been had they been randomly paired (i.e., assortative mating appears to be taking place on the basis of leisure interests and role performance preferences). Assortative mating also was found with regard to social characteristics (age, education, religion), but such social similarity was related neither to similarity in couples' leisure interests nor to their role preferences, and, with one exception, social similarity was not significantly related to their courtship experiences and evaluations. Similarity in leisure interests and compatible role preferences, however, were related both to partners' subjective evaluations of their courtships (i.e., love, ambivalence) and to how they reportedly interacted with each other (i.e., conflict, efforts to enhance the quality of the relationship). In the conclusion, we place our findings within the context of previous writings on compatibility and mate selection and argue for the importance of establishing empirical linkages between various combinations of the partners' social and psychological attributes and their courtship experiences.
The “similarity-attraction” effect stands as one of the most well-known findings in social psychology. However, some research contends that perceived but not actual similarity influences attraction. The current study is the first to examine the effects of actual and perceived similarity simultaneously during a face-to-face initial romantic encounter. Participants attending a speed-dating event interacted with ∼12 members of the opposite sex for 4 min each. Actual and perceived similarity for each pair were calculated from questionnaire responses assessed before the event and after each date. Data revealed that perceived, but not actual, similarity significantly predicted romantic liking in this speed-dating context. Furthermore, perceived similarity was a far weaker predictor of attraction when assessed using specific traits rather than generally.
This study utilized an idiographic approach to investigate the relation between similarity on valued characteristics and relationship success. College students (N = 247) rated their current romantic partner on perceived similarity in personality, attitudes, interests, and religious affiliation; the importance of similarity in these dimensions; and relationship satisfaction. Relationship status was assessed 6 weeks later. Results revealed significant similarity by importance interactions for religion and interests in predicting satisfaction. Participants with high perceived similarity in religion or interests reported greater satisfaction than did their low similarity counterparts, but only to the extent that they rated this type of similarity as being important to them. Similar results were found for attitudes in predicting Time 2 outcomes.
Both personality similarity and complementarity have been hypothesized to underlie mate selection. However, neither hypothesis has received strong and consistent empirical support. This study examined personality matching in couples by taking within-couple similarity as the basic unit of analysis. On the assumptions that individuals seek in another what they value in themselves but that they cannot always get what they want, it was hypothesized (a) that the similarity of partners' self-descriptions is positively related to self-liking, (b) that there is assortative mating for self-liking, (c) that there is significant similarity between subjects' ideal self-descriptions and their perceptions of their partners, and (d) that participants bias their perceptions of their partners in the direction of their ideal self-conceptions. The authors examined and found support for the four hypotheses by analyzing California Q-set ratings provided by both partners of couples, who described themselves, their ideal selves and their partners.
The authors review the theory of romantic, or pair-bond, attachment as it was originally formulated by C. Hazan and P. R. Shaver in 1987 and describe how it has evolved over more than a decade. In addition, they discuss 5 issues related to the theory that need further clarification: (a) the nature of attachment relationships, (b) the evolution and function of attachment in adulthood, (c) models of individual differences in attachment, (d) continuity and change in attachment security, and (e) the integration of attachment, sex, and caregiving. In discussing these issues, they provide leads for future research and outline a more complete theory of romantic attachment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
[provide an] analysis of working models with regard to adult attachment / [consider] the structure and content of these models, including how they may differ for adults with different attachment styles / use [developmental literature] as a point of departure for suggesting how models of self and others are likely to be characterized in adulthood / consider how these models function and the processes through which they shape cognitive, emotional, and behavioral response patterns / incorporate attachment theory with a broader literature in cognitive social psychology on the role of mental representations in social functioning / [consider] the processes through which working models are likely to undergo adaptation and change (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The quality of romantic relationships and their associations with both partners' personality traits and social networks were studied in 100 younger couples. The similarity of partners was modest with respect to personality traits, and moderate to large with respect to the perceived quality of the partner relationship and their social networks. While similarity in personality was unrelated to relationship quality, dyadic analyses showed that one's perceived quality of relationship was better predicted by one's own personality (i.e. actor effects) than by the personality of one's partner (i.e. partner effects). Moreover, relationship quality could to some extent be predicted by the quality of the social network once the personality traits of each partner were controlled. Results are discussed from a transactional view of personality and relationships. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
We examined the stability of ratings on the Hazan and Shaver (1987) single-item attachment style scale in a number of data sets, gathered by us and other researchers. Approximately 30% of subjects overall changed their attachment style classifications over a relatively short time span (ranging from 1 week to several months). The highest rate of instability was observed in subjects who classified themselves as anxious-ambivalent–the majority of whom changed their ratings from one time to the next. Given these findings, we explore the methodological and conceptual implications of instability in attachment style ratings. With regard to the former, we question the current practice of selecting subjects for participation in research based on responses to the attachment style questionnaire administered on a different occasion. Our findings suggest that a substantial proportion would change their style rating in the interim. In terms of conceptualization, we examine a number of different explanations for the observed instability and propose that it may reflect variability in the underlying construct, rather than a lack of continuity in style or unreliability of measurement. From this perspective, an individual's response to an attachment style questionnaire reflects the relational schema that is activated at that moment, rather than an enduring general disposition or trait. Stability in ratings is therefore neither assumed nor expected.
The association between actual and perceptual personality similarity and perceptual accuracy on relationship satisfaction is examined in 191 couples. Self- and partner ratings of personality were assessed using the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (P. T. Costa & R. R. McCrae, 1992) and relationship satisfaction using the Relationship Assessment Scale (S. S. Hendrick, A. Dicke, & C. Hendrick, 1998). Actual and perceptual similarity and perceptual accuracy were quantified using the index of profile agreement (R. R. McCrae, 1993) and L. J. Cronbach and G. C. Gleser's (1953) D-indices. These indices showed large variability in personality profiles within couples and considerable perceptual accuracy between raters. Actual similarity was positively associated with female relationship satisfaction, controlling for personality traits of both partners. Moreover, partial support was obtained for the positive associations between perceptual similarity and accuracy and relationship satisfaction.
Numerous studies proved that people tend to select partners that are similar to them with regard to many social and psychological variables. Even though this effect was also found for personality, results are inconsistent and reveal convergence coefficients ranging from negative over zero- to positive correlations. The present study thus aims to investigate personality congruence between spouses and to examine (a) which dimensions show a high degree of congruence and which do not and (b) in how far this congruence is moderated by the marriage duration. Analyses were based on 6,909 couples who are representative for the German adult population. Results reveal that among the Big Five dimensions, there are strong differences in spouses’ congruences. While for Extraversion and Emotional Stability, congruence is close to zero, correlations averaging at .30 are found for Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Openness. The spouses’ congruences in these three dimensions also increase over marriage duration from a mean of r = .22 to r = .40.
This research examined the hierarchical structure of attachment representations by directly measuring both global attachment orientations within distinct relationship domains (romantic, familial, and friendship), and attachment within a comprehensive range of specific relationships within each of these domains (e.g., current romantic partner, mother, best friend). In two independent samples, Hierarchical Linear Modeling analyses demonstrated that domain-specific representations were strongly associated with attachment ratings of specific relationships within that same domain (domain-relationship congruent associations) but were not (in general) associated with ratings of relationship-specific attachment in other domains (domain-relationship incongruent associations). These results provide evidence for the domain differentiation of multiple attachment representations – a defining feature of a hierarchically organized attachment representational network. Directions for future research integrating representations of attachment-related domains with the higher-order personality-esque component of the attachment representational hierarchy are briefly discussed.
Compassion and pride serve contrasting social functions: Compassion motivates care-taking behavior, whereas pride enables the signaling and negotiation of rank within social hierarchies. Across 3 studies, compassion was associated with increased perceived self-other similarity, particularly to weak or vulnerable others. In contrast, pride was associated with an enhanced sense of similarity to strong others, and a decreased sense of similarity to weak others. These findings were obtained using trait measures (Study 1) and experimental inductions (Studies 2 and 3) of compassion and pride, examining the sense of similarity to strong or weak groups (Studies 1 and 2) and unfamiliar individuals (Study 3). The influences of compassion and pride on perceived self-other similarity could not be accounted for by positive mood, nor was this effect constrained by the ingroup status of the target group or individual. Discussion focuses on the contributions these findings make to an understanding of compassion and pride.
A new 4-group model of attachment styles in adulthood is proposed. Four prototypic attachment patterns are defined using combinations of a person's self-image (positive or negative) and image of others (positive or negative). In Study 1, an interview was developed to yield continuous and categorical ratings of the 4 attachment styles. Intercorrelations of the attachment ratings were consistent with the proposed model. Attachment ratings were validated by self-report measures of self-concept and interpersonal functioning. Each style was associated with a distinct profile of interpersonal problems, according to both self- and friend-reports. In Study 2, attachment styles within the family of origin and with peers were assessed independently. Results of Study 1 were replicated. The proposed model was shown to be applicable to representations of family relations; Ss' attachment styles with peers were correlated with family attachment ratings.