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PARTS AND WHOLES: PLACES OF DESIGN THINKING IN ORGANIZATIONAL LIFE

Authors:
Sabine Junginger at Northumbria University
Sabine Junginger
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Abstract

In this paper, I present a visual model I developed to assess, describe, analyze and plan the roles design can assume within organizations. I briefly depict the four archetypical "places" of design thinking in any kind of organization that represent four distinct relationships. I then describe how one might use these places for inquiry and analysis in design research, design theory and in design education.
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Published by the Design Research Journal (2/09) the Swedish Design Council (SVID):
23-29.
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1 Invite, Engage, Enable: How to Create Sustainable Organizations was the title of a
Professional Development Workshop at the 2009 Academy of Management Conference in
Chicago hosted by Georges Romme from the Eindhoven University of Technology and myself.
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Supplementary resource (1)

Design as Innovation Facilitator
Data
December 2016
Sabine Junginger
... Thirdly, a developed relationship between design and an entrepreneurial organization was not included in studies on entrepreneurial design management. There was an outline of this kind of relationship in previous studies of design management, such as Bubble Tool (Junginger 2009). In it, four types of relationships were illustrated ranging from an external design team to the core of an organization. ...
... Multiple relationships between design function and an organization were reported in previous studies of design management. A representative one is the Bubble Tool (Junginger 2009). It illustrated four types of relationships, including 1) design as external resources, 2) design as part of the organization, 3) design at the core of the organization, to 4) design integral to all aspects of the organization. ...
... Barriers at a project level refer to short-term collaboration between a tech start-up and an external design team, a relationship of design function for an organisation. Barriers at an organizational level imply the possibility of integrating design function into a tech start-up, a relationship of design function in an organization (Junginger 2009). By comparing the three reported barriers at a project level and five explored barriers at an organisational level, four main barriers are identified. ...
Barriers to Bringing Design Function into Technology Start-ups: A Survey on the Incubation Programme of Hong Kong Science Park Barriers to Bringing Design Function into Technology Start-ups: A Survey on the Incubation Programme of Hong Kong Science Park
Article
  • Aug 2021
University. Her research areas are design-driven entrepreneurship, design management capability and design policy. The intersection between design and entrepreneurship is an emerging research field. Design is stated as an approach, process or method for entrepreneurship. This overlaps with the concept of design management, especially the entrepreneurial mode of design management. However, we argue that the way of bringing design function into a tech start-up organization was ignored. As a new venture, there is a process of introducing and applying the design function. This implies a changed relationship between design function and the tech start-ups, which are in different stages of design management maturity. To fill this gap, an online survey of 123 tech start-ups in Hong Kong Science Park was conducted. Three main findings are obtained: 1) heterogeneous design demands according to the design management maturity; 2) a process-based view of bringing design function into tech start-ups; 3) four main barriers to bringing design function.
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... However, it is recognised that many companies have a slow uptake of DT in practice (Gruber et al., 2015;Kolko, 2015;Liedtka, 2015), concluding that there are several adoption barriers organisations need to address (Engberts & Borgman, 2018). In fact, this adoption frequently is associated with limited incorporation of Design Thinking into the business (Junginger, 2009). According to Wrigley et al. (2020), design intervention typically occurs inside an organisation through forms that have flat engagements and a short-term impact. ...
... Leadership is a second significant macro-barrier discussed for adopting Design Thinking (Beckman & Barry, 2007;Carlgren et al., 2014;Dunne, 2018a;Dunne, 2018b;Junginger, 2009;Kimbell, 2011). ...
Boosting Design Thinking adoption in organisations through a game‐based toolkit: A gamified approach in building facilitators to overcome Design Thinking adoption barriers
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2024
Design Thinking is increasingly used within organisations to achieve innovative results that give companies a competitive advantage. However, this is not an easily achievable result: companies face multiple obstacles that slow adoption and often force companies not to pursue adoption. The scientific community has not identified clear contributions that can help overcome the barriers discussed in the literature for years, giving the possibility to companies to boost Design Thinking adoption. By studying 10 private organisations that have adopted Design Thinking effectively, overcoming the main adoption obstacles, this study tries to identify which facilitators can be adopted to enable an effective adoption. This puts companies in a position to benefit from Design Thinking and achieve innovative performance. In any case, these represent complex notions to be even understood. As an additional result, the study recognises how game‐based formats enhance and facilitate the adoption mentioned above of Design Thinking within private organisations. The literature has already identified that game‐based formats facilitate the understanding and digestion of new concepts and procedures. This study expands the range of applications of gamified approaches in unconventional contexts and scope, verifying the benefits also in relation to Design Thinking. A new game‐based format has been designed for this research, which was also tested. The study demonstrates how the integration in the organisational culture of approaches such as Design Thinking through a gamified format represents one of the critical ways companies can embrace to face the internal tension of transformation, speeding up the adoption process to give companies the possibility to adopt innovation processes faster.
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... For instance, the 'public sector design ladder' of the Design Council (2013) depicts the evolution of design in public organizations, ranging from one-off projects, through design as a widely adopted organizational capability and onto design for policy matters. Junginger (2009) has identified four degrees of integration: design as an external resource; design as part of some organizational function, such as marketing; design at the core of the organization; and design thinking and methods being integrated into all aspects of the organization as a means to inquire about the future and to develop integrated solutions. ...
... In foresight and strategy, design is used to generate more interactive strategy work, to concretize the future opportunities and to clarify the messages for communication purposes (cf. Dunne and Martin 2006;Junginger 2009;Rantisi and Leslie 2006). In Helsinki, design has been seen to fit this work as it is in the nature of strategy work to seek new perspectives and new tools (cf. ...
Design types in diversified city administration: The case City of Helsinki
Article
  • Mar 2023
Design is increasingly used to develop public services, and considerations have arisen regarding how to gain best value from it. Design ladders and design maturity models are commonly also referenced in the public sector, but we argue that their adequate use must rest on an informed view of the diversity of design activities in public-sector organizations. The world’s major cities are large and highly diversified organizations. Our inductive case study of one of them, the city of Helsinki, reveals 23 design activities, distinct in terms of the process, outcomes or agency that design has. These activities can be grouped into six different clusters. These lay the ground for each other and support the cultural transformation of the organization into being a more citizen-centric organization. At the same time, they also create a design management challenge and confusion over what ‘design’ is and what it can do.
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... This is often seen in start-ups. of where and how they were using Design Thinking at any given time. Creative projects are scattered and isolated rather than joined up, and lack a shared goal or vision (Junginger, 2009 benefited from Design Thinking in this regard were in-house innovation departments, labs, hubs or incubators, cross-disciplinary research programs, and internal consulting services. ...
... Junginger, S. (2009). Design in the Organization:Parts and Wholes. ...
Design Thinking: a Global Study on Implementation Practices in Organizations - Past - Present - Future
Book
Full-text available
  • Mar 2022
These days design thinking is no longer a “new approach”. Among practitioners, as well as academics, interest in the topic has gathered pace over the last two decades. However, opinions are divided over the longevity of the phenomenon: whether design thinking is merely “old wine in new bottles,” a passing trend, or still evolving as it is being spread to an increasing number of organizations and industries. Despite its growing relevance and the diffusion of design thinking, knowledge on the actual status quo in organizations remains scarce. With a new study, the research team of Prof. Uebernickel and Stefanie Gerken investigates temporal developments and changes in design thinking practices in organizations over the past six years comparing the results of the 2015 “Parts without a whole” study with current practices and future developments. Companies of all sizes and from different parts of the world participated in the survey. The findings from qualitative interviews with experts, i.e., people who have years of knowledge with design thinking, were cross-checked with the results from an exploratory analysis of the survey data. This analysis uncovers significant variances and similarities in how design thinking is interpreted and applied in businesses.
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... Companies are afraid to leave routine processes that bring constant benefits to move on to something they do not know what kind of impact it will have. In addition, another big barrier discussed for adopting Design Thinking is leadership (Carlgren et al. 2014;Dunne, 2018a;Dunne, 2018b;Beckman & Barry, 2007;Kimbell, 2011;Junginger, 2009). Managers are often unfamiliar with the method, which is why they do not see the benefits it can bring. ...
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... Additionally, we suggested combining the identification of the Design Thinking application stage with an assessment of the localization of Design Thinking practices within the firm. For this part, we adapted Junginger's model (Junginger, 2009) including peripheral, somewhere, central, and everywhere as potential localizations of Design Thinking in organizations. Table 3 gives an overview of how we conceptualized the diffusion of Design Thinking integration in organizations. ...
Design Thinking for Digital Transformation: Reconciling Theory and Practice
Chapter
  • Sep 2022
While scholars have made valuable steps towards claiming legitimacy for deploying Design Thinking in organizations, the underlying practices, effects, and links between Design Thinking and Digital Transformation still seem an underexplored area. This conceptual study aims to shed light on how Design Thinking can contribute to an organization’s Digital Transformation by linking explicit Design Thinking elements to dimensions of Digital Transformation and investigating the role Dynamic Capabilities might play within this effect nexus. In particular, this study proposes three modes of design-enabled Digital Transformation and integrates theoretical with practical perspectives in a conceptual framework. The holistic nature of the framework, including the variety of possible combinations, permits a nuanced investigation of specific, context-dependent cause–effect relationships. This can be used by researchers as a foundation for deriving and testing hypotheses on specific contributions Design Thinking can make to Digital Transformation and by practitioners to analyze, communicate, and manage how they utilize Design Thinking for Digital Transformation.KeywordsDesign thinkingDigital transformationDynamic capabilitiesContinuous changeHolisticIntegrative framework
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... For instance, the "public sector design ladder" of the Design Council (2013) depicts the evolution of design in public organizations, ranging from one-off projects to design as a widely adopted organizational capability, and further, onto design for policy matters. Junginger (2009) has identified four degrees of integration: design as an external resource; design as part of some organizational function, such as marketing; design at the core of the organization; and design thinking and methods being integrated into all aspects of the organization as a means to inquire about the future and to develop integrated solutions. ...
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DARN, Part 1: What is Strategic Design? Social Theory and Intangible Design in Perspective
Article
  • Nov 2023
This article presents the first part of a study that aims at proposing an evidence-based research and prototyping methodology for strategic design. Analyzing the emergence of Strategic Design, we argue that a historically unprecedented rapprochement between intangible design and social research opens a spectrum of possibility for conducting design and science in a new way. First, we examine the emergence of strategic design and discuss its institutionalization in academic and professional contexts. Second, we summarize the three ways of approaching Strategic Design as (1) Discipline, (2) Practice and (3) Attitude. Third, drawing on the social sciences as inspired by Actor-Network Theory (ANT), we define Strategic Design as an evidence-based and social scientifically informed creative practice that aims at proposing a new way to arrange or remake the interaction between devices (D), actors (A), representations (R), and networks (N) in any given organization or problem universe. Preparing a groundwork to develop a research and prototyping methodology for strategic design, the paper ends with a methodological discussion as a segue to Part 2 (available in this issue of She-Ji) that presents DARN as a theoretical toolkit for strategic designers.
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DARN (Part 2): An Evidence-Based Research and Prototyping Method for Strategic Design
Article
  • Nov 2023
Published in two parts, this article presents an evidence-based research and prototyping method for strategic design. In Part 1, we introduce the concept of DARN as an updated version of Actor-Network Theory (ANT). DARN is a theoretical framework used to study, rearrange, or remake the constituents of an organization or problem universe. In Part 2, we propose that DARN can be used to for several purposes. (1) It can help organizations reach their stated objectives. (2) It can define, darn, or solve organizational problems with evidence-based and collaborative design interventions. (3) It allows us to imagine new organizational models with complex and distributed agency considerations. (4) It can improve and measure the impact of design interventions within organizational strategy. The DARN approach is critical of social engineering and design solutionism. This approach proposes using collaborative strategic design in sector-agnostic organizational contexts to support designers in problematization, research, conceptualization, prototyping, testing, and impact measurement. Further, DARN presents a single frame that designers and scientists can use simultaneously without imposing an a priori language on each other. It can also serve other actors with whom they work and study. The article concludes with a practical discussion of how to apply DARN on the ground while considering its limits.
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The Hidden Values Related to The Variety of Design Thinking Models
Conference Paper
Full-text available
  • Jan 2019
Design Thinking (DT) is spreading in business community as a relevant innovation practice to change product and services. The term is more and more used and discussed, so this article-leveraging a literature review of 15 years-aims to find and to show the explicit value generated by the different DT patterns as recognized by literature and-going through a more deepening and complementary literature analysis-it expresses some hidden values associated to the four main patterns of DT. A growing stream of literature in last years-on one hand-deepened the underpinning constructs and the founding principles of DT intended in a first frame as a "Creative Problem Solving" approach-on the other hand-it stretched the application of DT to novel scopes and fields embracing novel principles and practices. Creative problem solving-for instance-is mostly recognized for the value of "ideating", recognizing the variety and the number of different ideas to solve a user problem. On the other hand, the principles embedded in it-as abductive reasoning, "reframing", quick prototyping-seem to recall the same principles of "lean entrepreneurship". Moreover, the emerging need related to digital environments to quickly test and grasping feedbacks from the user induced a new way to apply DT mostly pushing on the execution phase. "Sprint" is a process-oriented to produce insights from mapping and analyzing user behaviours, to take a fast decision about new interactive concepts and rapidly build "Minimum Viable Products" to accumulate learning and iteratively change the outcomes. Even this aspect seems to be connected and strengthen the lean entrepreneurial literature stream. DT, furthermore-leveraging people creativity-needs to continuously engage employees and stakeholders in compelling and motivating ways. Given that everyone assumes a personalized role in contributing to the creative process, an emerging challenge of DT consists to increase the "creative confidence" of individual and teams. At this level, DT seems to be more internally oriented-nurturing the knowledge and human capital of organizations-instead of placing novel solutions on the marketplace.
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Wicked Problems in Design Thinking
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 1992
  • Des Issues
Abstract Only critical distancing let Godard value the premonitory potential of film, and at the same time, point out the incapacity to register the realness that it generated. The filmmaker has always believed that “film is prophetic, it predicts and announces things”, and that this condition corresponds to its essence as a record. Rancière in a lucid reading of Film History says that for Godard: “film is responsible for not filming fields in their time; great for filming them before their time and guilty for not knowing how to recognize them”. This article begins with these clear political propositions, as well as proposing some variations.
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Characterizing the Role of Design in New Product Development: An Empirically Derived Taxonomy*
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2005
  • J PROD INNOVAT MANAG
This article empirically explores the nature of the role of design in the new product development process. The investigation adopts a multiple case study methodology. Data were collected through a six-month interview program carried out with mid-size to large U.K. manufacturing companies. The researchers articulate the scope and detailed nature of actions undertaken by design across all phases of the new product development process. Design functional, integration, and leadership actions are unraveled from the data. A taxonomy characterizing three roles for design in new product development is developed and explained. In the first role, design is explored as a functional specialism. The second categorization develops the role of design as part of a multifunctional team. The third role depicts the designer as process leader. Detailed actions and skills associated with each role are discussed and illustrated. Contextual factors explaining and influencing each design role are unraveled. These are articulated as speed of development process, innovativeness of the product development effort, and use of external design agencies. The implications of these findings for the development of design skills and capabilities are discussed in terms of recruitment, training, and educational policies.
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Mechanistic and Organic Systems of Management
Chapter
  • Oct 1994
First published in 1961, this book is a very influential book on organization theory and industrial sociology. The central theme of the book is the relationship between an organization and its environment — particularly technological and market innovations. Based on first-class scholarship, the book presents the now famous and ubiquitous classifications of ‘mechanistic’ and ‘organic’ systems. For this it has become justly famous, but the book is also a penetrating study of social systems within organizations and organizational dynamics.
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Of Strategies, Deliberate and Emergent
Article
How do strategies form in organizations? Research into the question is necessarily shaped by the underlying conception of the term. Since strategy has almost inevitably been conceived in terms of what the leaders of an organization ‘plan’ to do in the future, strategy formation has, not surprisingly, tended to be treated as an analytic process for establishing long-range goals and action plans for an organization; that is, as one of formulation followed by implementation. As important as this emphasis may be, we would argue that it is seriously limited, that the process needs to be viewed from a wider perspective so that the variety of ways in which strategies actually take shape can be considered.
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Design -Pleasure or Responsibility? University of Art and Design
  • Jan 1995
  • R Buchanan
BUCHANAN, R. 1995. Branzi's Dilemma, in: Päivi Tahkokallio and Susan Vihma (Eds.) Design -Pleasure or Responsibility? University of Art and Design, Helsinki UIAH 1995.
Managing Product Design
  • Jan 1984
  • M Oakley
OAKLEY, M., 1984. Managing Product Design. Wiley & Sons.
The technological Juggernaut: Objects and Their Transcendence
  • Jan 1993
  • J Rheinfrank
RHEINFRANK, J., 1993. "The technological Juggernaut: Objects and Their Transcendence, in Yelavich, S. ed., The Edge of the Millennium. New York: Whitney Library of Design.