Content uploaded by Michal Apollo
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Michal Apollo on Mar 05, 2016
Content may be subject to copyright.
M. Apollo
1061
Digital Proceeding Of The ICOEST’2014 - , SIDE
Side, Turkey, May 14 – 17, 2014
Journal of Selçuk University Natural and Applied Science
Online ISSN: 2147-3781
www.josunas. org
Climbing as a kind of human impact on the high mountain
environment – based on the selected peaks of Seven Summits
M. Apollo
Pedagogical University, Institute of Geography, Poland.
apollomichal@gmail.com
Abstract
For the last 40 years a significant increase in the number of high mountain climbers has been observed. It is
connected with changing characteristics of the climbing activity and the climber’s profile. Due to the commercial
approach to the mountaineering, conquering the high mountains via normal routes is no longer seen as an extreme
type of climbing, but as a form of trekking on the high altitude.
This article focuses on three examples chosen from Seven Summits: Denali, Aconcagua and Kilimanjaro - the most
popular peaks among the climbers. Due to a huge number of climbers (respectively in 2007: Denali – 1218,
Aconcagua – 4548 and Kilimanjaro – 41760) and the lack of education those people affect the environment and
through that they disrupt natural ecosystem. Consequences of ecological imbalance include: destruction of vegetation,
disruption of fauna, introduction of the new species (plants and animals), pollution by garbage and excrement,
disruption of the natural landscape by tourist infrastructure, and noise etc.
Purity of the high mountains depends on two matters: management of mountain areas and climbers themselves (rule
Leave No Trace). This paper indicates the negative impact of mountain climbing activity to the mountain
environment and tries to find a good-practice of climbing management in mountain areas.
Key words: Aconcagua, Climbing management, Degradation, Denali, Kilimanjaro, Mountain environment.
1. INTRODUCTION
Mountains from ages fascinated people, mostly from two reasons: religious and secular.
And because of that, mountains areas are after coastal regions second in global
popularity as tourist destinations [1]. Times when people in the name of faith worshiped
the highest mountain summits is almost gone [2]. Today, wanting to escape urban
pollution, noise, crime and other related stress, people look to mountain environment for
their serenity and relative calm [3]. This escape made mountain tourism a global social
phenomenon and its impact on the environment an increasingly significant source of
anthropopressure. The evolution of mountain climbing, from elite activity to the mass
sport, caused losses and damage in natural ecosystem. To determine why this problem
occurs, attention is focussed on the phenomenon of the Seven Summits and motivations
of climbers.
M. Apollo
1062
2. STUDY AREA
The Seven Summits term refers to the highest mountains of each of the seven
continents. However, there is not seven, but (at least) nine mountain to conquer (tab. 1).
This inaccuracy comes from a different perception of scientists, climbers, politicians
and other people about the boundaries and regions. Mostly in two cases. (1) In case of
Europe this is a the border between Europe and Asia, and a choice between Mont Blanc
in Alps or Elbrus on Caucasus Mountains. (2) Similar situation is in case of Australia.
When qualifying Australia only as the core of the continent, the highest peak of that
continent is Mount Kosciuszko, but when speaking about the region of Australia and
Oceania the highest mountain is Puncak Jaya (Carstensz Pyramid) on Papua New
Guinea. This controversy comes mostly from understanding that Seven Summits term
was made up by climbers not scientists. To defence this claim, note that there is no
Mont Blanc on the list of Seven Summits which according to International Geographical
Union not only lies in Europe, but is the highest peak of that continent. To understand
this discrepancies it is necessary to go back in time to the history of mountaineering in
that particular aspect.
Table 1. Seven Summits List in two most popular versions.
The first conqueror of what we name today Seven Summit, and also an author of that
term was American multimillionaire Richard “Dick” Bass, who as an amateur
mountaineer set himself the goal to climb the highest mountain on each of the seven
continents. However the originator of the idea, was not Bass but other American -
William D. Hackett. Due to several circumstances (lack of funds, frostbite, etc) Hackett
Bass
list
Messner
list
Summit
Elevation
[meters]
Continent
Range
Country
First
successful
ascent
✔
✔
Kilimanjaro
5895
Africa
Kilimanjaro
Tanzania
1889
✔
✔
Vinson Massif
4897
Antarctica
Ellsworth
Mountains
N/A
1966
✔
Mount Kosciuszko
2228
Australia
Great Dividing
Range
Australia
1840
✔
Puncak Jaya
(Carstensz Pyramid)
4884
Asia
Maoke
Mountains
Indonesia
1962
✔
✔
Mount Everest
(Chomolungma/Sagarmatha)
8850
Asia
Himalaya
China/Nepal
1953
✔
✔
Elbrus
5642
Europe
Caucasus
Russia
1874
✔
✔
Denali
(Mount McKinley)
6194
North
America
Alaska Range
USA
1913
✔
✔
Aconcagua
6960
South
America
Andes
Argentina
1897
M. Apollo
1063
climbed only five mountains (chronologically: Denali 1, Aconcagua, Kilimanjaro,
Kosciuszko, Mont Blanc). Bass completed Seven Summit quest in 1985; by climbing
(chronologically): Denali, Aconcagua, Elbrus, Kilimanjaro, Mount Vinson, Mount
Kosciuszko and Mount Everest. However, R. Bass list was immediately questioned by
famous Italian mountaineer Reinhold Messner (the first climber to ascend all fourteen
eight-thousanders which lies in Karakokum and Himalaya Range). R. Messner, who
wanted to be a first conqueror of real Seven Summits (in his opinion) replaced
Australian’s Mount Kosciuszko with Indonesia's Puncak Jaya. However first person
who completed Messner list, before Messner himself, was Canadian mountaineer Pat
Morrow (May 7, 1986). Differences on determining highest peak of Australia or
Australia and Oceania gave two lists, named after the originators ‘Bass list’ and
‘Messner list’ (also called Carstensz list). Note that, neither the Bass or the Messner list
include Mont Blanc. Well known S. Bell's book Seven Summits - The quest to Reach the
Highest Point on Every Continents also did not even mentioned about Mont Blanc [4].
However most of the mountaineers who want to complete the Seven Summits Quest
also climb Mont Blanc, just in case.
A. Hajzer [5] among the criteria for selection of the Seven Summit peaks indicates:
1) physical and geological criteria,
2) political criteria,
3) others, such as, attractiveness and difficulty of climbing, historic and cultural factors,
collusion of tourism industry lobby and the opinion of authorities.
According to those criteria, it is not surprising that confused mountaineers, to be safe,
climbs nine summit. However there are some, also scientists who are convinced that
there are only five (like symbol of the Olympic Games which composed of five
interlocking rings), three or even one continent. Also Antarctic, when look closer,
without the ice cap is not the real continent but archipelago. And more important than
that fact is that Mount Vinson would be placed not on the main island, but on some
small one. A. Hajzer ironically concludes: we have XXI century, we fly into space, and
we do not even know how many continents we have on our beautiful Earth?
This research area, however focus on mountains from the Seven Summit list which are
common ground for all, both climbers and scientists. To show topic of this work three
peaks were chosen: Denali (Mount McKinley) on North America, Aconcagua on South
America and Kilimanjaro on Africa (fig. 1).
1 The author is convinced of the superiority of the name Denali above Mount McKinley - already in 1975,
the Alaska Board of Geographic Names changed the name of the mountain to Denali. Currently,
legislative work in the United States Senate (including Senate Bill 155 from 10 of September, 2013)
regarding to this changing.
M. Apollo
1064
Figure 1. Figures represent the most popular routes (normal routes) leading to the summit (from left):
Denali – West Buttress, Aconcagua – North West Ridge and Kilimanjaro – Marangu Route (Source:
compiled by the author, Google Maps).
3. GROWTH IN NUMBERS AND CLIMBER’S PROFILE CHANGE
Seven Summits, the tallest and the best-know peaks on each continent, attracts a large
numbers of climbers each year. Figure 2 represent the number of climbers who tried to
climb Denali, Aconcagua and Kilimanjaro in each year during period between 1990-
2007. Numbers have grown to reach (respectively) 1218, 4548, 41760 climbers per year
in 2007.
With the development of extreme sports people were heading to the mountains in search
of new, often strong emotions and sensations. It is quite difficult (if not impossible) to
specify reasons why people merge their life with high mountains. Generally, today there
are two kind of people on the high mountain stage. Both groups are guided by different
motives, and according to A. Maslow's [6] hierarchy of needs there are; self-sufficient
climbers (self-actualization) and climbers using the services of paid guides (esteem) [7].
Figure 2. Changes in the number of tourists in period between 1990-2007 who wanted to climb (from
left): Denali, Aconcagua and Kilimanjaro (Source: Apollo 2010).
Recently the number of climbers increased drastically. This is caused by two aspects:
(1) evolution of climbing techniques and increasing physical capabilities of climbers
and (2) commercial approach to this kind of activity. An increasing number of
mountain climbers affects mountain environment; it affects both people (local
communities) and nature (fig. 3).
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
1990/91 1992/93 1994/95 1996/97 1998/99 2000/01 2002/03 2004/05 2006/07
M. Apollo
1065
Figure 3. Climbing evolution and it impacts
Before the period of intensive development mountain climbing was treated as a kind of
elite activity. Ethical principles, including the principles of conservation was an
important part of the ethos of climbing. Unfortunately, more often real climbers are
replaced by tourists with oversized ambition, aptly described by P. Morawski [2].
Mountain climbing has become a mass sport, and thus the characteristic of climbing
activity and the climber’s profile have changed very much. Commercial approach
(agencies fees, governments permits) made that on some popular summits, like Seven
Summits there can be found only rich tourists. Rich, because to gain Seven Summits
need to have around 200,000 USD. This business is so big that nobody cares about
impacts on natural environment and also that this kills the real spirit of mountaineering.
4. EXAMPLES OF IMPACTS
Problems on environmental impact by broadly defined climbing activity is relatively
very poorly understood, mostly because research polygons are difficult to access
(researches need to use climbing techniques). On the other hand traditional research
methodology in faculty of biology or geography unfortunately fails in case of mountain
environment [8]. There were many research studies dealing with the human impact on
wildlife. Nevertheless, the impact of high-mountain climbers is poorly explained so far.
Below there are presented some examples of climbers impact to natural environment of
Aconcagua, Denali and Kilimanjaro.
4.1. Disruption of flora and fauna, and introduction new species (plants and animals)
Vegetation and wildlife are the main natural features altered by climbers. The
mechanical damage of plants and disturbance of animals are most common impacts.
Scale of transformation is quite big, because most of the times climbing season
coincides with vegetation season. For example the main climbing season on Aconcagua
runs from November 15 to March 15, which is a summer (December 1 - February
28/29) in the southern hemisphere, and thus plants and animals have very short time for
reproduction even without people disturbing (fig. 4). Climbers, as well as all people
visiting mountains destroy plants by trampling. Less than a few studies have been done
about trampling and vegetation response on mountain areas, eg in USA by D. Cole [9]
and in Himalayas by M. Apollo (not yet published). Therefore, all plants around camps
were destroyed, eg. a whole area (ring ∅=25 meters) of the first camp on Aconcagua -
Confluencia - is devoid of any vegetation [10]. However, outside the camps area occurs
M. Apollo
1066
a ring of abundant vegetation, which is probably related with tourists, and more
specifically with the products of their urination. This relationship describes the work of
J.B. Kirkpatrick [11].
Figure 4. The number of tourists staying in the Aconcagua massif different in seasons in a period of time
1998/99 - 2007/08.
As opposed to Denali (the whole mountain is on the nival level), on Kilimanjaro and
Aconcagua tourism introduce new species of plants and animals. This is done directly or
indirectly. Example of the both influences can be found on Aconcagua. Direct impact
can be found on early expansion, which almost completely eliminated all bushes (fuel
wood). Bushes which were used by many species of avifauna as nesting places, eg.
Buff-necked Ibis (Theristicus caudatus). Intentionally or accidentally people introduced
exotic species like European hare (Lepus europaeus) or rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus
mykiss). Pollution of surface waters mostly by phosphorus and nitrogen leads to
eutrophication of the lakes (Algae) and thus flora and fauna of lakes is changing. On the
other hand, indirect impact concerns mules which are used for transportation of
climbing equipment. Most of mules spends a free time and overnight on grazing on
lower elevation. Later the seeds contained in their droppings are spread at a higher
altitudes, and thus mules introduce new species of plants. The most common exotics
are: field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis), common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale),
hedge mustard (Sisymbrium officinale), saltcedar (Tamarix ramosissima) [10].
4.2. Pollution by garbage and excrements
The practice of dumping unwanted materials might not be a problem if rapid breakdown
of such materials occurred, if campsites were large in relation to the numbers of users,
or if the number of users were small [12]. Unfortunately, this happen very rarely,
especially on popular summits (fig. 2). Alpine regions have typically slow
decomposition and decay of materials. Several researchers as well as many climbers
noted, that on high elevation even paper may take several years to disintegrate, and
discarded cans may remain intact for many decades [12].
Kilimanjaro, one of the most busiest mountain in the world for many years was called
white mountain after glaciers flowing down from the top, but recently many people call
M. Apollo
1067
it dirty mountain. During the period between 1977-2007 Kilimanjaro National Park has
been visited by more than half a million people. It is clear that after 627,976 tourists will
be a lot of garbage [7]. In 1993, two ordinary tourists during their climbs by Marangu
Route, which is the most popular route on Kilimanjaro collected approx 4500 pieces of
garbage (include all kinds of packaging, cigarette butts, wrappers, plastic bottles and
other). It is worth to note that there was garbage raised from the path only [13]. With the
increase of number of tourists the size of garbage also has increased, from 87 tons in
2003 to 125 tons in 2006. However, the authorities has improved efficiency of garbage
disposal from 64% in 2003 to 94% in 2006 [14].
Table 2. Comparison of four garbage disposal practices (after Cullen 1986).
Feasibility
Effectiveness
Cost to expedition
Comments
Burn
Usually high
Incombustible
material remains
Low
Incomplete
solution
Cover with rocks
etc.
Usually high, but
not feasible on
snow- or ice-
covered sites
Low if
subsequently
uncovered
Modest effort cost
Unsatisfactory
unless very
thoroughly
covered
Bury in crevasse
High if near
sustainable
crevasses
Good until
materials
subsequently
reappears
Low effort cost if
near crevasse
May by only
practical policy
available on
glacier sites
Bury on or of site
High if ground is
suitable for
digging pits
Good in well-
chosen and –
managed sires
Effort and
transport costs may
by high
Best solution if
well managed
Purity in high mountains depends mainly on climbers visiting them (rule Leave No
Trace), however, no climber can be blamed for leaving behind human faeces (if there is
no special treatment), because the process of excretion can not be stopped. If the
administrator of mountain regions will not do anything with that base case, some of the
cleanest areas of the world will change forever. Every mountain from Seven Summit
List is different in many ways, so each management has to find own way of disposal
human faeces. In the recent years the number of climbers who try to climb at least one
peak from the list has increased dramatically, so disposal of human waste has becomea
huge problem. Unfortunately not every mountain management like Kilimanjaro
National Park, Aconcagua Provincial Park or Denali National Park are doing fine (tab.
3).
Based on the formula elaborated by M. Apollo [15] it was calculated quantitative values
of human faeces and urine remaining after climbers per year in 2007. According to this
research and calculations only in 2007, there remained on Denali (tab. 4), Aconcagua
(tab. 5) and Kilimanjaro (tab. 6) (respectively): 700 kg (39,500 l), 582 kg (57,000 l) and
9 t (0.5 million l) of faeces (urine) after climbers. These numbers can not be trivialized,
mostly because human waste carry harmful micro-organisms and leaving them in
natural areas can result in contamination of water supplies and soils, and lead to
diseases [15]. As example, the salmonella bacterium that infects many species of
animals may survive in the environment for a long time. Studies show that buried 20 cm
below the surface of the earth it can survive up to 51 weeks [16]. Also, they look very
unpleasant.
Table 3. Human feces and urine remaining on chosen peaks of Seven Summits in a period of time 1990-
M. Apollo
1068
2007 (after Apollo 2014).
Summit
No of climbers in a period of time 1990-2007
Feces [kg]
Urine [l]
Denali
21,125
12,168
684,450
Aconcagua
53,676
6,870
386,467
Kilimanjaro
480,195
107,563
6,050,457
Table 4. Human feces and urine remaining on Denali after 1218 tourists in 2007 (after Apollo 2014).
Camp
Toilet
Residence time in the camp
Feces [kg]
Urine [l]
I
Yes
3
116.928
6,577.2
II
No
1
38.976
2,192.4
III
No
2
77.952
4,384.8
IV
Yes
8
311.808
17,539.2
V
No
4
155.904
8,769.6
Total
701.568
39,463.2
Table 5. Human feces and urine remaining on Aconcagua after 4548 tourists in season 2006/2007 (after
Apollo 2014).
Camp
Toilet
Residence time in the camp
Feces [kg]
Urine [l]
I
Yes*
3
436.608*
57,304.8*
II
Yes*
8
1,164.288*
16,372.8*
III
No
1
145.536
16,372.8
IV
No
2
291.072
8,186.2
V
No
1
145.536
4,093.2
Total
582.144
57,304.8
*not included in total - 100% excrements are removed from this toilets out from the mountain.
Table 6. Human feces and urine remaining on Kilimanjaro after 41760 tourists in 2007 (after Apollo
2014).
Camp
Toilet
Residence time in the camp
Feces [kg]
Urine [l]
I
Yes
1
1,336.32
75,168
II
Yes
2
2,672.64
150,336
III
Yes
3
4,008.96
225,504
IV
Yes
1
1,336.32
75,168
Total
9,354.24
526,176
According to D.N. Cole at al [17] its recommended few strategies for managers when
dealing with human waste:
1. Reducing use (prohibiting or limiting the numbers of visitors),
2. Modifying the location of use (locate facilities on durable sites),
3. Modify type of use and visitor behavior (education),
4. Increase resistance of the resource (provide sanitation infrastructure),
5. Maintain or rehabilitate the resource (remove waste from toilets),
6. Punish for breaches of the rules (high fines).
M. Apollo
1069
5. THE TYPES OF INTERACTIONS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION
(TYPOLOGY)
According to Access Fund human impact zones in climbing areas can be divided into 6
zones: (1) the approach zone, (2) staging area, (3) the climb, (4) the summit, (5) the
descent zone, (6) camping or bivouac [18]. In each zone climber can affect on natural
environment by:
a) anthropogenic landslides
b) anthropogenic microforms on rocks
c) trampling
d) vegetation damage
e) introducing new spices (plants and animals)
f) disturbance or attracting animals
g) disruption of the natural landscape by tourist infrastructure
h) left behind climbing equipment
i) pollution by garbage and excrements
j) noise.
And through it affects the main elements the natural environment: geological substrate,
land relief, water, vegetation cover, soil, fauna and the landscape. Figure 5 shows
complex system of environmental impacts caused by climbers.
Figure 5. Complex system of environmental impacts caused by climbers
4. CONCLUSION
Researches about fragile mountain environment are very important. Mostly because
once injured such environment will suffer for ages. The lack of understanding of the
nature conservation methods leads to disobeying the restrictions, which are considered
to be oppressive and irrational. Only cooperation between authorities and climbing
organizations is a crucial point determining the efficiency of management process.
Workshops, conferences, fieldtrips and climbing schools create a excellent opportunities
to share the knowledge on both nature conservation and climbing activity [8]. If we
M. Apollo
1070
want to keep mountains nature and wildlife in today’s conditions for other generations
we have to develop ways to control. However, if control is suppose to act correctly it
have to be composed of two factors:
1. Control by authorities - respected and enforced set of rules, however supported by
studies and based on system solutions.
2. Self control - the information on all restrictions should be quite well accessible on
websites, in guidebooks, and as well as directly in the field (billboards, signs, etc).
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Funds for this work was provided by the Pedagogical University of Cracow. I would
like to thank to professor Wiaczeslaw Andrejczuk (Department of Regional Geography
and Tourism, University of Silesia) for valuable comments and advice.
REFERENCES
[1] Z. Mieczkowski, Environmental issues of tourism and recreation, University Press
of America Inc., Lanham, 1995.
[2] M. Apollo, 2011. Mountaineering. The highest form of mountain tourism - a multi-
faceted phenomenon [text in polish]. In Narod. Spoleczenstwo. Kultura, ed. SJ.T.
Homa, L. Bandola, K. Daraz-Duda, pp. 317-326. Cracow: Episteme.
[3] P. Godde, M. Price, F.M. Zimmerman, Tourism and development in mountain
regions, CABI Publishing, New York 1999.
[4] S. Bell, Seven Summits - The quest to Reach the Highest Point on Every Continents,
Random House, New York, 2006.
[5] A. Hajzer, Seven Summits [text in polish], Stapis, Katowice, 2011.
[6] A. H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality, Harper & Row Publishers Inc., New
York, 1954.
[7] M. Apollo, 2010. Anthropopressure Mountaineering on the Example of Kilimanjaro
[text in polish]. In Annales Universitatis Paedagogicae Cracoviensis, ed W.
Wilczynska-Michalik, R. Gasek, Cracow: Studia Geographica. Pedagogical
University in Cracow. pp. 30-39.
[8] M. Jodlowski. Good-practice manual of climbing management in protected areas
[text in polish], Instytut Geografii I Gospodarki Przestrzennej UJ, Cracow, 2011.
[9] D. N. Cole, 1995. Experimental trampling of vegetation. I. Relationship between
trampling intensity and vegetation response. Journal of Applied Ecology, no 32, pp.
203-214.
M. Apollo
1071
[10] J.B. Kirkpatrick, Alpine Tasmania: An Illustrated Guide to the Flora and
Vegetation. Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1997.
[11] M. Apollo, 2010a. Influence of tourism on the natural environment of the Seven
Summits – Aconcagua [text in polish], Aura – Ochrona Środowiska, no 5/11, 2011,
pp. 23-26.
[12] R. Cullen, 1986. Himalayan Mountaineering Expedition Garbage, Environmental
Conservation, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 293-297.
[13] D. Roe, N. Leader-Williams, B. Dalal-Clayton, Take only a photographs, leave
only footprints: the environmental impacts of wildlife tourism, London, 1997.
[14] M.E. Kaseva, 2009. Problems of Solid Waste Management on Mount Kilimanjaro
– Challenge to Tourism, Waste Management Research, 28(8), s. 695–704.
[15] M. Apollo, 2014. Non-Toilet Human Waste. Disposal on Mountain Ecosystem -
based on selected Peaks of Seven Summits, Prace Komisji Krajobrazu
Kulturowego, no. 23, pp. 39-54.
[16] K. Temple, A. Camper, R. Lucas, 1982. Potential health hazard from human wastes
in wilderness, Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 37(6), pp. 357-359.
[17] D.N. Cole, M.E. Petersen, R.C. Lucas, Managing Wilderness Recreation Use:
Common Problems and Potential Solutions, Ogden, UT, USDA Forest Service,
Intermountain Research Station, 1987.
[18] K. Pyke, Climbing management: a guide to climbing issues and the production a
climbing management plan. Access Fund, Boulder, 2001.
