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Hypolipidemic and Antioxidant Activity of Enoki Mushrooms (Flammulina velutipes)

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According to the literatures, Flammulina velutipes contains biologically active components such as dietary fiber, polysaccharide, and mycosterol, whose effects in reducing blood sugar, blood pressure, and cholesterol have been proven. This study used the active components extracted from Flammulina velutipes powder (FVP) and Flammulina velutipes extract (FVE) to investigate the impact of these active components on lipid metabolism of hamsters. The results show that the total dietary fiber content in FVP and FVE is 29.34 mg/100 g and 15.08 mg/100 g, respectively. The total mycosterol content is 46.57 ± 0.37 mg/100 g and 9.01 ± 0.17 mg/100 g, respectively. The male hamsters were subjected to lipid metabolism monitoring by adding 1, 2, and 3% FVP or FVE into their diets for a period of 8 weeks. The animal assay results show that the 3% FVP and FVE groups have the lowest concentration of TC (total cholesterol), TG (triacylglycerol), LDL (low density lipoprotein cholesterol), and LDL/HDL (high density lipoprotein cholesterol) in the serum and liver (P < 0.05). Our results demonstrate that the addition of 3% FVP or FVE has a significant effect on the lipid metabolism in hamsters whose increased level of HDL in the serum was induced by high fat diet.
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Research Article
Hypolipidemic and Antioxidant Activity of
Enoki Mushrooms (Flammulina velutipes)
Ming-Yei Yeh,1Wen-Ching Ko,1and Li-Yun Lin2
1Department of Bioindustry Technology, Dayeh University, Dacun, Changhua 51591, Taiwan
2Department of Food Science and Technology, Hungkuang University, Shalu, Taichung 43302, Taiwan
Correspondence should be addressed to Wen-Ching Ko; wcko@mail.dyu.edu.tw and Li-Yun Lin; lylin@sunrise.hk.edu.tw
Received  June ; Accepted  August ; Published  August 
Academic Editor: Chia-Jui Weng
Copyright ©  Ming-Yei Yeh et al. is is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
According to the literatures, Flammulina velutipes contains biologically active components such as dietary ber, polysaccharide,
and mycosterol, whose eects in reducing blood sugar, blood pressure, and cholesterol have been proven. is study used the active
components extracted from Flammulina velutipes powder (FVP) and Flammulina velutipes extract (FVE) to investigate the impact
of these active components on lipid metabolism of hamsters. e results show that the total dietary ber content in FVP and FVE
is . mg/ g and . mg/ g , respectively. e total mycosterol content is . ±. mg/ g and . ±. mg/ g,
respectively. e male hamsters were subjected to lipid metabolism monitoring by adding , , and % FVP or FVE into their diets
for a period of  weeks. e animal assay results show that the % FVP and FVE groups have the lowest concentration of TC (total
cholesterol), TG (triacylglycerol), LDL (low density lipoprotein cholesterol), and LDL/HDL (high density lipoprotein cholesterol)
in the serum and liver (P<.). Our results demonstrate that the addition of % FVP or FVE has a signicant eect on the lipid
metabolism in hamsters whose increased level of HDL in the serum was induced by high fat diet.
1. Introduction
Flammulina velutipes is also known as enoki mushroom,
golden mushroom, Basidiomycotina, Agaricales, Tricholo-
mataceae, and Flammulina. It is rich in vitamin B and
contains traces of zinc. As a dietary supplement, F. velutipes
is known to be benecial to people with hypertension, the
elderly, and growing children []. Its biological activity can
help reduce blood sugar, blood pressure, and cholesterol in
addition to its antithrombotic eects. It has no known toxic
eect on the human body and is very benecial to human
health []. Dietary ber is an active polysaccharide, which is
part of the edible portion of F. velutipes and cannot be decom-
posed by lytic enzyme or digested in human alimentary
tract. is water-soluble dietary ber can be combined with
cholesterolorcholicacidbyadsorption,reducingtheamount
of cholic acid returned to liver and increasing the metabolism
of cholesterol and its transformation into cholic acid. e
cholesterol concentration is reduced and the absorption
of lipids in the small intestine is disturbed; therefore, the
lipid content in blood and the probability of cardiovascular
diseasecanbereduced[]. e higher the concentration of
water-soluble dietary ber ingested, the better its ecacy in
reducing blood cholesterol. It has been shown that feeding
mice with % water-soluble ber is sucient to reduce lipids
and triglyceride (TG) in their blood and the level of TG
in their liver []. It has been reported that water-soluble
ber is signicantly more capable of regulating hypolipidemic
activity compared with non-water-soluble ber []. us,
water-soluble dietary ber is capable of combining bile
salts and rendering a hypolipidemic eect []. It has been
demonstrated that mycosterol can reduce the concentration
of total cholesterol and LDL in blood and plasma [].
e polyphenol compounds in mushrooms are known to
reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer. ese
polyphenol compounds, such as quercetin, catechin, gallic
acid ester, and caeic acid ester, can prevent the cytotoxicity
caused by H2O2andtheoxidativedamagecausedbyanti-
free radicals is also useful in reducing LDL oxidation, DNA
damage, and the incidence of cancer []. It has also been
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
BioMed Research International
Volume 2014, Article ID 352385, 6 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/352385
BioMed Research International
T : Ingredients of the experimental animal meals (%)a.
Ingredients Group
N H FVP FVP FVP FVE FVE FVE
Casein . . . . . . . .
Sucrose . . . . . . . .
Corn starch . . . . . . . .
Corn oil . . . . . . . .
Lard . . . . . . . .
Mineral . . . . . . . .
Vitamin . . . . . . . .
Choline . . . . . . . .
Methionine . . . . . . . .
-Cellulose . . . . . . . .
Total        
aOn the basis of AIN- formula (American Institute of Nutrition (AIN)).
Amounts of corn oil, buckwheat seeds, and sprouts added were based on percent weight. N: normal diet; H: high fat diet; FVP, FVP, and FVP: feed with
%, %, and % FVP; FVE, FVE, and FVE: feed with %, %, and % FVE.
shown that fruiting body extracts from F. v e lutip e s eectively
scavenged -,diphenyl-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radicals
and displayed reducing power [].
e aim of this study is rst to analyze the functionally
active components extracted from F. ve l u t i p e s powder (FVP)
and F. velutipes extracts(FVE).BothFVPandFVEarethen
added to the diet of hamsters to investigate whether, and to
what extent, the active components in F. velutipes regulate the
metabolism of lipids and antioxidant activity in hamsters with
a high fat diet.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Chemicals. Cholesterol, LDL-C, HDL-C, and triglyceride
were obtained from ICN Biomedicals, Inc. (Irvine, CA).
Bioassay kits, including the triglyceride kit, cholesterol kit,
LDL-C kit, and HDL-C kit, are manufactured by Teco Diag-
nostics (Anaheim, CA). Acetonitrile (LC grade, purity %)
is provided by Tomowa Chemical Co. (Taichung, Taiwan).
Authentic oxalic, citric, malic, -,diphenyl-picrylhydrazyl
(DPPH), free radicals, linoleic acid, butylated hydroxyanisole
(BHA), rutin, quercetin, and decanoic acid are obtained from
Sigma Chemical Co. (St. Louis, MO). Ethylenediaminete-
traacetic acid (EDTA) is purchased from Mallinckrodt Co.
(Hazelwood, MO). Phosphotungstic acid is obtained from J.
T. Baker Chemical Co. (Phillipsburg, NJ).
2.2. Material. Flammulina velutipes used in this study was
purchased from Taishen Mushroom located in Taichung,
Taiwan. e experimental procedures are as follows.
() FVP:  g of fresh F. ve l u t i p e s was dried with a hot
air dryer at C for  h and then powdered by a
grinding machine for future use.
() FVE:  g of fresh F. velutipes wascookedinmL
ofboilingwaterformininbatchesandthen
removed. e blanching water was concentrated
(. Brix) and freeze-dried for future use.
() Ingredients of the experimental animal meals are
given in Tab l e  .
2.3. Chemical Characterization
2.3.1.DeterminationofDietaryFiber. Dietary ber was ana-
lyzed according to the AOAC method [].gofthesampleis
used for the test of insoluble and soluble bers, respectively.
2.3.2. Determination of Polysaccharide. We used a modied
version of the method described by Liu et al. [].  mg/mL
sample solution was prepared with . M NaCl for gel ltra-
tion chromatography; the bed volume of the chromatography
column was measured with  mg/mL blue dextran when
it was conrmed that there was no sugar reaction in the
leaching liquor. e  nm absorbance of the solution was
detected by a UV/VIS detector (UA-, ISCO, USA) before
being collected with a fraction collector (Retriever TM ,
ISCO,USA).Each.mLwascollectedinatesttube.
e total sugar of the collected samples was measured by
phenol-sulfuric acid coloration, and the protein standard was
used to preliminarily measure the molecular weight of the
polysaccharide molecules. e chromatographic conditions
are described as follows: column: Pharmacia column (.
× cm), gel: Sephacryl S--HR (Sigma Chemical Co.,
USA), mobile phase: . M NaCl, sample concentration:
 mg/mL, and ow rate: . mL/mg, . mL/min.
2.3.3. Determination of Mycosterol. Mycosterol was analyzed
by the method described by Feng et al. [].  g samples were
mixed at a  :  (v/v) ratio with normal hexane for h reux
extraction; this procedure was repeated twice. e residues
were then mixed at a  :  (v/v) ratio with a methanol solvent
for  h reux extraction. e ltered solutions were merged
and then concentrated by decompression until they were dry.
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An internal standard ( mL of  mg/mL -cholestane) was
added and saponied at room temperature for  h and was
then mixed with  mL of chloroform and extracted twice.
e lower layer was then taken and mixed with  g of anhy-
drous sodium sulfate to remove water and was then ltered;
the ltered solution was concentrated by decompression at
Cuntilitwasdry.AtotalofLofBSTFA+TMCS
( + ) was added to the concentrate, and the reaction was
allowed to proceed for  h at C. e mycosterol content is
measured with GC-FID and GC-MS.
2.4. Antioxidative Ability Assay
2.4.1. DPPH Radical Scavenging Ability. e radical scaveng-
ing ability was analyzed with the method by Shimada et al.
[].mLsamplewasmixedwithmLofmethanolandthen
uniformly mixed with mL of .  M DPPH methanol solu-
tion. Samples then rested for min before their absorbance
at  nm was measured by a spectrophotometer. e formula
for calculating scavenging eect is as follows:
Scavenging eects%
=1− sample absorbance value
absorbance value of control group without sample 
×100%.()
2.4.2. Ferrous Ion Chelating Ability. Ferrous ion chelation was
analyzed according to Dinis et al. []. . mL sample was
mixed with . mL methanol and .mL of  MFeCl
2and
waited for seconds before mixing with . mL of  mM
ferrozine. e sample rested at room temperature for  min
andthenwascollectedfornmabsorbancetestbyHitachi
U- spectrophotometer.
e formula for calculating chelating ability is as follows:
Chelating ability (%)
=1− sample absorbance value
absorbance value of control group without sample 
×100%.()
2.4.3. Reducing Power. e reducing power was analyzed
according to Oyaizu []. . mL samples were mixed with
. mL of . M pH . phosphate buer solution and
. mL of % potassium ferricyanide solution, reacted in a
water bath at Cformin,andcooledinanicebath
for  min. Samples were then uniformly mixed with . mL
of a % trichloroacetic acid solution and centrifuged and
then . mL of the supernatant was collected and uniformly
mixed with . mL of deionized water and . mL of .%
ferric chloride solution. e mixture reacted in the dark at
room temperature for  min and then the absorbance at a
wavelength of  nm was measured by spectrophotometer.
2.5. Animal Experiments. All the animal studies performed
were approved by the Supervising Animal Ethic Committee
of Hungkuang University in accordance with the Helsinki
Declaration of .
2.5.1. Animals and Diets. e animal diet is detailed in
Table . Selected --week old male Syrian hamsters were
used in this study and housed individually in stainless steel
cages. e temperature was 24±1C, the humidity was 40 ∼
60%,andthedailylightcyclewash.Aeroneweekof
ambience adaptation, they were randomly divided into 
groups of  hamsters each. One group of hamsters was given
a normal diet (N) and  groups of hamsters were given a
high fat high cholesterol diet (H). Aer two weeks of high
fat inducement, either , , and % FVP or , , and  %
FVE was added to the diet of one of the high fat groups and
no addition was made in one high fat group (see Table ).
e experiment lasted for  weeks. Animal body weight
wasrecordeddaily,whereastheintakeofwaterandfood
was recorded every two days (Tab l e  ). e animals fasted
overnight at the end of the experiment, and samples were
collected for analysis, including feces, liver, and blood. e
animals were etherized and dissected; the blood samples were
extracted from abdominal aorta to analyze total triglyceride
(TG), total cholesterol, low density lipoprotein (LDL), and
high density lipoprotein (HDL) content. All samples were
stored at C so that they were ready for the measurement
of the blood lipid.
2.5.2. Determination of Lipoproteins in Serum and Liver. Sera
collectedfromtheabovewereassayedforlevelsoftotal
cholesterol, low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high
density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and triglyceride
(TG) according to Richmond [,]. erefore, an enzy-
matic CHODPAP method with a Teco Diagnostics kit was
used for the determination of serum total cholesterol. A
cholesterol control reference supplied by the manufacturer
was treated with the same manner for calibration. LDL-
C was measured spectrophotometrically at  nm. On the
other hand, the enzyme GDP-PAP triglyceride kit (Teco
Diagnostics) was used to determine the serum TG content
by following the instructions given by the manufacturer (Lin
et al.) [].
e extraction of hepatic phospholipids contents was
carried out according to Folch et al. []. e following
procedures were described elsewhere by Lin et al. []. e
method of Bartlett [] was followed for its determination.
e color reaction proceeded with perchloric acid (%)-
ammonium molybdate (.%)-ascorbic acid (%) method of
Bartlett []. e absorbance was measured at  nm. e
concentration of hepatic phospholipids was calculated from
thecalibrationcurveestablishedusingastandardsample
supplied by the manufacturer.
2.6. Statistics. e experimental results were analyzed by a
single factor ANOVA using a computer statistics analysis
soware SPSS . (SPSS, Chicago, USA) for intergroup com-
parisons, and Duncan’s multiple range test analysis method
was used to determine the signicant dierences among the
various groups (<0.05).
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T : Contents of dietary ber and polysaccharide of FVP and
FVE.
Components Contents (mg/ g)
FVP FVE
Total dietary ber . ±. . ±.
Insoluble dietary ber . ±. . ±.
Soluble dietary ber . ±. . ±.
Polysaccharides . ±. . ±.
Reported values are the mean ±standard deviation (S.D.) (𝑛=3).
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Dietary Fiber, Polysaccharide, and Mycosterol Content.
Dietaryberisoenfoundinmushroom.Itisnotdigestible
by the human alimentary tract, but it increases the solid
mass of feces because it is unabsorbed. However, it stimulates
gastrointestinal peristalsis and bonds to bile salt, which is
then excreted. It can also accelerate the decomposition of
cholesterol which reduces its concentration in the blood. e
total dietary ber content in FVP and FVE was . mg/ g
and . mg/ g, respectively (Ta b l e  ); the insoluble ber
content was . mg/ g and . mg/ g, respectively;
and the water-soluble ber content was . mg/ g and
.mg/g,respectively.emajorityofsolublebers
were dissolved by blanching; therefore, the content of soluble
ber in FVE was equivalent to that in FVP. e content of
rawberandtotalsolublesugarinF. v e l u t i p e s are higher than
in other mushrooms, as shown in the following descending
order: F. velutipes >Lentinus edodes >Oyster cap fungi >
Cap fungi []. It is known that, among these mushrooms,
the more viscous the water-soluble dietary ber is, the more
signicantly it can reduce blood cholesterol []. e FVP
and FVE polysaccharide content was . mg/ g and
. mg/ g, respectively (Table ). e fruiting body of
FVP had a high content of insoluble bers. More polysac-
charides were found in FVE (. mg/ g) than in FVP
(. mg/ g) since polysaccharides are water soluble.
In the natural environment, mycosterol mainly exists in a
free, esteried, and glycoside form. e chemical structure of
mycosterol resembles a fat-soluble substance; its mechanism
of action is similar to that of cholesterol in vertebrates []. It
has been reported that both the spores and the tube tissue in
the polypore fungus G.lucidum have a considerably higher
percentage of ergosterol esters than the pileus and stipe
tissues [] because of the presence of the higher amount
of crude ber []. It is possible that free ergosterol in
the cell membrane of the dead fungal hyphae undergoes
either degradation or esterication. e results suggest that
free ergosterol (not total ergosterol) should be used as a
beach marker for fungal biomass []. is experiment used
GC/MS for verication and identied  types of steroids
in addition to the total mycosterol in FVP and FVE. e
mycosterol content was 46.57 ± 0.37mg/ g and 9.01 ±
0.17mg/ g, respectively (Table ). e total mycosterol
content in FVP was more than ve times higher than that
in FVE, which may be due to the short-term blanching
eects on dissolution of mycosterol. e common mycosterol
T : Mycosterol composition of FVP and FVE.
Components Contents (mg/ g)
FVP FVE
Stigmastan-,-diene ND . ±.
Ergosterol . ±. ND
Ergosta-,,-trienol . ±. ND
Ergosta-,-dienol . ±. . ±.
Ergosta-,-dienone . ±. ND
Ergosta-,-dienol . ±. ND
Ergosta-,-dienol . ±. ND
Fungisterol . ±. ND
Other . ±. . ±.
Total mycosterol . ±. . ±.
ND: not detected.
T : Antioxidant activities of FVP and FVE.
Items mg/mL
FVP FVE
DPPH scavenging % . ±. . ±.
Chelating ability of ferrous % . ±. . ±.
FRAP reducing power % . ±. . ±.
Total phenols (ppm) . ±. . ±.
Reported values are the mean ±standarddeviation(S.D.)(𝑛=3).
componentinmushroomisergosterol;itscontentinFVPwas
. mg/ g, but it was not detected in FVE. Stigmastan-
,-diene was not detected in FVP, but it was . mg/ g
in FVE; the ergosta-,-dienol content was . mg/ g in
FVP and was . mg/ g in FVE.
3.2. Antioxidant Activity. From the data shown in Table ,
FVE has a strong antioxidative eect (.% DPPH scaveng-
ing rate). Yang et al. [] conducted tests with . mg/mL
methanol extract of assorted edible mushrooms; Pleuro-
tus geesteranus can scavenge .% of DPPH free radicals,
whereas Flammulina velutipes, Lentinus edodes, and Oyster
cap fungus can scavenge % of DPPH free radicals. In
another test, when the sample concentration is at . mg/mL,
Flammulina velutipes, Pleurotus geesteranus, Oyster cap fun-
gus, and Lentinus edodes can chelate ..% of ferrous
ions. Medicinal mushroom may be used as a source of
oxidation-resistant substance and may scavenge free radicals.
Phenolic compounds represent the largest group of phyto-
chemical components and phenolic compounds which can
inhibit LDL oxidation. e results indicate that FVE can be
good antioxidants.
3.3. Animal Test. e maximum weight of a male adult
hamster can be – g. Although the hamsters of dierent
groups were fed with dierent levels of F. velut ipes daily
during the -week period, there was no signicant inuence
on the hamster feeding eciency.
e Syrian hamster is an animal that is widely used in
lipid research, as its lipoprotein metabolism and conversion
are similar to those of humans []. e current study
BioMed Research International
T : Eect of dried FVP and FVE on food intake, body weight, and feed eciency of hamstera.
Grow the
parameters N H FVP FVP FVP FVE FVE FVE
Food intake .   ±. . ±. . ±. . ±. . ±. . ±. . ±. . ±.
Body weight (g) . ±. . ±. . ±. . ±. . ±. . ±. . ±. . ±.
Feed eciency . ±. . ±. . ±. . ±. . ±. . ±. . ±. . ±.
aN: normal formula; H: high lipid diet; FVP, FVP, and FVP: feed with %, %, and % FVP; FVE, FVE, and FVE: feed with %, %, and % FVE. Feed
eciency = [wt gain (g)/total diet intake (g)] ×%.
T : Eects of dried FVP and FVE on the nutritional and biochemical parameters related to serum and hepatic levels in male hamstersa.
Grow the
parameters N H FVP FVP FVP FVE FVE FVE
Blood
TG . ±.e. ±.b. ±.bc . ±.cd . ±.de . ±.bc . ±.a. ±.cd
TC . ±.e. ±.a. ±.b. ±.cd . ±.d. ±.b. ±.bc . ±.   b
LDL-C . ±.d. ±.a. ±.c. ±.cd . ±.cd . ±.b. ±.b. ±.c
HDL-C . ±.e. ±.c. ±.a. ±.abc . ±.bc . ±.bc . ±.ab c . ±.abc
LDL/HDL-C . ±.c. ±.a. ±.c. ±.c. ±.c. ±.ab . ±.c. ±.b
TC/HDL-C . ±.c. ±.a. ±.c. ±.c. ±.c. ±.ab . ±. c. ±.bc
Liver (mg/g)
TG . ±.a. ±.a. ±.b. ±.b. ±.bc . ±.b. ±.b. ±.b
TC . ±.e. ±.a. ±.a. ±.bc . ±.   bc . ±.e. ±.   cd . ±.cd
Phospholipid .   ±. . ±. . ±. . ±. . ±. . ±. . ±. . ±.
aN: normal formula; H: high lipid diet; TC: total cholesterol; TG: triacylglycerol; LDL-C: low density lipoprotein cholesterol; HDL-C: high density lipoprotein
cholesterol; LDL/HDL-C = low density lipoprotein/high density lipoprotein cholesterol; TC/HDL-C = total cholesterol/high density lipoprotein cholesterol.
a–e in the same row with dierent superscripts are signicantly dierent (𝑃 < 0.05).
compared , , and % of FVP and FVE groups with the H
group to investigate the biochemical values in the blood of
hamsters. e hamsters were under monitoring for  weeks.
As shown in Ta b l e  , the triglyceride (TG) level in the serum
of the FVP group is . mg/dL and that in FVE group
is . mg/dL, comparing to . mg/dL in the H group.
e total cholesterol in the FVP group is .mg/dL
and that in FVE group is . mg/dL, comparing to
. mg/dL in the H group. e LDL-C in the H group
is . mg/dL which is much higher than . mg/dL in
the FVP group and . mg/dL in the FVE group. e
HDL-C in the H group is . mg/dL which is much lower
than . mg/dL in the FVP group and . mg/dL in
the FVE group. We found that both ratios of LDL-C/HDL-
C and TC/HDL-C are lower in the groups with higher dosage
(up to %) of FVP and FVE. ese high FVP/FVE content
groups show an obvious trend in lower TG in serum, and
the LDL/HDL ratios are lower in FVP groups than in FVE
groups. Also, higher FVP and FVE contents have an impact
on decreasing the TC/HDL ratio (Tabl e  ).
With regards to triglyceride in the liver, TG is . mg/dL
in the H group which is much higher than . mg/dL in
the FVP group and . mg/dL in the FVE group. e
total liver cholesterol in the H group is . mg/dL which
is much higher than . mg/dL in the FVP group and
.mg/dLintheFVEgroup.Also,asshowninTa b l e  ,the
liver phospholipid in the H group is . mg/dL, compared to
. mg/dL in the FVP group and . mg/dL in the FVE
group. As shown in Table ,thesolubleberinFVPandFVE
was . mg/ g and . mg/ g, respectively. Previous
study indicates that adding % of soluble ber to the daily diet
of mice can reduce blood lipid and liver TC and TG con-
centrations signicantly. A higher concentration of soluble
dietary ber is more eective in reducing blood cholesterol
[] FVP and FVE reduce the TG and TC concentration in
the liver, and FVP has stronger eect than FVE (Tabl e  ).
Studies also indicate that higher phospholipid content is more
helpful in reducing the total cholesterol level in liver []. In
Table , the total mycosterol contents in FVP and FVE are
. and . mg/ g, respectively, which can reduce blood
sugar, blood pressure, and cholesterol and resist thrombosis.
According to Ostlund Jr., [] an average person ingests
only .. g of mycosterol in his or her daily diet;
therefore, in order to benet from mycosterol for cholesterol
reduction, additional supplementary mycosterol is required
in the daily diet. Large amounts of meat and fat are ingested in
our daily diet; if sucient mycosterol is contained in the diet,
it would compete with cholesterol in the intestinal tract so less
cholesterol can be absorbed by body and the blood cholesterol
could be reduced.
4. Conclusion
() Flammulina velutipes is rich in polysaccharides and
canbeusedinhealthfoodandcosmeticproductsfor
its biological activity.
BioMed Research International
() e antioxidant activity test shows that FVE is dis-
played to be as high as .%, which could prevent
free radical and oxygen attacks. It also showed a metal
chelating ability.
() F. velutipes contains rich dietary ber, which acceler-
ates the decomposition of cholesterol and hence can
reduceTG,TC,andLDLlevelinthebloodandTG,
TC, and phospholipid in the liver.
() Mycosterol has the ability to reduce total cholesterol
and LDL in the blood. Taiwan has a high yield of
Flammulina velutipes all year round which has been
developed into nutritional supplementary foods, and
it is becoming an attractive research subject in the st
century.
Conflict of Interests
e authors declare that there is no conict of interests
regarding the publication of this paper.
Acknowledgments
is study was nancially supported in part by a grant from
Hungkuang University (Taiwan). e authors thank Hanyu
International Corporation Ranch for providing the enoki
mushrooms.
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... Notably, flammin, velin, velutin and flammulin are some of the active metabolites identified with immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects in Flammulina mushroom (Tang et al. 2016). Besides this, it is an excellent source of proteins, vitamins and minerals and is well known for its cholesterol-and blood sugar-reducing effects (Yeh et al. 2014;Mahfuz et al. 2020). Flammulina mushroom has been under cultivation in China, Japan and other East Asian countries. ...
... In this study, we found a lower scavenging potential of F. elastica compared with F. filiformis. Various studies have suggested that the scavenging activity of a yellow strain of F. filiformis ranging from 20% to 75% using methanol extract (Yeh et al. 2014;Ezzudin et al. 2019). The proximate estimation does not show much difference between F. filiformis and F. elastica, but the protein percentage was higher in the latter than the former. ...
... 11 Studies have demonstrated that gut microbiota play an important role in human health through their interaction with the foods consumed by the host, and that different dietary structures largely influence the diversity of gut microbiota. 12 The onset of obesity, inflammation, and metabolic syndrome is indicated to be accompanied by a decrease in beneficial bacteria and an increase in proinflammatory/pathogenic bacteria in the intestine. 13,14 However, the indigestible nature of IDF allows it to exert an important influence on gut microbiota by acting as carbon source for gut microbiota. ...
... 22 Epidemiological evidence has demonstrated that DF intake is significantly associated with body weight. 23 Previous studies have also found that DF from bamboo, 9 konjac, 24 enoki mushrooms, 12 carrots, 25 and oats 26 can suppress energy intake in in vivo or in vitro experiments. The use of complex DF has more congruence with the principle of dietary diversity than does the use of single-source DF. ...
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BACKGROUND Obesity has been demonstrated as a risk factor that seriously affects health. Insoluble dietary fiber (IDF), as a major component of dietary fiber, has positive effects on obesity, inflammation and diabetes. RESULTS In this study, complex IDF was prepared using 50% enoki mushroom IDF, 40% carrot IDF, and 10% oat IDF. The effects and potential mechanism of complex IDF on obesity were investigated in C57BL/6 mice fed a high‐fat diet. The results showed that feeding diets containing 5% complex IDF for 8 weeks significantly reduced mouse body weight, epididymal lipid index, and ectopic fat deposition, and improved mouse liver lipotoxicity (reduced serum levels of alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, and alkaline phosphatase), fatty liver, and short‐chain fatty acid composition. High‐throughput sequencing of 16S rRNA and analysis of fecal metabolomics showed that the intervention with complex IDF reversed the high‐fat‐diet‐induced dysbiosis of gut microbiota, which is associated with obesity and intestinal inflammation, and affected metabolic pathways, such as primary bile acid biosynthesis, related to fat digestion and absorption. CONCLUSION Composite IDF intervention can effectively inhibit high‐fat‐diet‐induced obesity and related symptoms and affect the gut microbiota and related metabolic pathways in obesity. Complex IDF has potential value in the prevention of obesity and metabolic syndrome. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.
... Flammulina velutipes (enoki or enokitake mushrooms) have a lighter coloration and longer stems compared to the wild type, which typically has a darker color and shorter stems. One important bioactive ingredient in enoki mushrooms called mycosterol is thought to reduce blood pressure fluctuations and bloodstream and liver total cholesterol levels [42]. ...
... Studies have shown that both the extract and powder from mushrooms from genus Flammulina help lower blood pressure as well as total cholesterol, triglycerides, and LDL levels, which is due to the high contents of mycosterol and fiber [41,59]. These mushrooms is also used to treat atherosclerosis. ...
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Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) is a system of practices that has been developing for over 2,000 years. Unlike in medicine developed in western culture, it is characterized by a holistic approach to treat diseases, taking into account context of given disease (co-occurring diseases, age and sex of the patient). The practices of Traditional Chinese Medicine include acupuncture, acupressure, qigong gymnastics, and the application of herbal medicine and usage of medicinal mushrooms. According to WHO, cardiovascular diseases, such as stroke or heart attack, are one of leading causes of death, accounting for almost 1/3 of all deaths in 2019. Of the many mushrooms with medicinal properties, those that can be used as drugs for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases deserve special attention. This category includes, among others mushrooms from genus Agaricus, Auricularia or Pleurotus. They are rich source of bioactive compounds, such as flavonoids, sterols, polysaccharides and fiber. Among them, some mushrooms act in a direct way, e.g. by reducing atherosclerotic plaque, and some in an indirect manner, e.g. by reducing blood pressure and cholesterol levels. The main issues in the integration of TCM into Western medicine are the lack of sufficient evidence of its effectiveness, the poor quality of clinical trials, as well as the small number of publications available in English. In the case of mushrooms used in TCM, most studies were performed in animal models or cell lines and used only a single substance instead of the whole fungus.
... Flammulina velutipes is known as enoki mushroom, golden mushroom, belonging to Basidiomycotina, Agaricales, Tricholomataceae, and Flammulina [1]. It is cultivated at large scales in East Asia, especially China, Japan, Vietnam and Korea [2]. ...
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Our research focused on the integration of Flammulina velutipes soluble dietary fiber (Fv-SDF) into wheat flour during the production of dried noodles, delving into the impact of different addition ratios of Fv-SDF on both dough processing characteristics and the quality of the micro-fermented dried noodles. The viscometric and thermodynamic analyses revealed that Fv-SDF notably improved the thermal stability of the mix powder, reduced viscosity, and delayed starch aging. Additionally, Fv-SDF elevated the gelatinization temperature and enthalpy value of the blend. Farinograph Properties and dynamic rheology properties further indicated that Fv-SDF improved dough formation time, stability time, powder quality index, and viscoelasticity. Notably, at a 10% Fv-SDF addition, the noodles achieved the highest sensory score (92) and water absorption rate (148%), while maintaining a lower dry matter loss rate (5.2%) and optimal cooking time (142 s). Gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry (GC-IMS) analysis showed that 67 volatile substances were detected, and the contents of furfural, 1-hydroxy-2-acetone, propionic acid, and 3-methylbutyraldehyde were higher in the Fv-SDF 10% group. These 10% Fv-SDF micro-fermented noodles were not only nutritionally enhanced, but also had a unique flavor. This study provides a valuable theoretical basis for the industrial application of F. velutipes and the development of high-quality dried noodles rich in Fv-SDF.
... F. velutipes is rich in carbohydrates, protein and vitamins, which makes it popular among consumers in Asia, especially China and Japan. The polysaccharides, glycoproteins, phenols and sesquiterpenes isolated from F. velutipes have multiple pharmacological activities, such as antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, hypolipidemic, immunity-regulation and other health-promotion effects [2][3][4][5][6][7][8]. F. velutipes' polysaccharides, as some of its most important active components, have been studied for many years [9,10]. ...
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FVPT1, a novel heteropolysaccharide, was purified from the fruiting body of Flammulina velutipes using magnetic-field-assisted three-phase partitioning and gel permeation chromatography. The structure was characterized using monosaccharide composition and methylation analysis, infrared spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The FVPT1 (~1.64 × 104 Da) was composed of L-fucose, D-galactose, D-glucose and D-mannose at a molar ratio of 1.0:3.5:1.0:1.4. The polysaccharide repeating unit of FVPT1 was established with methylation analyses and NMR spectroscopy. Moreover, a zebrafish larva hyperlipidemia model test demonstrated that FVPT1 can show appreciable lipid-lowering effects. In addition, the FVPT1 exhibited remarkable immunoregulatory activity by increasing nitric oxide, interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-1 secretion in macrophages. Therefore, these results suggest that FVPT1 has the potential to be developed into a new immune or hypolipidemic health product.
... The mushroom sticks produce many fungal mycelium and beneficial bacteria during edible mushroom growth. During the growth process of mycelium, enzymatic hydrolysis can produce a variety of sugars (water-soluble dietary fiber), polyphenolic compounds (quercetin, catechin, gallate, caffeate, etc.), compounds with anti-cancer activity (Flammulina velutipes polysaccharides, fungal immunomodulatory proteins, steroid compounds, monoterpenes, etc.) have lipid-lowering, antioxidant and anti-cancer effects on animals (Hertog et al., 1993;Yeh et al., 2014;Najafi et al., 2019). In addition, the characteristic mushroom fragrance of mycelia can improve the palatability of feed and stimulate the appetite of livestock (Koutrotsios et al., 2014). ...
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Introduction The primary objective of the current study was to evaluate the effects of Flammulina velutipes mushroom residue (FVMR) in a fermented total mixed ration (FTMR) diet on the fattening effect and rumen microorganisms in Guizhou black male goats. Methods A total of 22 Guizhou black male goats were allocated into two groups using the Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) experimental design. The average initial weight was 22.41 ± 0.90 kg and with 11 goats in each group. The control group (group I) was fed the traditional fermentation total mixed ration (FTMR) diet without FVMR. Group II was fed the 30% FVMR in the FTMR diet. Results The results showed that compared with group I, the addition of FVMR in the goat diet could reduce the feed cost and feed conversion ratio (FCR) of group II (p < 0.01). Notably, the apparent digestibility of crude protein (CP), acid detergent fiber (ADF), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), and dry matter (DM) were higher in group II (p < 0.01). The levels of growth hormone (GH), immunoglobulin A (IgA), and immunoglobulin M (IgM) in group II were higher than that of group I (p < 0.01), which the level of glutamic oxalacetic transaminase (ALT) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) was noticeably lower than that of group I (p < 0.01). 30% FVMR in FTMR diets had no effect on rumen fermentation parameters and microbial composition at the phylum level of Guizhou black male goats (p > 0.05). However, at the genus level, the relative abundance of bacteroidal_bs11_gut_group, Christensenellaceae_R-7_group and Desulfovibrio in group II was lower than in group I (p < 0.05), and the relative abundance of Lachnospiraceae_ND3007_group was higher than in group I (p < 0.01). Discussion In conclusion, the results of the current study indicated that 30% FVMR in the FTMR diet improves rumen fermentation and rumen microbial composition in Guizhou black male goats, which improves growth performance, apparent digestibility, and immunity.
Chapter
A warming climate, a change in consumption pattern, and an increasing population are jointly responsible for an unprecedented effect on the food production system across the globe. In general, the increasing population accelerates the release of greenhouse gases and consumption of grains that exacerbate climate and global food crises. At this critical state, options of conventional food sources are crucially required to be figured out. Few of the strategies that are in public discourse are vertical farming of crops, lab-grown meat cultivation, and farming of insects for human consumption. Since ancient times, humans are utilizing microorganisms for various food production processes even without knowing their existence. Microorganisms, such as viable bacteria, have been utilized as a part of fermented food products like fruit juices, honey, and fermented food of animal origin. Nowadays, they are being consumed as probiotic dietary supplements and can be considered as a food source to deal with a current scenario of food production system. Although the use of microorganisms as both feed and food is approximately a century old, it has gained less attention in the life of common people. Recalling the advancement in cultivation tools and techniques that led to agriculture revolution, advances in fermentation technologies would also be important to increase the microbial food production. Although more energy-efficient and eco-friendly than livestock and contemporary crop farming, the latest fermentation technologies still need more efficient development for easy cultivation with less fermentation waste and energy. Therefore, the current chapter aims to provide some unique features of microorganisms and microbially synthesized high-quality food products that make a better alternative to conventional feed and food sources. The future possibilities and challenges along with potential risks of their production on the large scale will also be discussed.
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There were described the basics of research work and features of experiments in mushroom cultivation. The general requirements for the organization of research on intensive methods of mushroom cultivation, research methods for the elements of mushroom growing technology, features of conducting research with pure culture, and methods of manufacturing and researching seed material were shown as well. Also, there were described the methods of preparation, analysis, and interpretation of scientific data obtained in mushroom cultivation, and the procedure for keeping documentation and reporting. The methodology is intended for researchers, teachers of institutions of higher education, and graduates of the «Bachelor» and «Master’s» educational levels.
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The autoxidation of soybean oil in a cyclodextrin emulsion system was studied in the presence of an emulsion stabilizer consisting of polysaccharides such as xanthan, tragacanth gum, and methylcellulose. Xanthan strongly inhibited the peroxidation of soybean oil containing tocopherols but showed no antioxidant activity on soybean oil without tocopherols in the emulsion. Xanthan did not have hydrogen-donating ability but expressed Fe2+-binding activity. The Fe2+-binding activity corresponded to the pyruvate content of xanthan. Depyruvated xanthan did not inhibit effectively the autoxidation of soybean oil. The Fe2+-chelating structure of xanthan is discussed.
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Ganoderma tsugae Murrill are currently popular and used in the formulation of nutraceuticals and as functional foods. The non-volatile components in the form of mature and baby fruit bodies (Ling chih), mycelia and fermentation filtrate from submerged culture were studied. Mycelia and filtrate contained significantly higher moisture contents (10.3% and 19.8%) and higher contents of carbohydrates, reducing sugars, crude ash and crude protein. Four forms of G. tsugae contained from 7.65% to 10.1% dry weight of total soluble sugars and polyols. Total free amino acid contents ranged from 2.50 to 149 mg g−1 dry weight and in the descending order of filtrate, mycelia, baby Ling chih and Ling chih. Contents of monosodium glutamate-like components ranged from 0.16 to 26.0 mg g−1 whereas, contents of sweet components ranged from 0.50 to 24.6 mg g−1. The bitter components were predominant. Contents of total and flavour 5′-nucleotides were high in filtrate (5.48 and 3.10 mg g−1, respectively). The umami intensities were expected to be in the descending order of filtrate, mycelia, baby Ling chih and Ling chih.
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