Content uploaded by Helen Lingard
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Helen Lingard on Jan 31, 2015
Content may be subject to copyright.
Available via license: CC BY 4.0
Content may be subject to copyright.
VALERIE FRANCIS AND HELEN LINGARD
28 THE AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION ECONOMICS AND BUILDING VOL.2 NO.1
THE CASE FOR FAMILY-FRIENDLY WORK PRACTICES
IN THE AUSTRALIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
Valerie Francis and Helen Lingard
Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning, The University of Melbourne
INTRODUCTION
Kanter (1977) suggests that the fate of both
men and women is inextricably bound up
with workplace structures and processes.
The construction industry provides a hard
and demanding work environment. Compa-
nies operate in a highly competitive market
with relatively low profit levels and pressure
to complete construction projects within tight
dead lines. With the threat of significant pen-
alties for time overruns, professionals and
managers need to ensure their availability
while work on site continues. Thus, work
hours are often long and sometimes irregu-
lar. Research suggests that participation in
work, reflected in work hours, is negatively
related to family participation and positively
related to divorce rate (Aldous et al
.,
1979).
Irregularity of work hours has also been
identified as the most important variable
affecting low marital quality among shift
workers (White and Keith, 1990).
Construction industry professionals are also
responsible for the delivery of projects that
could cost lives or their company's reputa-
tion should the requisite quality, planned
budget or specified completion date not be
met. Negative work experiences, such as
stress, are associated with marital and fam-
ily dysfunction (Barling, 1990). Each project
poses unique challenges and may involve
the use of new construction techniques and
methods. Continuity of employment is de-
pendent upon successful tendering for new
projects in a highly competitive environ-
ment. In this context, employees may feel
concerned about their long-term job secu-
rity or may be required to relocate fre-
quently in order to remain in employment.
Previous research has found job insecurity
to be negatively related to marital and family
functioning (Larson et al
.
, 1994) and fre-
quent relocation is likely to place pressures
on the increasing number of dual-career
couples (Kamerman and Kahn, 1981).
Research evidence suggests that employ-
ees’ work experiences can have a detrimen-
tal effect on aspects of their family life,
including parenting behaviour (Grimm-
Thomas and Perry-Jenkins, 1994), perceived
conflict between work and family (O’Neil and
Greenberger, 1994) and marital quality
(Hughes et al
.,
1992). There is growing evi-
dence that having a supportive close rela-
tionship is positively associated with life
expectancy and negatively correlated with
experience of psychological distress
(Cramer, 1998).
Many employees today are finding it in-
creasingly difficult to balance family and
work commitments, particularly when long
hours and unresponsive organisations are
involved. Managers may feel that balancing
family and work should be a private matter
for the individual employee. However, fami-
lies are a fundamental part of society, and
traditional management theory, which pre-
supposes a lifestyle which segregates family
and work spheres, is being challenged in
many industries and by legislation. Societal
attitudes and work values are changing. We
now have higher expectations of family rela-
tionships and parenting.
For organisations to succeed they need to
be cognisant of the needs of workers with
family responsibilities. They will be com-
pelled to from two standpoints. Firstly, by
changes in legislation, which stem from a
social justice base, and secondly, from an
organisational effectiveness perspective.
This paper explores changing demographic
trends and societal attitudes and discusses
issues occurring at the work/family inter-
face. Some suggestions as to how the con-
struction industry could begin to tackle
these issues are provided and the paper
concludes that construction companies
need to change in order to recruit and retain
an effective and motivated work force in the
future.
CHANGING WORKFORCE
CHARACTERISTICS
One major reason for the need for change is
that the nature of the Australian workforce
is changing in several ways.
THE CASE FOR FAMILY-FRIENDLY WORK PRACTICES IN THE AUSTRALIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
THE AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION ECONOMICS AND BUILDING VOL.2 NO.1 29
Increased number of women
in the workforce
Over the past 30 years the employment par-
ticipation rates of men and women in Aus-
tralia have converged (ABS, 1997 and 1994).
The extent of this trend is indicated in Table
1. This convergence has substantially
changed the profile of the Australian work-
force, with many more employees now ful-
filling family responsibilities in addition to
working. In Australia, at present, in 59% of
two-parent families, both parents are in
paid employment (ABS, 1998). There has
also been an increase in the number of lone
parents in the workforce. In 1999, 47% of all
female lone parents and 63.1% of all male
lone parents were in the paid workforce
(ABS, 2000a).
Family responsibilities influence an individ-
ual's participation in the work force and the
employment participation rate of women
increases dramatically when the youngest
child reaches school age (Glezer and Wol-
cott, 2000). However, many young married
women, who may be considered in the child
bearing and early child rearing age group
are also now in employment. For example,
employment among women in the 25 to 34
years of age group has risen from 30% in
1960 to 66% and is predicted to rise to 79%
in 2011 (ABS, 1994, 1995 and 1998). Many
mothers work part-time in order to better
manage work/home issues, particularly
when children are young, however, mothers
are found to work less overtime than their
male counterparts, reflecting their prefer-
ence for part-time work. Half of all fathers
and one third of all mothers, however, regu-
larly work overtime (Glezer and Wolcott, 2000).
Women are also more available for em-
ployment due to declining birth rates, which
currently averages 1.75 (ABS, 2000b).
Professional women tend to have fewer chil-
dren than non-professional women with an
average of 1.6 and also bear children at an
older age. The average age of the mother at
the birth of their first child is 30.6 years for
professionals and 27.6 years for all mothers
(various sources cited in Bourke, 2000). Pro-
fessional women also return to work more
quickly after the birth of their first child than
non-professional women. It is possible that
professional couples may be forgoing or
delaying child bearing in order to pursue
fulfilling careers (Bourke, 2000).
Increase in the number of aged
dependants
The recent change from institutional aged
care to home and community-based care
means that responsibility for caring for eld-
erly relatives now rests with family mem-
bers. With Australia’s aging population and
increasing life expectancy, the number of
workers with elder care responsibilities is
likely to rise. In fact it is predicted that be-
tween 1996 and 2041 the aged dependency
ratio will double from 18.1 to 34.8. This
means that for every 100 workers there will
be 34 aged dependents (Gorey et al
.
, 1992).
Currently 70% of all providers of personal
care and home help for the aged, terminally
ill or disabled persons are also in the work
force (ABS, 1994). This may be partly due to
the fact that the employment rate of older
women has increased due to increased at-
tachment to work and for financial reasons.
Furthermore, together with the trend to-
wards delayed child-bearing and the in-
creasing employment rate among older
women, the aging population is likely to re-
duce the availability of grandparents to pro-
vide informal childcare.
Table 1: Employment participation rates of men and women in Australia
1966 1998
Men's overall employment participation rate 84% 73%
Women's overall employment participation rate 36% 54%
VALERIE FRANCIS AND HELEN LINGARD
30 THE AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION ECONOMICS AND BUILDING VOL.2 NO.1
Meeting family responsibilities
These demographic changes pose chal-
lenges for individuals who must now bal-
ance their responsibilities as employees
with those of parents or carers. Perhaps
unsurprisingly, a recent report prepared by
the ABS found that in dual income couples
70% of all mothers and 56% of all fathers
reported that they always/often felt rushed
or pressed for time. Only 25.2% of couples
without children reportedly experienced this
feeling with the same frequency (ABS,
1999a).
The changing workforce has also forced
some changes to work practices to accom-
modate those with family responsibilities,
most notably by taking time off work. It has
been reported that, during 1998, 58% of peo-
ple with dependent care responsibilities
took time off to meet family responsibilities.
The average duration of this absence was
9.4 days in a 12 month period (Glezer and
Wolcott, 2000). Furthermore, it appears that
both men and women take time off work for
this purpose. For example, a recent Tasma-
nian study found that 13% of all employees
reported taking time off in the previous
three months to care for another person,
75% of which related to the care of a sick
child. Of these, 43% were men and 57%
were women (ABS, 1999b).
Changing attitudes about the men’s and
women’s roles
The roles and expectations of women and
men have changed significantly over the
past 50 years. One consequence has been a
shift in the importance of work relative to
family and leisure. More women than ever
before are in the workforce, reflecting rising
educational levels, changing societal atti-
tudes and declining birth rates. Whilst we
have seen wide acceptance that childless
couples both work, attitudinal and institu-
tional barriers to women’s employment re-
surface upon child bearing (Bourke, 2000).
There has been an increase in divorced,
blended, defacto and single parent families
which has changed the way we view family
as well as the work structures that have
developed from the assumption of a tradi-
tional nuclear family.
Although women now reach similar educa-
tion levels to men and nearly equal men in
employment participation they are still
found in more supportive lower paid roles
(Squirchuk and Bourke, 2000). The percent-
age of women managers is rising. Yet, in
spite of this, few workplaces have developed
adequate strategies to accommodate part-
time managers with family responsibilities
(Squirchuk and Bourke, 2000).
Whilst mothers have traditionally spent
more time with children than fathers, their
increasing participation in the workforce
means the time they spend is decreasing.
Although fathers are not spending any more
time on family, child activities or domestic
duties they are spending more time alone
with their children.
While working women still do more domes-
tic work than men (Demo and Acock
,
1993),
a coping strategy for mothers appears to be
to do less domestic work than in the past,
work part-time, have fewer children and
bear these children later in life. Managing
work and family responsibilities can there-
fore be very difficult for mothers in dual in-
come families and for lone mothers. The
trend to delay child bearing means that an
increasing proportion of couples will face
the additional responsibility of dependent
children and care of elderly parents either
simultaneously or sequentially.
Although very few studies have looked at the
effect of paternal employment demands on
children it would appear that work hours
and job stress have an indirect effect by in-
creasing the parenting burden on the
mother and decreasing the perception of
fathers in a nurturing role. However, there
has been a substantial shift in the expecta-
tion of fathers’ involvement in parenting. An
unpublished study by Russell (reported in
Russell and Bowman, 2000) showed that
fathers now spend more time with and are
closer to their children than they were 15
years ago. However, 68% of fathers said they
did not spend enough time with their chil-
dren and 53% felt that job and family inter-
fered with each other. Interestingly, 57% of
fathers identified work-related barriers,
such as expectations of longer hours and
inflexibility, as being the critical factor pre-
venting them from being the kind of father
they would like to be.
With the increasing acceptance of gender
equity among the current and future
generations, family is being seen more as a
joint responsibility. A survey of men under
35 with young children who also have part-
ners in the work force, reported that they
THE CASE FOR FAMILY-FRIENDLY WORK PRACTICES IN THE AUSTRALIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
THE AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION ECONOMICS AND BUILDING VOL.2 NO.1 31
were feeling more stress and were keen to
change the corporate world to enable them
to better balance work/life issues (Russell
and Bowman, 2000). In another still to be
published survey by Russell (also reported
in Russell and Bowman, 2000), 63% of young
men said they would refuse a job or promo-
tion that had a negative impact on their fam-
ily or their partner’s career or they would
refuse to transfer for the same reason. A US
study of older teenagers found that 80% had
mothers who work and 86% had fathers who
work and 79% said they want a job that al-
lows for personal and family activities (Fam-
ily and Work Institute, 2000). It is
increasingly likely that organisations will
need to address these changing expecta-
tions in order to attract good graduates and
retain a motivated work force.
THE NEED FOR NON-TRADITIONAL
MANAGEMENT APPROACHES
Traditional management theories and prac-
tices presuppose a lifestyle that segregates
family and work spheres. Dual income cou-
ples, whether as spouses or parents, par-
ticipate in many roles simultaneously.
Managers may live with family responsibili-
ties themselves, yet are taught that suc-
cessful managers must remain detached
and rational, not concerning themselves
with the family concerns of employees. For
example, widely accepted theories of moti-
vation focus on employees' individualistic
needs for self-actualisation, achievement
and power with scant regard for employees’
needs outside the workplace (Bruce and
Reed
,
1994). This approach was largely
predicated on the view that the workforce is
homogeneous, comprising males of Euro-
pean ancestry married to full time home-
makers, who would take on the sole
responsibility for child-care and domestic
duties. In most developed countries this
presumption no longer holds true (Popenoe
,
1993), as the demographic characteristics
reported earlier in this paper suggest.
In many industries the male-centred atti-
tudes that structure the work place are be-
ing challenged and it is women employees
that are driving the changes (Bourke, 2000).
However as women are still highly under-
represented in the traditionally male-
dominated construction industry this has
prohibited any widespread reforms. Atti-
tudes still exist that promote the image of
the ‘ideal’ worker as a person who is able
and willing to put work first, within an ever-
expanding time-frame. Male middle manag-
ers who exercise control over many of the
human resources management issues at a
project level have demanded that women
comply with male-oriented work practices
(Dainty et al
.
, 2000). Within this context,
women are forced to adopt career-focused
life-styles or forego professional success.
However, companies should take heed of
legal precedent set in
Hickie v Hunt and
Hunt
where it was found that the termina-
tion of a legal partner’s contract on the ba-
sis of her part-time work status amounted
to indirect sex discrimination (Bourke,
2000). The case is critical to professional
women as it declares a new stage in equity –
that is the accommodation of difference –
without disadvantage.
However, it is not just women whose altered
requirements must be met. The increasing
numbers of dual income couples mean that
men and women now share, to some de-
gree, parenting and family responsibilities.
Traditional management practices fail to
recognise this diversity - for example, man-
agement activities, such as staff allocation,
that have little regard for employees’ per-
sonal needs. Changes in workforce charac-
teristics require a shift in management
approach to re-examine the values, roles
and stereotypes and to meet the increasing
expectation that a balance between work
and family life be achieved. Peter Senge
writes, "the artificial boundary between
work and family is anathema to systems
thinking" (MacGregor
,
1999). The two must
be seen as interactive in that what is positive
or negative in one affects the other.
In order to achieve greater equity and diver-
sity, there is a need to challenge career
structures and work practices that favour
full time workers with minimal family re-
sponsibilities. However, this cultural change
will not come easily in the construction in-
dustry. Indeed, it has been noted that, how-
ever accepting of change they may be at the
start of their career, male entrants to the
construction industry inadvertently reinforce
current attitudes and practices by emulating
the behaviour of the managers who influ-
enced their own career development (Dainty
et al
.
, 2000). Given the strength of the influ-
ences that perpetuate the status quo at
middle management level, it is likely that
the adoption of the non-traditional
management approaches that are required
VALERIE FRANCIS AND HELEN LINGARD
32 THE AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION ECONOMICS AND BUILDING VOL.2 NO.1
to accommodate the needs of the workforce
in the 21st century will have to be driven
from the top down.
WHY SHOULD CONSTRUCTION FIRMS
CARE ABOUT WORKERS' FAMILIES?
Arguments for providing a workplace that is
supportive of workers' family lives are nu-
merous but can be broken down into two
main categories relating to legal require-
ments and organisational performance.
Legal requirements
Laws now exist at the federal level and in
most Australian states and territories that
impose requirements on employers in re-
spect of the family responsibilities of em-
ployees. Such laws fall under the categories
of industrial relations laws, anti-
discrimination laws and affirmative action
laws and were stimulated by domestic and
international trends (Squirchuk and Bourke,
2000). They present compelling reasons for
organisations to address the concerns of
employees with family responsibilities.
In 1979, Australia adopted the Convention on
the elimination of all forms of discrimination
against women and, in 1990, ratified ILO
Convention 156, dealing with workers with
family responsibilities. Both conventions
have resulted in legislative reforms. The
Sex
Discrimination Act
(1984) and its amend-
ment in 1994 prohibit dismissal on the basis
of family responsibility. In the past decade
Australian organisations have moved from
centralised wage fixing to a system of en-
terprise bargaining. It is possible that this
has resulted in greater disparity between
workplaces, with some employees of lead-
ing organisations achieving better condi-
tions to help balance their work and family
commitments. It would appear that Austra-
lian policy and practice does lag behind that
of other OECD countries. This is evidenced
by the fact Australia is one of the only two
OECD countries that does not have paid ma-
ternity leave (Sex Discrimination Unit, 2002).
Unfortunately the reality is that even when
work-family provisions exist they are often
grossly under-utilised as the benefits are
not accepted as part of the workplace cul-
ture (Lewis, 2001). While the female em-
ployees are “allowed” to use such provisions
for family reasons, they are often then dis-
advantaged in their professional careers
(APESMA, 1994). Furthermore, it is often
considered unacceptable for male employ-
ees to use such provisions and doing so may
result in them suffering severe career
penalties.
Organisational performance
Both men and women have been found to
experience home-to-work 'spillover' effects,
whereby subjective experiences in one con-
text impact upon performance in the other
arena (Barnett
,
1994; Eckenrode and Gore
,
1990). The impact of home events on behav-
iour in the workplace has implications for
organisational performance. Research sug-
gests that the implementation of family-
friendly work policies and practices leads to
enhanced organisational efficiency, morale,
productivity and company citizenship and
lower absenteeism and staff turnover (Cass
,
1993; Butruille, 1990; Fernandez, 1986; Ba-
den and Friedman, 1981). Research sug-
gests that the quality of family and marital
life moderates the impact of job role quality
on psychological distress (Barnett et al
.
,
1992). Thus, workers with positive subjective
experiences of family and marital life are
less likely to suffer mental health problems
as a result of work-related stress. Providing
a work environment that is supportive of work-
ers' family roles can therefore help to alleviate
work-related mental health problems.
Dual-income couples are increasing in
number (Paden and Buehler, 1995) and fam-
ily-friendly work practices are increasingly
valued and used by men as well as women
(Pleck, 1993; Butruille, 1990; Fernandez,
1986; Burke, 2000). Furthermore, male
managers who report working in an organi-
zation that allows them to achieve a satis-
factory work/family balance also report
experiencing less job stress, a greater joy in
work, a lower intention to quit, enhanced
career and life satisfaction, fewer psycho-
somatic symptoms and more positive emo-
tional and physical well-being (Burke, 2000).
Employers should also recognise the ex-
penses of training staff in the workplace to
the point where they are sufficiently produc-
tive to generate income — US estimates
suggest that, after 10 years of service, an
employer will have invested a minimum of
$US600, 000, in terms of salary, benefits,
recruitment and training costs, for an em-
ployed engineer (Maskell-Pretz, 1997). Em-
ployers who recognise the needs of their
employees are more likely to retain staff
and retention is likely to yield extensive cost
benefits to an organisation.
THE CASE FOR FAMILY-FRIENDLY WORK PRACTICES IN THE AUSTRALIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
THE AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION ECONOMICS AND BUILDING VOL.2 NO.1 33
Women are under-represented among con-
struction industry professionals (Court and
Moralee, 1995; Agapiou et al
.
, 1995; Dainty
et al
.
, 2000). Increasing the numbers of pro-
fessional women in the construction indus-
try is consistent with policies on equal
opportunity but is also recognised to be an
important facilitating factor in changing the
construction industry's traditional adversar-
ial culture (Court and Moralee, 1995). In ad-
dition, proponents of diversification argue it
leads to a more responsive organization
(Dainty, 2000) Furthermore, there is evi-
dence that the construction industry will
need to recruit more women if its future
labour demands are to be met (Agapiou et
al
.
, 1995). Research suggests that, regard-
less of employment status, women perform
two to three times more household work
than their partners (Demo and Acock, 1993).
Therefore it is likely that women will be
more likely to remain in employment that is
supportive of their family responsibilities.
SO WHAT CAN CONSTRUCTION
COMPANIES DO?
There are many ways companies can assist
employees with family responsibilities.
Some of the options are presented below.
The needs of individual employees will differ
and change over time. It is therefore impor-
tant that companies examine the needs of
their employees and ensure that policies
address these needs. Consultation with em-
ployees through surveys, focus groups,
newsletters, notices or workshops is rec-
ommended. Furthermore, implementing
such policies is often not enough. An organ-
isational culture needs to be fostered within
which family-supportive policies are under-
stood to be a right instead of a benefit. Em-
ployees must feel comfortable about
utilising these options without being
branded as being lacking in commitment to
their work.
Child care
Australian companies' provision of child
care surpasses that available in most other
OECD countries (Cass, 1993) but company
sponsored child care is still rarely available
to construction industry employees. While it
may be difficult to provide on-site child care
centres due to the limited space and tempo-
rary nature of construction work, other
options for child care provision which con-
struction companies may be able to provide
include employer contributions towards
employees' child care fees. Provision of as-
sistance for care of children outside school
hours, during school holidays and when they
are sick should also be considered.
Elder care
An ageing population will have a serious
impact on the workplace. Filial obligations
may actually come to eclipse child care ob-
ligations in the number of employees af-
fected. If elder care is a need then support
in the form of special family leave or an
information and referral service may be
helpful.
Flexible work practices
Flexible work arrangements are one of the
most frequently used ways to assist em-
ployees with family responsibilities (Fernan-
dez, 1986). Flexible work arrangements
cover a range of practices including flexible
work hours, job sharing or working from
home or telecommuting. While there will
always be the need to have supervisory per-
sonnel on site, advances in the capabilities
and use of information technology mean
that working remotely is now feasible for
many professionals.
Permanent part-time work
Part-time work can assist employees in
maintaining a balance between work and
family. Squirchuk and Bourke (2000) note
that AMP consider their flexible work prac-
tices and part-time work options to have
greatly increased their employee retention
rate after maternity leave and reduced their
overall staff turnover. From a company's
point of view part-time work can provide
flexibility to cater for peak periods (Napoli,
1994). This flexibility may help construction
organizations to cope with the cyclical na-
ture of construction demand. Permanent
part-time work differs from casual work in
that employees have a "permanent" con-
tract of employment with the company and
retain benefits such as annual leave, sick
leave, parental and long service leave. How-
ever, it is important part-time workers are
valued, not marginalised, and that they enjoy
access to identified career paths.
Parental leave
Parental leave allows employees with a new
child, either natural or adopted, to care for
their child at home on a full time basis in the
child's first year and still retain employment
and accrue entitlements. In Australia, the
VALERIE FRANCIS AND HELEN LINGARD
34 THE AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION ECONOMICS AND BUILDING VOL.2 NO.1
Workplace Relations Act
of 1996, the pri-
mary legislative instrument at the federal
level which regulates employee entitle-
ments, provides employees with the oppor-
tunity to take 52 weeks of unpaid combined
paternity and maternity leave, where an em-
ployee has had 12 months' continuous ser-
vice with the same employer. However,
Australia and the United States are the only
two OECD countries that do not provide paid
maternity leave (Sex Discrimination Unit,
2002). The provision of at least twelve
weeks paid maternity leave is typically only
available in public sector jobs (Cass, 1993).
Some private sector firms attempting to re-
cruit and retain female employees are re-
ported to offer between six and twelve
weeks paid maternity leave and a lesser
amount of paid paternity leave (ILO, 2001).
Construction firms serious about attracting
and retaining staff may consider the provi-
sion of paid parental leave or offering part-
time work to their male and female employees.
Other initiatives
Companies that actively seek to support
employees with family responsibilities do
not limit themselves to meeting employees'
immediate needs for child care and leave.
Other initiatives intended to elicit commit-
ment and loyalty from employees include,
but are not limited to:
z salary packaging of child care costs,
school fees or elder care costs to provide a
tax benefit to employees
z family related phone calls to enable em-
ployees to check on children or elderly rela-
tives
z employee assistance programmes offer-
ing counselling for employees with personal
or family difficulties.
Construction firms should identify their em-
ployees' priorities and be creative in formu-
lating ways to respond to employees' work
and family situations. This is likely to result
in a committed, motivated and satisfied
workforce.
CONCLUSIONS
The relationship between family life and
work has dramatically altered over the past
sixty years, however, these changes have
not been reflected in the work patterns of
professionals in the construction industry. In
this context, the construction industry must
be careful that its professionals do not leave
to pursue careers in alternative industries
that provide greater benefits and more ap-
peal. The availability and perceived quality of
employment alternatives is recognised to be
a key factor in job commitment and turn-
over. Already construction is dropping in
career appeal, and shortage of skills has
been highlighted as an issue (Agapiou et al
.
,
1995). In the 1999 edition of the
Jobs Rated
Almanac
, civil engineering fell from 18th to
70th position in expressed job preference
and 14 construction trades were rated in the
bottom ranks. Construction, above all, is a
people industry and managing its human
resources should be paramount if it is to
remain competitive.
Alternative working patterns, such as job
sharing, flexible working hours and part-
time work have proved successful in other
professions, both in Australia and overseas.
These initiatives could benefit many con-
struction professionals as well. Not only
those employees with family responsibili-
ties, but also those who do not wish to work
full-time, for example, as a ‘lead into’ re-
tirement, would benefit. The advantages to
employers are likely to be seen in terms of
higher productivity, increased retention
rates and enhanced morale. However, the
provision of benefits delivered through
work-life human resources policies is not
sufficient in itself. A workplace culture must
exist within which employees feel comfort-
able taking advantage of alternative work
options. In order to achieve such a culture,
change must be driven from the top down
and sensitivity training for middle managers
and supervisors may also be required.
The authors are currently undertaking re-
search work to develop a better understand-
ing of the extent to which tension exists
between work and family demands among
white-collar construction industry workers.
The study will enhance our understanding of
the value of implementing work-family and
work-life employment practices in this envi-
ronment and also formulate recommenda-
tions to help the construction industry
to meet the expectations of professional
employees.
REFERENCES
Agapiou, A., Price, A. and McCaffer, R. (1995)
Planning future construction skill require-
ments: understanding labour resource
issues.
Construction Management and Eco-
nomics
, 13, 149–161.
THE CASE FOR FAMILY-FRIENDLY WORK PRACTICES IN THE AUSTRALIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
THE AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION ECONOMICS AND BUILDING VOL.2 NO.1 35
Aldous, J., Osmond, M. and Hicks, M. (1979)
Men's Work and Men's Families. In: Burr W.
, Hill, R., Nye, F. and Reiss I. (eds)
Contem-
porary Theories about the Family
. The Free
Press, New York.
APESMA (1994) Report on Conference out-
comes. Women’s Conference, Woodend, 14–
16 October. Association of Professional
Engineers, Scientists and Managers,
Melbourne.
ABS (1994)
Focus on Families: Work and
Family Responsibilities,
Australian Bu-
reau of Statistics, Cat No 4422.0.
Australian Government Printing Service,
Canberra.
ABS (1995)
Australian Social Trends
1995,
Australian Bureau of Statistics,
Cat No 4102. Australian Government
Printing Service, Canberra.
ABS (1997)
Australian Women’s Year-
book 1997,
Australian Bureau of Statis-
tics. Canberra. Australian Government
Printing Service.
ABS (1998)
Labour force, Australia,
Aus-
tralian Bureau of Statistics, Cat No
6203.0, May. Australian Government
Printing Service, Canberra.
ABS (1999a)
Australia social trends,
Australian Bureau of Statistics, Cat No
4102. Canberra. Australian Government
Printing Service.
ABS (1999b)
Balancing Work and Caring
Responsibilities,
Australian Bureau of
Statistics, Cat No 4903.6. Australian
Government Printing Service, Canberra.
ABS (2000a)
Labour Force Status and
other Characteristics of Families
. Aus-
tralian Bureau of Statistics, Cat No
6224. Australian Government Printing
Service, Canberra.
ABS (2000b)
Births 1999,
Australian Bu-
reau of Statistics, Cat No 3301.0.
Australian Government Printing Service,
Canberra.
Baden, C. and Friedman, D. E. (eds) (1981)
New management initiatives for working
parents
, Reports from an April 1981 confer-
ence, Office of Continuing Education, Whee-
lock College, Boston.
Barling, J. (1990)
Employment, Stress and
Family Functioning
. John Wiley, Chichester.
Barnett R., Marshall N. L. and Pleck J.
(1992) Men’s multiple roles and their rela-
tionship to men’s psychological distress.
Journal of Marriage and the Family
, 54,
358–367.
Barnett, R. (1994) Home-to-work spillover
revisited: A study of full time employed
women in dual-earner couples.
Journal of
Marriage and the Family
, 56, 647–656.
Bourke, J (2000)
Corporate Women, Chil-
dren, Careers and Workplace culture: The
integration of flexible work practices into
the Legal and Finance Professions.
Studies
in Organisational Analysis and Innovation
Monograph Number 15, Industrial Relations
Research Centre, University of New South
Wales. Sydney.
Bruce, W. and Reed, C. (1994) Preparing
Supervisors for the Future Workforce: The
Dual-Income Couple and the Work-Family
Dichotomy.
Public Administration Review
,
54, 36–43.
Burke, R. (2000) Do Managerial men
benefit from organisational values sup-
porting work-personal life balance?
Women in Management Review
, 15, (2).
Butruille, S. G. (1990) Corporate Caretaking.
Training and Development Journal
, 44,
48–55.
Cass, B. (1993) The Work and Family Debate
in Australia. Paper presented at AFR/BCA
Conference on Work and Family: The Corpo-
rate Challenge, Melbourne, December.
Court, G. and Moralee, J. (1995)
Balancing
the building team: gender issues in the
building professions
. The Institute for Em-
ployment Studies, Report 284.
Cramer, D. (1998)
Close Relationships: the
study of Love and Friendship
. Arnold,
London.
Dainty, A., Neale, R. and Bagilhole, B. (2000)
Comparison of Men’s and Women’s Careers
in UK Construction Industry.
Journal of Pro-
fessional Issues in Engineering Education
and Practice
, July. ASCE.
Demo, D. H. and Acock, A. C. (1993) Family
Diversity and the Division of Domestic La-
bor: How Much Have Things Really
Changed?
Family Relations
, 42, 323–331.
Derogatis, L. R. (1975)
The SCL-90-R
. Clini-
cal Psychometrics, Baltimore.
VALERIE FRANCIS AND HELEN LINGARD
36 THE AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF CONSTRUCTION ECONOMICS AND BUILDING VOL.2 NO.1
Eckenrode, J. and Gore, S. (1990)
Stress be-
tween work and family
. Plenum Press, New
York.
Family and Work Institute. (2000) Prelimi-
nary findings of the Youth and Employment
study, Proceedings Work-Life 2000: Past,
Ptresent and Future Conference, March.
Fernandez, J. P. (1986)
Child care and cor-
porate productivity: resolving family/work
conflicts
. Lexington Books, Lexington MA.
Glezer, H. and Wolcott, I. (2000) Conflicting
Commitments: Working Mothers and Fa-
thers in Australia. In: Hass, L., Hwang, P.
and Russell G. (eds)
Organisational Change
and Gender Equity: International Perspec-
tives on Fathers and Mothers at the Work-
place.
Sage Publications, California.
Gorey, K.M., Rice, R.W. and Brice, G. C.
(1992) The prevalence of elder care respon-
sibilities among the work force population.
Research on Ageing,
14, 399–418.
Grimm-Thomas, K. and Perry-Jenkins, M.
(1994) All in a Day's Work: Job Experiences,
Self Esteem and Fathering in Working-Class
Families.
Family Relations
, 43, 174–181.
Hughes, D., Galinsky, E. and Morris, A.
(1992) The Effects of Job Characteristics on
Marital Quality: Specifying Linking Mecha-
nisms.
Journal of Marriage and the Family
,
54, 31–42.
ILO (2001)
E.Quality @ work: An information
base on Equal Employment Opportunities
for Women and Men
. www.ilo.org/public/
english/employment/gems/eeo/main.htm
Kamerman, S. B. and Kahn, A. J. (1981)
Child Care, Family Benefits and Working
Parents
. Columbia University Press, New
York.
Kanter, R. M. (1977)
Men and Women of the
Corporation
. Basic Books, New York.
Larson, J. H., Wilson, S. M. and Beley, R.
(1994) The Impact of Job Insecurity on Mari-
tal and Family Relationships.
Family Rela-
tions
, 43, 138–143.
Lewis, S. (2001) Restructuring workplace
cultures: the ultimate work-family chal-
lenge.
Women in Management Review
, 16
(1), 21–29.
MacGregor, R. (1999)
Work and family poli-
cies: a win-win formula for business and
society
. Minnesota Center for Corporate Re-
sponsibility, Minnesota.
Maskell-Pretz, M. (1997) Women in Engi-
neering: Toward a Barrier-Free Work Envi-
ronment,
ASCE Journal of Management in
Engineering
, 13 (1), January/February, 32–37.
Napoli J. (1994)
Work and Family Responsi-
bilities: Adjusting the Balance
. CHH Austra-
lia, North Ryde.
O’Neil, R. and Greenberger, E. (1994) Pat-
terns of Commitment to work and parent-
ing: implications for role strain.
Journal of
Marriage and the Family
, 56, 101–118.
Paden, S.L. and Buehler, C. (1995) Coping
with Dual-Income Lifestyle.
Journal of Mar-
riage and the Family
, 57, 101–110.
Pleck, J. H. (1993) Are "Family-Supportive"
Employer Policies relevant to Men? In: Hood
J. C. (ed),
Men, Work and Family
. Sage,
Newbury Park.
Popenoe, D. (1993) American family decline,
1960–1990: a review and appraisal.
Journal
of Marriage and the Family
, 55, 527–555.
Russell, G. and Bowman, L. (2000)
Work and
Family: Current Thinking, Research and
Practice.
Department of Family and Com-
munity Services, Commonwealth of Australia.
Sex Discrimination Unit (2002)
Valuing Par-
enthood – Options for Paid Maternity Leave
:
Interim Paper 2002,
Sex Discrimination Unit,
Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Com-
mission. Sydney.
Squirchuk, R. and Bourke, J. (2000) From
Equal Opportunity to Family-Friendly Poli-
cies and Beyond In: Hass, L. L., Hwang, P.
and Russell, G. (eds)
Organisational Change
and Gender Equity: International Perspec-
tives on Fathers and Mothers at the Work-
place.
Sage Publications, California.
White, L. and Keith, B. (1990) The Effect of
Shift Work on the Quality and Stability of
Marital Relations.
Journal of Marriage and
the Family
, 52, 453–462.
