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ICID+18
2nd International Conference: Climate, Sustainability and
Development in Semi-arid Regions
August 16 - 20, 2010, Fortaleza - Ceará, Brazil
Resource use planning under climate change: Experience from Turkana
and Pokot pastoralists of Northwestern Kenya
Stephen M. Mureithi
i
and Francis E.O. Opiyo
ii
i
Department of Land Resource Management & Agricultural Technology (LARMAT)
i
University of Nairobi, P. O. Box 29053 – 00100, Nairobi, Kenya
i
E-mail: stemureithi@uonbi.ac.ke
ii
Veterinaires Sans Frontieres – Belgium (VSF-B) P. O. Box 13986 – 00800, Nairobi, Kenya
ii
E-mail: frankopiyo@yahoo.com
Abstract
There is a growing concern over access to dry season grazing pasture and water in the arid and
drought prone areas of North-western Kenya, where pastoralist communities are constrained
by poor access to basic services. This is being exacerbated by the effects of climate variability
and climate change which have contributed to depletion of livestock-based livelihoods
resulting to reduced mobility of livestock and thus disrupting the process of adjustment that
maintains the balance between people, livestock and the environment. This paper present the
experiences and lessons learned in resource use planning process amongst the Turkana and
Pokot pastoralists with special focus on how to increase sustainable access pasture and water.
The experiences documented were implemented within year one of the Drought Mitigation
Initiative project. Land use plans and inter-community reciprocal grazing agreements were
developed to include land rights and cross-boundary resource use. Constrains to resource use
planning in the region were identified to include environmental, socio-economic, institutional
and legal. Policy backed resource use planning as enshrined in the Draft National Land Policy
is the most suitable approach to govern use of limited resources in the rangelands, and to
negotiate over tenure, access and resources stewardship rights.
Key words: Resource use planning, Turkana, Pokot, pastoralists, rangelands
ICID+18, August 16-20, 2010, Fortaleza - Ceará, Brazil
1 Introduction
During the past two decades, the concept of resource use planning has emerged to be one of
the most suitable innovative techniques of utilizing limited key resources in arid and semi-arid
areas (rangelands) (Roberts 1991; FAO 1993; Morton 2001). Resource use planning has also
become an avenue for negotiating over tenure, access and resources stewardship rights in
these areas. Research studies (Behnke and Scoones 1993; Opiyo et al. 2009) in East Africa
rangelands indicate that pastoralists are constrained by poor access to pasture and water. This
situation has been exacerbated by the effects of periodic drought, insecurity, pests and
diseases outbreaks, ethnic and resource-use conflicts, and depletion of livestock-based
livelihood assets, reduced mobility of livestock which has disrupted the process of adjustment
that maintains the balance between people, land, livestock and wildlife.
Estimates show that between 15 and 21 percent of northwestern Kenyan rangelands remain
inaccessible each year (Ellis and Swift 1988; Morton 2001). In these rangelands, resource use
conflicts are a common feature mainly because of land use transformations, population growth
and increased resource scarcity. The resource use conflicts usually occur around key natural
resources: water, pasture and land for settlement. Demand for the hitherto dwindling water
and pasture resources has heightened the conflicts, which tend to be seasonal in nature and
increases during the dry season (Oguge, 2006). The conflicts have pitted communities against
each other, and often result in loss of life and property. It is possible to expect natural resource
use conflicts to increase in the rangelands future with increasing resource scarcity, which is
aggravated by the effects of climatic variability and climate change.
Majority of land resources in arid and semi-arid areas are held under a communal but
controlled access system (McCabe 1990). However, due to burgeoning human and livestock
populations, vast communal grazing lands in Kenyan arid zones are in poor range
condition(de Leeuw and Reid 1995; Mworia and Kinyamario 2008; Nyangito et al. 2008).
With combined effects of climatic variability and haphazard resource use, the arid
environments are undergoing continuous and accelerated degradation to new stable states.
This common observation has triggered focus on remedial intervention. While embedded in
the Drought cycle Management, resource use planning is increasingly being seen as a key tool
for achieving greater integration which best meets the needs of the people while safeguarding
rangeland resources to enhance livestock productivity and conserve environment for posterity.
This paper thus documents experiences on participatory resource use planning in northwestern
Kenya rangelands as an instrument for empowering pastoral communities to increase
sustainable access to dry season key resources - pasture and water. The paper also
demonstrates how resource use planning can be applied to cushion pastoralists against the
effects of climate change and shocks.
1.1 Integrated land use planning principle
The principles advanced in resource use planning in arid and semi-arid areas (Roberts 1991;
Morton 2001) showed that decisions on resource allocations or land use recommendation for
competing uses must begin with;
ICID+18, August 16-20, 2010, Fortaleza - Ceará, Brazil
The traditional knowledge on how the pastoral communities presently use their
rangelands;
Land use zoning based on land productivity potential;
Land use types should be designed to be suitable and economically viable, while at
the same time maintain or enhance ecosystem integrity;
Pastoral mobility is key to resource use management and sustainability
Resource use planning in the arid and environments is embedded in the Drought Cycle
Management (DCM) process (Fig. 1) (IIRR, 2008), where the two are implemented
concurrently.
Figure 1: The Drought Cycle Management Model above illustrates a conceptual model of the
progression of drought and corresponding activities for each stage
1.2 The Northwestern Kenya rangelands
Northwestern Kenya rangelands are unique in that the resources are accessed by a number of
pastoral communities, especially the Turkana and Pokot pastoralists (Opiyo 2008). Over the
years, these lands have always provided common dry season grazing ground for the two
ethnic groups. Occasionally, they have also been an important dry season grazing fields for
the Jiye, Karimojong and Dodos from northeastern Uganda, the Toposa, the Jiye of
southeastern Sudan, and Nyangatom in southern border areas of Ethiopia (Muller 1989;
Dyson-Hudson and McCabe 1985). Since independence, efforts towards utilizing these land
resources in various ways have been put in place, mainly as grazing fields, irrigated farm
ICID+18, August 16-20, 2010, Fortaleza - Ceará, Brazil
plots, national reserves, minerals and quarry mining, human settlements and ecotourism
enterprises (Watson and Binbergen 2008). Hence, the competition for use of land and its
resources in the area has become greater with time.
The study area cover parts of greater Turkana and Pokot districts in the Rift valley province of
Kenya. The districts receive an average annual rainfall of about 200mm in the east to over
500mm in the northwestern highlands. The rainfall is characterized by small total amounts,
strong seasonal and bimodal distribution, with high temporal and spatial variability between
seasons and years. Annual mean temperatures experienced in the region range between 26 to
38
o
C (Jaetzold and Schmidt 1983). The region towards Lokitaung, Kaikor and Lokichogio
areas, within which northwestern rangelands are very arid than the western towards Uganda
which is semi arid. The area lies in a region that has generally been classified as agro-
ecological zones IV and V (Pratt and Gwynne 1977), with several pockets of riverine micro-
climates along Turkwel and Kerio Rivers.
The vegetation in this area is mainly scattered Acacia bush and a cover of annual grassland
and herbaceous plants. The density of the woody plants such as Acacia reficiens and A.
Mellifera increases on hilly ground (Coppock et al. 1988). However, it is punctuated by
Maerua sp. and Acacia tortilis along the riverines. Most woody species are used by camels
and goats (Coppock et al. 1988; Mochabo et al. 2005) although small number is used by all
stocks. Soils are weakly developed and are low organic in matter (Muchena and Van der
Pouw 1981). The drainage condition of these soils ranges from well to poorly drained. Most
of the mountains and major scarps that border Uganda are covered by Cambisols (Gwynne
1977). They have relatively high natural fertility and a texture finer than sandy loam. The only
good arable soils are confined to the Ugandan border. The region is crisscrossed by numerous
ephemeral rivers commonly referred as laghas. These have essentially alluvial soils in which
a silty sand overlaying coarse sand.
2 Methods of study
The experiences documented in this paper were implemented within year one of the Drought
Mitigation Initiative project that ended in April 2009. Field visits were made to collect
baseline information. Data involved participatory approaches and information gathered
through rapid assessments, surveys, village dialogue meetings, and informal community
discussions with village elders, herders and opinion leaders from Turkana and Pokot ethnic
groups. Members of the village land use planning committee (VLUPC) in targeted areas in
Turkana and Pokot were trained in workshops and seminars on resource use planning process
and information generated were documented as proceedings.
Discussion with herders, village elders and opinion leaders centered on the livestock species
owned, grazing areas and seasons of grazing, livestock movement and types of movements,
grazing rights, animal healthcare, water availability and use, problems of livestock production,
issues of pasture and water access and conflicts, and land use types.
ICID+18, August 16-20, 2010, Fortaleza - Ceará, Brazil
Focus group discussions involving local administrations such as chiefs, kraal elders, warrior
leaders, from both ethnic communities were recorded separately. The issues were related to
the major problems faced in accessing dry season pasture and water and how resource use
planning can be applied to cushion them against the effects of climatic shocks. In addition to
the field activities, relevant secondary literatures were reviewed and archive work obtained
from Arid Land Resources Management Project (ALRMP) offices in Lodwar, Kapenguria and
Chemilingot.
3 Results and Discussions
3.1 Turkana and Pokot livelihoods
Northwestern Kenya rangelands is occupied predominantly by two Nilotic ethnic groups - the
Pokot and Turkana who mainly keep livestock such as cattle, shoats, donkey and camels, and
are known to share particular lifestyle, economic patterns and value systems that define their
traditional nomadic pastoralism (Coppock et al. 1988; McCabe 1990). The Pokot are
traditional cattle owners who have increasingly adopted the camel keeping in recent years
(DLPO Pokot East, per. comm). Turkana on the other hand are nomadic pastoralists who
manage multiple species of livestock, comprised of camels, goats, sheep, cattle and donkeys.
Since each species has distinct dietary needs, the Turkana are able to exploit different
expanses of the range during any period of the year.
Livestock are the main source of food and income for these two ethnic communities. The
camels, cattle and goats provide milk, which is taken fresh or used in tea. The animals are sold
when cash is required to buy grains, or meet other domestic requirements. Majority of the
Turkana and Pokot mostly raise their animals purely for cultural prestige. However, a trend of
more frequent and severe droughts, exacerbated by population growth, insecurity and disputes
over grazing rights has forced some former Turkana and Pokot nomads to adopt to sedentary
lifestyles (Aklilu and Wekesa 2002; Watson and Binbergen 2008). The result has been an
increasing trend to diversification through experimentation with a range of non-pastoral
livelihood options.
It has been reported that the main driver of livelihood diversification amongst communities in
this arid region is recurrent droughts. Most new land use activities and enterprises are based
on exploitation of the region’s natural resources base. Examples include growing crops
through irrigation along the Turkwel and Kerio Rivers and also along some seasonal rivers
like Wei-wei; harvesting of wild fruits (Dobera glabra, Hyphaene compressa, Ziziphus
mauritiana, Balanites rotundifolia), and quarry mining in Kappedo, Lokwamusing and Kasei;
manufacture of woven crafts by the Turkana, and fishing in Lake Turkana. Other income
generating activities (IGAs) by both Turkana and Pokot in the study area include honey
production, ecotourism, and charcoal production along Lodwar - Kapenguria highway,
production of aloe gum species - Aloe turkanensis, A. secundiflora and A. scabrifolia besides
running small-scale businesses.
ICID+18, August 16-20, 2010, Fortaleza - Ceará, Brazil
Livestock kept consists of local breeds, mainly Small East African Zebu cattle, Red Maasai
sheep and small East African goats. The animals are kept under free range in defined
household grazing units locally referred as adakar by the Turkana and achei by the Pokot.
However, sometimes in the dry season livestock are temporarily moved into cultivated fields
to utilize crop residues along the rivers. The crops grown include mainly different drought
tolerant varieties of maize and sorghum; other crops include millet, cowpeas, green grams,
pigeon peas and beans. Small-scale irrigation of horticultural crops is carried out in Katilu,
Lokori, Nakwamuru and Wei-wei areas. Results show that livestock production still remains
central to the lives of Turkana and Pokot, and forms their economic base as it is more reliable
than cultivation (Senior Chief Lokori per. comm). During droughts for example, animals die
and crop fail, but some animals survive to build up the herd again. This forms a kind of
insurance against unpredictable fortunes in the harsh environment.
3.2 Access to range resources
The problems of access to pasture and water resources in northwestern rangelands have
worsened in the past decade following high frequency of droughts. While, the key strategy of
the local pastoralists to cope with drought is herd mobility which aims to exploit spatially
different areas of vegetation type and productivity (Galvin et al. 2001), herd mobility as a
strategy similarly, requires a favorable environment in terms of land tenure and land use to
allow access and use of resources. However, with increasingly uncertain climatic conditions,
and different impacts across these regions, the rangelands will need to be managed in a way
that supports and promotes land uses that are more resilient to climatic variability. Of all the
land uses in the arid lands, pastoralism is best placed to adapt to increased climatic variability
(ODI, 2009). Due to mobility, pastoralism is less susceptible to changes in climate than
sedentary land uses in ASALs, such as crop agriculture, livestock ranching and ecotourism.
This in turn has implications for resource use, economic development and poverty alleviation.
Pastoralism is a resilient, low input land use option known to perform well in variable
climates of northern Kenya (Coppock et al. 1988; Galvin et al. 2001). It therefore presents a
less risky and more robust investment opportunity in arid environments where other land use
types are likely to fail.
Planned pasture resource exploitation is not a new concept amongst Turkana and Pokot
pastoralists. The highly productive mountainous regions like the Loima hills, Mogila ranges,
Songot hills and Kasei hills in the west were traditionally preserved for dry season grazing
areas by these two ethnic communities (Ellis et al. 1987). Some of these dry season grazing
zones have survived into the present, and are accessed by nomadic pastoralist during severe
weather conditions. However, it was observed that they are presently threatened by arable
expansion and a changing socio-ecological and economic context that makes existing
traditional grazing pattern ineffective. Such land use change was reported to be one of the
main drivers of desertification and biodiversity loss in these rangelands. To reverse this trend,
it is important to understand and build on the adaptations of pastoralism and the indigenous
knowledge on resource use planning.
ICID+18, August 16-20, 2010, Fortaleza - Ceará, Brazil
Large areas of arid and semi-arid resources in northwestern rangelands have become more or
less inaccessible to the Turkana and Pokot pastoralists, due to enduring inter-community
ethnic tension and increased accessibility of automatic fire arms from the neighbouring
countries. According to Turkana and Pokot elders, insecurity has of recent been almost
exclusively caused by young warrior herders in possession of modern weapons who have
developed a tendency to defy the elders who seem helpless. The consequence has been
avoidance of remote rangelands due to risk of livestock raids (Morton 2001). Results show
that the border regions between Turkana and Pokot, for example Lokori, Napeiton, Lomelo,
Kappedo, Amaler, Amolem, Nasolot, Sarmach, Turkwel, Lokirima and Sasak areas has
become increasingly inaccessible. As a result, the total area and overall diversity and
condition of the remaining rangelands have declined, and due to cattle raids their accessibility
has become constrained.
In assessing a strategy to enhance range resource use access, it was emphasized that local
leaders and the planning committee promote sustainable utilization of grazing resources in
their areas. However, result showed that even though land and other natural resources in the
rangelands are ‘communally owned’, in practice there are some restrictions. For example,
there is free access to natural surface water supplies; however, the wells dug by individuals in
ephemeral riverbeds are ‘owned’ by those who dug them. The elders in most of the study area
were responsible for enforcing customary laws and are respected by the community members.
The consequence of disobeying the elders is punishable by offering a goat or cow for
slaughter to the elders (DLPO Sigor per. comm.). It was reported that breakdown of such
traditional governance structures in the region has resulted in increased insecurity, emanating
from uncontrolled livestock raiding, inter-ethnic conflicts, with attendant injuries, loss of
human life and property. Other resultant effects of this breakdown include reduced access to
grazing land and deterioration of welfare status in the pastoral setting. However, traditional
institutions and governance structures will continue to play a key role in enforcing customary
laws, quell the inter-ethnic tensions, and ensure that resource use plans developed are
implemented and the reciprocal grazing agreements honoured, if traditional institutions of
governance are strengthened.
3.3 Grazing movements and land use
Nomadic livestock production is the main land use activity in the study area, which makes use
of the scattered rangeland resources on a large spatial scale (McCabe 1990; de Leeuw and
Reid 1995; Opiyo 2008). Nomadism is a pastoralist strategy characterized by the movement
of households and their herds from place to place in search of pasture and water resources
(Ellis and Swift 1988; Behnke and Scoones 1993, Oba 2001; Eriksen et al., 2005). Amongst
Turkana and Pokot ethnic groups seasonal livestock migration follows relatively well-defined
traditional stock routes that at time get disrupted by droughts, disease outbreaks, cattle raids,
or inter-community conflicts.
In order to diversify the risks of drought, the Pokot’s livestock movement often takes place
from their homelands on the west over to the bordering regions of Turkana South and East, to
Samburu districts and back after the rains. In Nyangaite and Ngaina the Pokot herders move
with their livestock herd during the dry season towards Masol hills where they graze for one
ICID+18, August 16-20, 2010, Fortaleza - Ceará, Brazil
to two months before moving to Chepaywat in Masol between January and February.
Between March and May, the Pokots from Nyangaite and Ngaina move their livestock herd to
Lotongot in Amolem. If the long rains delay, one group move to Sarmach, Turkwel, Kinuk,
Nakwamuru upto Kaptir, while another herding groups move to Lomelo, Napeitom, Silale,
Longewan to Suguta valley (Fig. 2).
Figure 2: Livestock Movements in East and Central Pokot
Besides nomadic pastoralism, other land use types in the study area include irrigated and
dryland farming, wildlife reserves, human settlements, apiculture and tourism-based activities.
Cropping systems have encroached vast areas along Turkwel and Kerio rivers, and also along
some seasonal rivers in the region (Watson and Binsbergen 2008). According to the locals, the
encroached rangelands mainly include the best dry season grazing areas with easier access to
water. They are the key resources ensuring the overall sustainability of the pastoral system.
Such availability and access to natural resources in arid zones are determines land use systems
among other factors. Watson and Binsbergen (2008) emphasized the need of assessing land
suitability for other alternative livelihoods in pastoral areas, based on result of scientific
research but not predictions.
Information obtained from the elders indicated that the establishment of national reserves
along the border regions in northwestern rangelands was largely done without discussion with
local people. As a result, livestock mobility is increasingly being constrained by the
Border of Pokot District with
Samburu and /or Turkana
Dry season grazing land
Pokot Homeland
(Central Pokot
District)
Wet season grazing
land
Pokot Homeland
(East Pokot)
Wet season grazing
land
In ‘normal’ seasons In ‘normal’ seasons
In ‘normal’ seasons
Kerio River
ICID+18, August 16-20, 2010, Fortaleza - Ceará, Brazil
establishments of these (Nasolot and Turkana South National Reserves) wildlife reserves on
livestock routes to the dry season pasture and water.
3.4 Current livestock production
Livestock production in the study area is characterized by low productivity caused by various
constraints. Chief among these is poor and degraded rangelands, caused by drought and other
related factors, which include insecurity, inadequate livestock marketing systems, diseases
outbreaks and absence of veterinary care. Ellis et al. (1987) emphasized that poor resources
planning and management that does not include such aspects as disease treatment and control,
water development, pasture improvements and supplementation, is also a contributing factor.
These are, however, as a result of external forces, beyond the control of the pastoralists
(Nyariki and Abeele 2004). Out of experience and in harmony with the environment, majority
of pastoralists do practice competent animal management (Little, 1996; Homewood and
Rogers, 1991).
Drought reduces the availability of pasture and water. In the absence of any meaningful
veterinary care, drought drastically diminishes livestock immunity and resistance to diseases.
Some of the common diseases in the region include; Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR), East
Coast Fever (ECF), Food and Mouth disease (FMD), mange, Rinderpest, tick infestation,
Contagious Bovine Pleuro-Pneumonia (CBPP), and Contagious Caprine Pleuro-Pneumonia
(CCPP). Old cattle and calves were observed to be most vulnerable to drought, and heifers
and dams reduce their calving rates, because of poor range condition. In improving livestock
diseases control, it was suggested that veterinary services could be improved by training more
community animal health workers (CAHWs) and stationing them into areas where livestock
concentrate rather than putting them in centers which often are too far from livestock grazing
fields.
The need for more water in northwestern rangelands within the dry season grazing areas was
recognized. The general feeling of the locals was that although there are numerous water
sources in the region, they are not evenly distributed to support high population of livestock in
the area during drought. Some areas have large number of water sources whereas other areas
have none at all. Existing traditional water sources in the study area include ephemeral rivers,
shallow wells, rock pools and springs in mountain areas. A number of boreholes and wells
have been constructed in the area by Non-Governmental Organization (NGOs) and the
government’s Arid Land Resource Management Programme (ALRMP) (Aklilu and Wekesa
2002). Despite the recent increase in the number of boreholes and shallow wells, natural
springs remain very important to the pastoralists. It was observed that during the dry seasons,
livestock are moved close to these springs, which have lead to range deterioration around the
springs as result of over-use.
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3.5 Resource use conflict
The persistence of resource use conflicts in the northwestern rangelands indicates that land-
use policies and institutions in Kenya are failing to address the sustainable utilization of land
and its resources. It has been observed that Kenya has not had a single and clearly defined
National Land Policy since independence (GoK 2007). This, together with the existence of
many land laws and failure of the Land Act to clearly define property rights in pastoral areas
has resulted in a complex land management and administration system. This has manifested
itself in many ways such as fragmentation, breakdown in land administration, disparities in
resources ownership and poverty. This not only has resulted in ecological, social, economic
and political problems but also deterioration in land quality, under or over-utilization, tenure
insecurity and resource use conflicts in arid regions.
Resource use conflicts amongst the various land users and stakeholders in northwestern
Kenya are on the increase prompting need for proactive conflict resolution mechanisms.
Resource use planning offers a platform for a collective responsibility of all the stakeholders
and land users, including especially, the local communities in the area. Land-use competition
and resource use conflicts can be minimized when restrictions agreed upon by all parties are
enforced and observed by the local institutions of governance. Where a range resource is
accessed by more than one community, resource use conflicts are often a common feature as
resources becomes scarce and competing users increase. This was observed to be the case in
the region, where Turkana and Pokot have had decades of resource use conflicts. This implies
that resource tenure and ownership rights in the area that restricts mobility and challenge
resources use access will undermine system stability and sustainable livestock production in
the area. However, the problem of competition over the common resources in northwestern
rangelands is an indication that its future development cannot continue to be decided by a
laissez faire approach in which contemporary uncoordinated and often incompatible processes
are permitted to find their own resolution. Hitherto, the lack of an integrated resource use and
grazing plans has made it possible for various agencies to adopt and implement policies and
strategies for development in these regions without consideration of resource policies.
Resource use plans at local level can then be backed up by an effective policy framework to
specifically deal with resource use conflicts in the arid and semi arid regions.
Recognizing land and resources ownership status, at least legally, when considering the
appropriate interventions to end the resource use conflicts is imperative. Here, one must look
at the northwestern rangelands as a unit rather than as separate entities following political
boundaries, or belonging to different ethnic groups. Thus, the key to successful herding in this
rangeland is to find a grazing system, which allows both the Pokot and Turkana communities
to share common fields with forage and water. Deliberate involvement and inclusion of the
relevant stakeholders in the conflict is part of the solution itself.
3.6 Emerging issues on resource use planning in arid and semiarid areas
Participatory selection of the planning committee was seen as a key step to a successful
resource use planning in arid regions. Involving the locals in the selection of the planning
ICID+18, August 16-20, 2010, Fortaleza - Ceará, Brazil
committee fosters ownership, contributes in building community cohesion, ensure equity and
somewhat guarantee sustainability. However, it was experienced that there is a tendency for
the local administrations to interfere with the selection of the planning committee. During the
planning process, livestock herders were identified as one of the lead stakeholders in the use
and demarcation of land and its resources in northwestern rangelands. The local authorities,
administration officials as well as local political leaders were also identified as stakeholders in
the resource use planning. Emerging stakeholders were found to include the country councils,
government ministries such as ministry of lands and the ministry of arid and semi arid lands.
Building the capacity of the resource planning committees is a prerequisite in any successful
planning process. FAO (1993) emphasized trainings in reinforcing traditional grazing
practices among communities in arid and semi-arid regions. During this study, Turkana and
Pokot pastoralists shared their well defined resource use plan especially on traditional
livestock grazing pattern and how they utilize water resources. According to authors’
observations, the trainings assisted the local people to become more effective planners and
handlers of resource use conflicts. In drafting the resource use plan, it was learnt that planning
is a process rather than an event, and therefore do not take a day but a stipulated period
depending on issue at play and must be flexible. For effectiveness, consensus building
between the planning committees and all other stakeholders was found to be inevitable. It was
thus concluded that multi-stakeholder participation, collaboration and consensus building
between the planning committee and key players is indispensable.
Interviews with community leaders in all the villages targeted by this DMI project indicated
that all land and other natural resources related decision are undertaken by the community
leaders together with local authorities. The approach to implement the resource use plan
developed was thus, going to be the mandate of the community leaders together with the local
authorities. However, it was recommended that range resource planning be carried out with a
regional focus rather than strictly district (denoting specific spatial coverage) context because
pastoral and livestock grazing resources as well as systems cross such district boundaries.
Monitoring and evaluation would involve regular inter-community meetings and joint-visits to
the dry season grazing and water points.
3.7 Constraints to resource use planning
A number of key constraints emerged from this planning exercise. They include
environmental, legal and institutional, and socio-economic constraints. Environmental
constrains identified during the planning included persistent and recurrent drought,
inaccessible pasture due to insecurity, livestock diseases and outbreaks such as PPR, ECF,
CCPP, CBPP, water scarcity invasion by unpalatable plant species (e.g. prosopis, cactus) in
northwestern rangelands, increased land degradation due to charcoal burning and overgrazing,
degradation of pastures by ants and termites, wild fires and soil erosion among others. Legal
and institutional constrains comprised of poor law enforcement leading to insecurity, lack of
clearly defined land use policy for communal grazing areas, inadequate land use policies and
ICID+18, August 16-20, 2010, Fortaleza - Ceará, Brazil
legislation and lack of proper linkage between traditional institutions and the central
government.
The socio-economic constrains in resource use planning in arid regions were identified to
include expanding number of private enclosures in Pokot and Turkana districts, land sub-
division and fragmentation leading to reduced pastoral mobility, long distances to watering
points, proliferation of illegal small and automatic fire arms and insecurity, unplanned
irrigation infrastructures, high illiteracy level in the pastoral areas, burgeoning human
population and encroachment of pastureland by human settlements, lack of technical
knowledge in land use planning in the target community, unsustainable rainfed crop
production along the rivers and lack of strong local institutional governance structures to
oversee the resource use plan implementation. The resource use planning was itself identified
as a solution to a number of these constraints.
4 Conclusion
Development of an integrated resource use plan in northwestern Kenya is essential in
minimizing some of the major land-use competition and resource conflicts taking place in
these rangelands. It provides a complementary management tool which will enhance
coordinated and integrated planning between the various stakeholders and agencies working
in the region. Key stakeholders, from the communities and their governance structures, to the
relevant government departments and ministries should show a clear commitment to the
implementation of the resource use plans. If well implemented, the resource use plans greatly
cushion the pastoral communities against recurrent droughts that are getting worse and longer
with climate change.
Acknowledgements
Much of the work reported in this paper was undertaken during the Drought Mitigation
Initiative (DMI) project funded by the European Commission in Kenya. The authors are
grateful for the support. We also appreciate the Officers who willingly spoke to us during the
field focused discussions.
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