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Quantification of Loss in Spatial Extent of Lakes and Wetlands in the Suburbs of Srinagar City during Last Century Using Geospatial Approach
Abstract
God has bestowed the city of Srinagar-the summer capital of the State of Jammu & Kashmir, with a large number of picturesque lakes and serene wetlands. Of these, the famous Dal and Nigeen lakes are important international tourist destinations. While as, wetlands of Anchar, Hokersar, Shalabug, Narkura and a large number of others are valued as favourite habitat of migratory ducks that visit Kashmir valley from places as far as Central Asia. These lakes and wetlands are also important socioeconomic support systems for the city inhabitants besides having nourished Kashmiri culture and civilization for centuries. In the past, these lakes and marshes had a pronounced impact on the micro climate of the city. However, due to unplanned urban expansion, there has been a tremendous change in the spatial extent of most of these water bodies as a result of which important wetlands of Bemina, Batmalloo and Arath stand already lost to other land uses. In the present study, geospatial tools were employed for quantifying changes in the spatial extent of fragile ecosystems of some of the world's most famous lakes and wetlands located in the suburbs of Srinagar. The extent of lakes, wetlands and built-up land as depicted on the archive topographical map of the area dating back to 1911, was compared and analysed with respect to the spatial extent of lakes, wetlands and built-up land of the area as interpreted from IRS 1D LISS-III satellite imagery of the year 2004 to reveal astonishing results where more than 50 percent of the water bodies have been lost during the last century. The loss in the spatial extent of these lakes and wetlands has in fact affected the micro-climate of the city besides exposing it to flood threat.
... Numerous studies demonstrate how human interference with the hydrological cycle has a negative impact on the ecosystem, the recharge of groundwater, the base flow regime, the quality of the water, and the occurrence of urban flooding and water shortages (Leopold 1968;Gregory 2002). The interference has altered the setup of water bodies by invasion, earth satiating, and construction (Rashid and Naseem 2008) and eventually has caused the symptoms of the urban stream syndrome (Walsh et al. 2005). ...
... Numerous studies of this region have shown how rapid expansion of urban centres has affected water resources like marshes, rivers, and lakes Sheikh, Palria, and Alam 2011;Wani and Khairkar 2011;Farooq and Muslim 2014;Kuchay and Bhat 2014;Amin and Fazal 2015;Alam, Bhat, and Maheen 2019;Kumar, Maryam, and Kumar 2020). In the Srinagar city, increasing population pressure and haphazard urbanisation have resulted in the encroachment of water resources (Rashid and Naseem 2008;Nengroo, Shah, and Bhat 2017), the degradation of water quality (Mir and Jeelani 2015), the reduction of stream flows (Kumar, Maryam, and Kumar 2020), and the loss of ecosystem services (Rashid and Aneaus 2020). Freshwater intake into lakes is decreasing as a result of restricted and blocked water routes brought on by encroachments (Fazal and Amin 2011). ...
... Freshwater intake into lakes is decreasing as a result of restricted and blocked water routes brought on by encroachments (Fazal and Amin 2011). The wetland area of study region has lost 91.2 km 2 between 1911 and 2004 as a result of urban expansion and population growth (Rashid and Naseem 2008). Moreover, anthropogenic activities in the catchment areas have changed the form of rivers and the water quality of those rivers (Poleto and Beier 2012). ...
Srinagar city experienced significant expansion especially during the last four decades, which has negatively impacted its aquatic resources and their functioning. The present study aims to assess the impact of the urban growth on the natural drainage network of the Srinagar city from 1971 to 2020. The changes in the morphometry of natural drainage and urban morphology were quantified through the selected indicators. Four sample sites were selected from the study area for detailed ground validation of the quantified changes. Our results reveal that there has been almost a fourfold increase in the built-up area, taking place in all the directions, primarily in the form of edge expansion that has largely encroahed the urban streams. The findings further indicate that on the whole drainage system of the city has lost almost 15% of its total capacity. The effects of increasing built-up warrant immediate attention to initiate conservation measures for the natural drainage network of the city. ARTICLE HISTORY
... The wetlands are being treated as wastelands by both the public and policymakers as large quantities of domestic sewage, agricultural waste, plastics, and other municipal solid wastes are being dumped in these water bodies (Shah et al. 2015;Showqi et al. 2018). Large-scale land transformations, urbanization, rapidly increasing human population and deforestation in the catchment areas have caused a substantial decline in the areal extent of wetlands over this region (Rashid and Naseem 2008;Rashid and Aneaus 2019). Approximately, 3510.07 ha of wetland area have been lost from 1992 to 2015 due to encroachments, siltation, pollution, and conversion of wetland areas into nonwetland areas ). ...
... The damage caused by the 2014 floods would have been comparatively less provided its wetlands had been in an interconnected fashion and ecologically healthy state. With the continuous expansion and spreading of the Srinagar city, most of the wetlands that used to act as sponges during floods have been taken over by settlements and residential colonies (Rashid and Naseem 2008;Kuchay and Bhat 2014). The wetlands like Arat, Gandakshah, KhanKhan, and Batamalum Nambal were encroached and earth-filled and were used for the construction of built-up and settlements. ...
... A water channel Nallah Mar taking excess waters from Brari Nambal to Khushalsar wetland was earth-filled and converted into a motorable road (Dar et al. 2021). It will be pertinent to mention here that the city had lost 50% of the area of wetlands between 1911 and 2004 due to urbanization (Rashid and Naseem 2008). Besides urbanization and encroachments, lack of wetland policy implementation, environmental literacy, and passive citizen science aspect specifically at the regional level is also a major cause for the degradation of wetlands over this region (Dar et al. 2020a). ...
In Kashmir Valley, wetland ecosystems cover an area of 42663 ha comprising nearly 2.67% of the entire geographical area. These wetland ecosystems form an indispensable portion of natural landscape and play a key part in maintenance of environmental quality. These wetlands are harbingers of pristine biodiversity and provide various ecological and economic services. However, in recent past, various threats in the form of resource exploitation, reclamation of land surfaces, pollution, hydrologic and land system changes are looming the wetlands in this region. Although having wealth of about 755 natural wetlands in Kashmir Valley, only 13 (1.72%) are protected through various legislative and conservation measures while others continue to be overlooked in conservation and management plans. Therefore, there are growing and loud calls that for effective management which requires a scientifically-credible knowledge base pertaining to land use, water quality, hydrology, topography and socio-economic conditions. Strategies for conservation and management include identification and diminution of current anthropogenic pressures, flow regulation, and a wide array of other management and restoration practices. This chapter therefore tries to provide a comprehensive picture of wetlands of Kashmir region with regard to existing knowledge, distribution and conservation challenges to push up for policy intervention for the management of wetlands.
... Most of these wetlands used to act as buffers soaking flood waters but the encroachment and infrastructure development within these wetlands has reduced their water holding capacity, increasing the vulnerability of people toward flooding (Romshoo et al., 2017). The central business hub of Srinagar, the capital city, is often affected during a normal precipitation event as the drainage channels that used to drain out storm water runoff have mostly been taken over by concrete surfaces (Rashid and Naseem, 2008). The changes in the spatial extent of lakes and wetlands in Srinagar are presented in Table 1. ...
... The changes in the spatial extent of lakes and wetlands in Srinagar are presented in Table 1. As a result of unplanned urbanization, encroachments, and population pressures, nearly 91.2 km 2 of wetland area has been lost between 1911 and 2004 (Rashid and Naseem, 2008). ...
... Changes in the spatial extent of lakes and wetlands of Srinagar between 1911 and 2004 (Source:Rashid and Naseem, 2008). ...
Wetlands are the most diverse, highly dynamic, productive, and ecologically sensitive areas in Earth. In Kashmir Himalaya, Srinagar city is bestowed with a large number of picturesque wetlands. These wetlands are important in regulating ecosystem services such as providing fresh water supplies, food products, fisheries, water purification, harbor biodiversity, and regulation of regional climate. These are also important as socio-economic support systems for the city inhabitants and valued as habitats of migratory birds that visit Kashmir valley from different continents of the world. Owing to the increased rate of anthropogenic activities and anthropogenically driven changes in natural processes, these wetlands are degrading at an alarming rate, seriously affecting their health and water quality. The major threats to wetlands include pollution, land use and land cover changes, urbanization and encroachments, and climate change. The intensive agricultural practices, introduction of exotic species, and changes in hydrological flows during the past few decades have resulted in degradation of wetlands over this region. Sustainable management of wetlands is crucial as these ecosystems offer an array of ecological functions that sustain livelihoods all over the world. This review provides special insights about the significant changes in spatial scale, land use and land cover changes, and water quality of major wetlands in Srinagar city.
... Accordingly, 9119 ha of wetland area was lost from 1901 to 2004. In total, the city lost ~ 50% of its wetlands during the last century (Rashid & Naseem, 2008). Various agencies like the Department of Wildlife Protection Jammu & Kashmir, Lakes and Waterways Development Authority, and other associated departments like Srinagar Municipal Corporation (SMC) and Srinagar Development Authority (SDA) are mandated for the protection and management of wetlands in Kashmir Himalaya. ...
... Over the past few decades, as a result of the continuous encroachments and filling of wetland areas, more than 50% of the wetlands have been lost (Rashid & Naseem, 2008). Wetlands that acted as buffers during floods and extreme events have been colonized by the government and residential colonies (Rashid & Naseem, 2008). The Master Plan 1997 and 2021 for Srinagar city till date have not yielded the desired benefits of urban development, and now the proposed Master Plan-2035 for Srinagar city has suggested the relocation of government departments from the core of Srinagar city to the outskirts of the city at Nowgam, which is also a seasonal wetland and floodprone area. ...
The knowledge on urban ecosystem dynamics is being increasingly felt due to unprecedented symptoms arising out of urbanization. This study is aimed to assess land use-land cover changes (LULCCs) around a wetland ecosystem using high spatial resolution CORONA and Google Basemap satellite imageries. The imageries were processed by digitizing land cover features at 1:3000 scale in ArcGIS 10.1. The imageries were classified into nine classes, and an estimation of accuracy was performed utilizing the Kappa coefficient and error matrices. The overall accuracy obtained was 94% for the 2017 dataset. The key findings indicated a loss of 23% in the wetland area from 1980 to 2017. While in the vicinity, a significant increase in green spaces (706.2%) and roads (89.4%) was observed. Morphometric analysis revealed that the wetland has lost a surface area of 10.2 ha from 1980 to 2017. The maximum length (Lmax) of the wetland was reduced by 722 m while the maximum width (Wmax) decreased by 78 m. Bathymetric analysis revealed that the wetland is shallow with a depth ranging from 10 to 174 cm. The Carlson’s Trophic State Index (TSI) of wetland ranging from 74 to 87 indicates hyper-eutrophic waters. Overall, the loss of wetland area, together with the reduction in morphometric features, low depth, and higher trophic status speak of anthropogenic pressures that are compromising the ecological integrity of this wetland. Therefore, landscape planning and governance are of pivotal importance for the conservation and management of wetland ecosystems in this region.
... However, with urban expansion and development of the city, area of wetlands has declined rapidly (Kuchay and Bhat 2014). As per Rashid and Naseem (2008), Srinagar City has lost more than 50% of the wetlands over the last century primarily taken over by built-up areas. This is primarily due to result of lack of any land use policy for the region. ...
... On the southern side, the wetland used to receive water from Brari Nambal wetland through Mar Canal (locally called Nallah Mar). The Mar Canal was landfilled during the 1970s and converted into road that blocked the inlet stream and thus choking the wetland (Rashid and Naseem 2008). The water from the wetland drains into the Anchar Lake via Achan Nallah towards the west. ...
Wetlands are among the most vulnerable and dynamic ecosystems of the world. Any change in the anthropogenic footprint or climate affects the health of these pristine ecologically and socioeconomically important ecosystems. In the present study, land use land cover changes (LULCC) and fragmentation of natural landscape changes in an urban wetland, Khushalsar, located in the heart of the Srinagar City, were assessed using high-resolution satellite data, geospatial modeling approach, and ground observations over the last ~ 5 decades (1965 and 2018). The spatiotemporal changes in LULC of the wetland were assessed for 3 time periods that include 1965–1980, 1980–2018, and 1965–2018. Additionally, landscape fragmentation tool (LFT) was used to quantify fragmentation of land cover. The analysis of LULCC indicated that built-up areas in the vicinity of the wetland increased by 510% between 1965 and 2018. The aquatic vegetation and marshy lands increased by 150% and 33% respectively. The area under agriculture, plantation, open water, and barren lands decreased mostly taken over by built-up areas. Within the wetland, the area under open water spread reduced by 75% while the aquatic vegetation increased by 150% from 1965 to 2018. The built-up areas including roads also showed a substantial increase. The LFT analysis revealed four categories of landscapes i.e., patch, edge, perforated, and core areas. Since the natural land cover types were taken over by land use predominantly built-up areas, the core natural areas and perforated landscapes in the Khushalsar shrunk by 34% and 94% respectively indicating fragmentation of natural environment. The lack of sewage treatment facility, reckless unplanned urbanization within and in the vicinity of the wetland, is responsible for the degradation of the Khushalsar wetland.
... The Kashmir Valley has a vast network of wetlands and waterways (Sheeshnag, Dallake, Anchar Lake, Hokersar, Nambal Narkura, Wular Lake Gangbal, Vaishan sar, Kishan sar, Kausarnag, Khanpur, and Waskur) locally called 'Dembs' to the Srinagar city which acted as sponges during the floods and shared the Jhelum waters. Rashid and Naseem (2008), in their study (1911À2004), observed that 50 percent of the lakes and wetlands were lost in the suburbs of Srinagar city during the last century, which has affected the micro-climate of the city, besides exposing it to an increased flood threat. Analysis of the Hokersar wetland based on the multi-temporal, multi-source satellite and other thematic datasets has shown that the wetland has receded consistently and undergone tremendous land use/land cover change owing to siltation coupled with floods and human interference (Joshi et al. 2002;Rashid & Naseem 2008). ...
... Rashid and Naseem (2008), in their study (1911À2004), observed that 50 percent of the lakes and wetlands were lost in the suburbs of Srinagar city during the last century, which has affected the micro-climate of the city, besides exposing it to an increased flood threat. Analysis of the Hokersar wetland based on the multi-temporal, multi-source satellite and other thematic datasets has shown that the wetland has receded consistently and undergone tremendous land use/land cover change owing to siltation coupled with floods and human interference (Joshi et al. 2002;Rashid & Naseem 2008). The Hokersar wetland has experienced fragmentation and changes in land use/land cover due to excessive siltation and biotic interference over the last four decades (Joshi et al. 2002). ...
The state of Jammu and Kashmir in North India experienced one of the worst floods in the past 60 years, during the first week of September 2014. In the present study, multi-temporal synthetic aperture radar (SAR) satellite images acquired from Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellite RISAT-1 and Canadian satellite Radarsat-2 during the peak flood period (08th–23rd September 2014) are used for extraction of flood disaster footprints, mapping spatial and temporal dynamics of flood inundation and assessing the disaster impact. With the aid of pre- and post-flood satellite images, coupled with hydro-meteorological data, the unprecedented flood situation is analyzed. It is estimated that about 557 km² of the Kashmir Valley's geographical area was inundated. Bandipora, Pulwama, Srinagar, Baramulla and Budgam were the worst flood affected districts, having more than 50 km² of their area affected by flood waters. Of the total inundated area, about 80% of the area under agricultural activity was submerged, followed by built-up areas constituting about 12% of geographical area. About 22 lakh people in 287 villages were affected by floods. The flood waters persisted in the northern and central part of the valley for more than two weeks.
... In their paper from the 12th World Lake Conference, the scientists argued that the natural discharge system had collapsed due to the degradation of the network of lakes. Incessant rains for two or three days would raise flood threat in Jhelum river in 2008 while as such rains wouldn't be a risk two to three decades back [11]. ...
... In their paper from the 12th World Lake Conference, the scientists argued that the natural discharge system had collapsed due to the degradation of the network of lakes. Incessant rains for two or three days would raise flood threat in Jhelum river in 2008 while as such rains wouldn't be a risk two to three decades back [11]. The flood inundation levels recorded in the floodplains of the Jhelum were the highest in the archived hydrological history of Kashmir with vast areas in Kashmir province inundated, many of these areas remained under floodwaters for about two weeks and some low lying areas of capital city Srinagar for more than 4 weeks. ...
September 2014 unprecedented floods in Jammu & Kashmir tell the tale of human misery not witnessed by this state in over 100 years. The devastation caused by the flood is colossal. It claimed over three hundred human lives and destroyed everything that came its way-residential houses, schools, colleges, hospitals, paddy fields, orchards, government establishments and businesses et-cetera. It has rendered thousands of people homeless and jobless. The destruction around has left the entire society traumatized. The signs of history, art, culture, heritage, architecture and pristine natural beauty stand ruined. Hundreds of educational institutions suffered a colossal damage. Six large hospitals in the capital city were inundated in the floods. Fourteen neonates have died at the G B Pant Children Hospital after the water entered the building. This was a disaster of international ramifications - a classic case on urban flooding and need to be studied worldwide. Kashmir suffered losses in excess of one trillion INR. Across the State, 125,000 families have been affected, 5642 villages were affected across the State and 800 villages remained sub-merged for over two weeks. More than 350000 structures – mostly residential houses – have been damaged. State government has projected a 44000 crore INR for relief and rehabilitation. Government must create Task force for Rehabilitation and also a Reconstruction Authority to co-ordinate the rebuilding programme. Kashmir needs technological innovation that will enable people to produce more welfare without tampering with nature and history of living in this ‘Paradise on Earth’. There is a need for an Eco-sensitive Development in the Fragile Himalayan Environment. Health effects like PTSD in population are an emerging issue that will need
attention of public health authorities. Community based research is required to measure the morbidity due to
psychiatric diseases as a consequence of floods. Similarly the impact of disaster on the mental health of children and young adults should be a priority. Serious efforts are required to make disaster preparedness an important agenda of governance.
... In their paper from the 12th World Lake Conference, the scientists argued that the natural discharge system had collapsed due to the degradation of the network of lakes. Incessant rains for two or three days would raise flood threat in Jhelum river in 2008 while as such rains wouldn't be a risk two to three decades back [11]. ...
... In their paper from the 12th World Lake Conference, the scientists argued that the natural discharge system had collapsed due to the degradation of the network of lakes. Incessant rains for two or three days would raise flood threat in Jhelum river in 2008 while as such rains wouldn't be a risk two to three decades back [11]. The flood inundation levels recorded in the floodplains of the Jhelum were the highest in the archived hydrological history of Kashmir with vast areas in Kashmir province inundated, many of these areas remained under floodwaters for about two weeks and some low lying areas of capital city Srinagar for more than 4 weeks. ...
September 2014 unprecedented floods in Jammu & Kashmir tell the tale of human misery not witnessed by this state in over 100 years. The devastation caused by the flood is colossal. It claimed over three hundred human lives and destroyed everything that came its way-residential houses, schools, colleges, hospitals, paddy fields, orchards, government establishments and businesses et-cetera. It has rendered thousands of people homeless and jobless. The destruction around has left the entire society traumatized. The signs of history, art, culture, heritage, architecture and pristine natural beauty stand ruined. Hundreds of educational institutions suffered a colossal damage. Six large hospitals in the capital city were inundated in the floods. Fourteen neonates have died at the G B Pant Children Hospital after the water entered the building. This was a disaster of international ramifications - a classic case on urban flooding and need to be studied worldwide. Kashmir suffered losses in excess of one trillion INR. Across the State, 125,000 families have been affected, 5642 villages were affected across the State and 800 villages remained sub-merged for over two weeks. More than 350000 structures – mostly residential houses – have been damaged. State government has projected a 44000 crore INR for relief and rehabilitation. Government must create Taskforce for Rehabilitation and also a Reconstruction Authority to co-ordinate the rebuilding programme. Kashmir needs technological innovation that will enable people to produce more welfare without tampering with nature and history of living in this ‘Paradise on Earth’. There is a need for an Eco-sensitive Development in the Fragile Himalayan Environment. Health effects like PTSD in population are an emerging issue that will need attention of public health authorities. Community based research is required to measure the morbidity due to psychiatric diseases as a consequence of floods. Similarly the impact of disaster on the mental health of children and young adults should be a priority. Serious efforts are required to make disaster preparedness an important agenda of governance.
... Over the past three to four decades, Kashmir basin has witnessed significant wetland loss due to urbanization . As a result, there has been a significant increase in the impermeable area, especially in the floodplains of the Jhelum basin (Rashid and Naseem 2008). Over this time, extensive areas of the land used for agriculture within the Jhelum floodplains have been transformed into horticultural residential and commercial purposes (Murtaza and Romshoo 2014). ...
Floods are frequently occurring natural hazard experienced globally, causing substantial damage to several sectors and disruption to the socioeconomic functioning of the society. The Kashmir Basin is frequently hit by flooding due to the combined effects of various geomorphic, meteorological, and human-induced factors. The purpose of the current study is to assess the flood susceptibility of the Kashmir Basin. The objective of the study was accomplished with the coupled application of Frequency Ratio (FR) Model and GIS. The study considered 18 conditioning factors for flood susceptibility mapping and prediction. The relative flood frequency ratio was used to determine the correlation between flood conditioning factors and flood occurrences. A total of 153 flood locations reported in the past were considered; of which 70% were used for data training and susceptibility mapping and the remaining 30% were utilized for the validation of simulated results. The Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve was generated to depict the accuracy of generated flood susceptibility maps and with an observed success rate of 0.92, the predictions were treated a reliable. The findings reveal that out of the total land area, about 11.51% exhibits 'very high' susceptibility, whereas 18.44% and 18.12% of the land areas show 'high' and 'moderate' susceptibility levels respectively. The identification and classification of flood susceptibility zones has practical implications for decision-makers to develop effective flood mitigation measures and enhance the efficiency of flood disaster management in the region.
... Wular Lake, the largest freshwater lake, has undergone or witnessed degradation due to the dramatic rise in human population in its catchment over the past few decades. This magnitude of high population growth has also resulted in environmental degradation, heavily impacting the wetlands of the Srinagar city, resulting in the loss of 9119 ha of wetland area between 1901 and 2004 (Rashid & Naseem, 2008). ...
India's wetlands, estimated to cover 15.26 million hectares, have experienced significant degradation due to human activities. Urbanization, population growth, land transformation, encroachment, and pollution have all contributed to the shrinking of wetlands, which were earlier estimated to be 58.2 million hectares. This review analyzes the root causes of wetland degradation in India, providing insights from more than 100 studies conducted over the last four decades. It also examines the impacts of population growth, urbanization, land transformation, encroachment, and pollution on wetlands, and their associated ecological consequences. The paper highlights the need for conservation and management efforts to protect these vital ecosystems, which provide numerous benefits to human societies and biodiversity. From the above review, it can be inferred that approximately 64% of wetlands have suffered degradation in terms of wetland coverage as a result of these drivers. Additionally, metropolitan areas are experiencing a continuous reduction in wetland size due to overpopulation and urbanization, which serve as the primary contributing factors. The majority of research conducted on wetlands in India concentrates on the ecological and environmental aspects of the wetland ecosystem. Moreover, the physical factors, such as alterations in land use within the catchment area, and the socio-economic factors, including population growth and changes in economic activities, which lead to modifications in wetland surroundings, have not been extensively investigated. So, there is a necessity for further research to be conducted on the physical, socio-economic, and conservation aspects that influence the state of wetlands and their utilization. Also, this research calls for the development of more effective and comprehensive management strategies in response to escalating stress from various climatic and particularly anthropogenic factors, because the governmental and scholarly attention towards wetland management policies, rules, regulations, and organizations has only recently emerged.
... mile 2 /year (42.91 km 2 /year) [34]. As a result of improper urbanization and rapid growth of population, approximately 91.2 km 2 /year of wetland cover has lost between 1911 and 2004 [35]. Wetland management plans in various regions, particularly in Africa and Asia, still have a lot of room for improvement [33]. ...
Wetlands are simply areas that are fully or partially saturated with water. Not much attention has been given to wetlands in the past, due to the unawareness of their value to the general public. However, wetlands have numerous hydrological, ecological, and social values. They play an important role in interactions among soil, water, plants, and animals. The rich biodiversity in the vicinity of wetlands makes them invaluable. Therefore, the conservation of wetlands is highly important in today’s world. Many anthropogenic activities damage wetlands. Climate change has adversely impacted wetlands and their biodiversity. The shrinking of wetland areas and reducing wetland water levels can therefore be frequently seen. However, the opposite can be seen during stormy seasons. Since wetlands have permissible water levels, the prediction of wetland water levels is important. Flooding and many other severe environmental damage can happen when these water levels are exceeded. Therefore, the prediction of wetland water level is an important task to identify potential environmental damage. However, the monitoring of water levels in wetlands all over the world has been limited due to many difficulties. A Scopus-based search and a bibliometric analysis showcased the limited research work that has been carried out in the prediction of wetland water level using machine-learning techniques. Therefore, there is a clear need to assess what is available in the literature and then present it in a comprehensive review. Therefore, this review paper focuses on the state of the art of water-level prediction techniques of wetlands using machine-learning techniques. Nonlinear climatic parameters such as precipitation, evaporation, and inflows are some of the main factors deciding water levels; therefore, identifying the relationships between these parameters is complex. Therefore, machine-learning techniques are widely used to present nonlinear relationships and to predict water levels. The state-of-the-art literature summarizes that artificial neural networks (ANNs) are some of the most effective tools in wetland water-level prediction. This review can be effectively used in any future research work on wetland water-level prediction.
... The rapid expansion of urban centres without proper land use controls and management strategies has increased the volume of runoff and led to other associated impacts. During a normal rainfall event, the city centre is inundated as drainage channels that used to remove floodwaters have disappeared because of encroachments, unplanned urbanization, and pollution (Rashid and Naseem 2008;Dar et al. 2021e). Additionally, the rapid urban development has direct impacts on the hydrological regimes, water quality, and groundwater with a high potential to cause floods in the city (Ahmad et al. 2019). ...
Assessing the impact of land use land cover (LULC) changes on runoff is crucial for the sustainable management of wetland catchments. This study modelled the impacts of LULC changes on runoff in three urban wetland catchments using the United States Environment Protection Agency’s Stormwater Management Model (SWMM). Land cover maps of 1980 and 2017 delineated from satellite data were reclassified using the geographic information system (GIS) to derive impervious surfaces of three catchments in Srinagar city. The findings revealed a drastic reduction of the pervious area from 2249.6 ha to 1883 ha and a corresponding increase in the impervious surfaces from 321 ha to 704.8 ha including all three catchments. Runoff simulations revealed that from 1980–2017, runoff volume increased by 154%, 76.3%, and 159.5% in the Anchar, Brari Nambal, and Khushalsar catchments, respectively. The results indicate that increased runoff and peak volumes are driven by the land-use change, particularly the increase of urban spaces in wetland areas. For mitigating the negative impacts of runoff, rain gardens, a best management practice (BMP) with low impact development (LID) properties were distributed in the catchments based on the availability of open space, cost, and effectiveness. Simulations indicate that the rain gardens would reduce runoff volume by 46.8%, 10.8%, and 48.6% at 50% of runoff treated, and by 89.4%, 13.4%, and 86.8% at 100% of runoff treated, in the Anchar, Brari Nambal, and Khushalsar catchments, respectively. The results of this study could support environmentally-friendly land use planning for the protection and management of wetland catchments.
... As predicted, the decrease or increase in precipitation will have important implications for all ecosystems, particularly wetlands, whose ecological character is very much dependent on its hydrological regime Winter, 2000). Climate change is known to have a significant impact on the hydrological regimes of the lakes and wetlands (Rashid et al., 2008). The study reveals the loss of nearly 50% of the wetlands over 100 years (Fig. 5.7). ...
Climate-related threats are becoming even more evident worldwide. However, the vulnerability to climate change is underestimated mainly due to the lack of an established and globally standardized set of indicators that measure the effects of climate change. There is a lack of awareness, particularly in microclimatic variability in big and small valleys of the Himalaya. In this study, environmental and socioeconomic indicators have been selected to study the impacts of climate change in Kashmir Valley. The indicators like temperature, precipitation, and receding of glaciers are particularly useful in summarizing the effectiveness of climate change studies. Comparisons with a collection of baseline results demonstrate the immediate effects of climate change. Information extracted from such climate change metrics will lead to policy-making at the national, regional, and local levels for successful conservation strategies.
... Further, the region has fragile ecosystem and is extremely sensitive to global climatic variability [52]. The rapid urbanization and filling of wetlands in the city vicinity have significantly altered the natural setup which leads to urban flood situation [4,63]. The analysis of historical meteorological data exhibited excessive precipitation is the main cause of floods in this region [38,47]. ...
Kashmir Valley has witnessed a catastrophic flood in 2014, which led thousands of people homeless and devastated the agricultural lands. In the present study, the impact of 2014 flood occurred during the month of September was analysed in the vicinity of Dal lake using the pre- and post-flood periods satellite observations. The study exhibited an inundation of 42.50 km2 area (52.47% of total area) during September 2014 flood period, which is primarily topographical low-lying area (i.e. below 1530 m). The land use/land cover (LULC) analysis during pre- and post-flood periods exhibited significant impact over the built-up land with 20.4% decrease in the built-up (from 25.44 to 20.25 km2), which was mostly evident in the western, southern and eastern parts of Dal lake. It has also severely affected the road network with inundation of 220.84 kms (55.62% of total road network). The road network in the lower elevation (< 1530 m) not only disrupted but also acted as a carrier for the flood water dispersal in the region. The long-term impact and recovery of flood inundation were assessed using spatio-temporal built-up growth during 2014, 2015 and 2018 within the flooded zone through geospatial overlay analysis. The flood (September 2014) affected a total 10.42 km2 of built-up, wherein the built-up was reduced to 7.50 km2, due to the low-lying topography and nearest proximity to flow path of Jhelum river. Later, the built-up was increased to 9.60 km2 within the flooded zone during 2018 primarily in the southern parts, representing the long-term recovery after the flood aftermath. Although the impact of flood (2014) was evident in both the flooded and non-flooded zones, the built-up growth was reduced significantly in the flooded zone (− 25.18% change) as compared to non-flooded zones (− 17.32% change). Also, the long-term recovery was comparatively higher in the non-flooded zone (31.84% growth) as compared to the flooded zone (28.03% growth). The study necessitates towards implication of effective urban planning method primarily along the major lakes in order to reduce the increasing impact of catastrophic flood.
... Owing to the alterations caused by human intervention, the lake catchments across Kashmir are under immense pressure . Urban lakes across Kashmir have been shrinking at an alarming pace, reducing their capacity to withhold storm and flood waters (Rashid and Naseem 2007). This was clearly visible during the 2014 devastating flood when residential areas in the outskirts of the capital city, Srinagar, which used to be a floodplain until a few decades ago, were inundated for more than 3 weeks ) after a heavy precipitation in the first week of September. ...
The lakes of Kashmir Valley show multiple signs of deterioration. This study integrated multiple datasets pertaining to the land system, lake bathymetry and water quality in GIS environment to limnologically characterize the Nigeen Lake. Settlements in the vicinity of the lake were mapped using high-resolution satellite data of 2003 and 2016. Lake depths measured at 235 points spread across the lake surface were used to produce the detailed bathymetry of Nigeen Lake. Surface water quality data at five sites pertaining to 22 physico-chemical parameters was analyzed for limnological characterization of the lake. The quality of lake water is within the permissible limits as per the drinking water standards set forth by World Health Organization (WHO); however, the values of secchi-disc transparency (0.52–1.39 m) and total phosphorous (184–687 μg L−1) indicate hypereutrophic state of the lake. The settlements in the lake vicinity expanded by 30% from 2003 to 2016. The bathymetry analysis revealed that the lake depth varied from 1.02 to 6.07 m. The reckless urbanization and inadequate sewage treatment system together with high residence time of water in the Nigeen Lake are responsible for enhanced nutrient enrichment and deterioration in water quality.
... Due to human-induced modification, the natural wetland landscapes also are under acute pressures . Wetland areas across Kashmir have been gradually squeezing affecting the buffering capacity of these ecosystems to withhold flood waters and storm water runoff (Rashid and Naseem 2007). This was clearly manifested during the 2014 devastating flood when residential area of the outskirts of capital city Srinagar, which used to be traditional floodplain, was inundated for more than 3 weeks in flood waters . ...
Wetlands in Kashmir are showing myriad signs of deterioration. In the present study, we assessed the spatio-temporal variations in the land use land cover of a semi-urban Narkara wetland, Kashmir, using high-resolution satellite data of 1965, 1980, and 2016. We also analyzed the impact of land system changes on the health Narkara wetland by estimating soil loss in the catchment of Narkara wetland using Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) in GIS during the observation period. The land system changes indicated a massive increase of ~ 2663% in built-up area, while the area under agriculture showed ~ 78% decrease between 1965 and 2016. Small insignificant changes were manifest in other land cover types as well. The soil erosion estimates for the wetland catchment for 1965, 1980, and 2016 indicate 106.33 t ha⁻¹ soil detachment for 1965, 120.21 t ha⁻¹ for 1980, and 62.16 t ha⁻¹ for 2016. This significant reduction in the soil erosion is attributed to the barren lands and agriculture being taken over by built-up area between 1980 and 2016. The reckless urbanization both within Narkara and its catchment not only affects the hydrology and ecology of this important semi-urban wetland but also increases vulnerability of people to flooding in this part of Himalaya.
... The lakes and rivers in the valley reveal significant morphological changes and loss of the area owing to huge human intervention and fluctuations in water 1992-2001-2015) budget. Sediment load received from the feeding rivers has been another important factor contributing to dwindling bathymetric properties of water bodies in the study area (e.g., Rashid and Naseem 2008;Alam et al. 2011). Moreover, poor management practices have resulted in pollution and degraded quality of theses valuable aquatic ecosystems. ...
Land use and land cover (LULC) change has been one of the most immense and perceptible transformations of the earth’s surface. Evaluating LULC change at varied spatial scales is imperative in wide range of perspectives such as environmental conservation, resource management, land use planning, and sustainable development. This work aims to examine the land use and land cover changes in the Kashmir valley between the time periods from 1992–2001–2015 using a set of compatible moderate resolution Landsat satellite imageries. Supervised approach with maximum likelihood classifier was adopted for the classification and generation of LULC maps for the selected time periods. Results reveal that there have been substantial changes in the land use and cover during the chosen time periods. In general, three land use and land cover change patterns were observed in the study area: (1) consistent increase of the area under marshy, built-up, barren, plantation, and shrubs; (2) continuous decrease in agriculture and water; (3) decrease (1992–2001) and increase (2001–2015) in forest and pasture classes. In terms of the area under each LULC category, most significant changes have been observed in agriculture (−), plantation (+), built-up (+), and water (−); however, with reference to percent change within each class, the maximum variability was recorded in built-up (198.45%), plantation (87.98%), pasture (− 71%), water (− 48%) and agriculture (− 28.85%). The massive land transformation is largely driven by anthropogenic actions and has been mostly adverse in nature, giving rise to multiple environmental issues in the ecologically sensitive Kashmir valley.
... Srinagar city in Jammu and Kashmir exhibits a unique ecological setup along with an extensive area under lakes, wetlands, and water channels. The subsequent encroachment, earth filling, and construction had altered the natural landscape and made it prone to urban flood situation (Rashid and Naseem 2008). A continuous spell of five days of very high rainfall in the first week of September 2014 caused disastrous floods in many parts of Jammu and Kashmir State where 85 persons lost their lives in Kashmir and more than 300 people in the entire valley (Ray et al. 2015). ...
The present study investigates the urban growth in the Srinagar city of Kashmir Valley during 1972–2014 and the effect of 2014 Kashmir flood on the urban environment. Srinagar is the capital city in Kashmir Valley which has been affected by the devastating flood in 2014. The built-up growth for the past 42 years was 1565% with concomitant population growth of 224% in the Srinagar city. The built-up development was more pronounced in the central part of the city and along the river Jhelum during 1972–1989 which later on spread largely in the southernmost part of Srinagar city during the period of 1996–2014. High-Resolution Satellite (HRS) data-based observations indicated that 2014 flood inundation occupied 108 sq. km area within the Srinagar municipal limits. The increase of built-up inundation was monitored from 1972 to 2014, which reveals that the built-up inundation was 3.7 sq. km and increased to 39.2 sq. km. The spatial analysis revealed that nine wards located in the topographically low regions and in the proximity to Jhelum river were completely (100%) inundated during the flood. The past built-up inundation spatial analysis with reference to 2014 flood inundation indicated decrease in the percentage built-up area inundation (72.4% in 1972 to 46% in 2014) which reveals that the new built-up growth in the Srinagar city mostly occurred in the relatively safer zones. It is also observed that very high flood hazard and vulnerability zones were located in the western, southern, and central parts of the city in only 10 wards which rendered these wards with very high flood risk. The study demonstrated that geoinformatics-based spatial analysis of flood inundation can be effectively used for flood risk and related strategic planning.
... Srinagar City in J&K carried a unique ecological setup with extensive area under wetlands, lakes and water channels. The subsequent encroachment, earth filling, construction had alter the natural landscape and make it prone to urban flood situation (Rashid and Naseem, 2008). The flood of 2014 significantly affected the population of Srinagar (Mishra, 2015). ...
Surface waterlogged areas were delineated using satellite remote sensing data for Vaishali district of North Bihar. Digital data of LANDSAT thematic Mapper sensor acquired on 1998 and 2006 were analyzed using spectral analysis using software-ERDAS Imagine. The surface waterlogged areas were delineated using normalized difference water index (NDWI) technique, the result indicates that waterlogged areas ranges from zero to +1. The positive values +1
signifies the occurrence of waterlogged areas whereas the negative values -1 is for vegetation cover. Areas of 190 sq. km and 60 sq. km were found to be affected by surface waterlogging during 1988 and 2006 respectively. A considerable reduction in waterlogging during 2006 is credited to the operation of government wasteland reclamation events in the areas affected by waterlogging. The spatio-temporal waterlogging dynamics tried in this study would be
beneficial for organizers to implement protective actions for waterlogging and best use of available land and water
resources for sustainable growth of flooded lands.
... The flood vulnerability scenario in the Jhelum basin has worsened during the last few decades as a significant number of the lakes and wetlands in the basin, that used to store floodwaters and act as sponge during flooding, have been urbanized and converted into concrete landscape in the entire Kashmir Valley. Most of the wetlands and water bodies in Jhelum basin are fighting a losing battle for their survival due to the official and public apathy (Rashid and Naseem 2007;Mushtaq and Pandey 2014). The hydrological functionality of wetlands has been adversely affected due to the encroachment, siltation and depleting streamflows under the changing climate Lal et al. 2001). ...
The 2014 extreme flooding in Kashmir, with the peak discharge exceeding 115,000 cfs and the Jhelum River overflowing its banks, was triggered by the complex interplay of atmospheric disturbances causing widespread extreme rainfall for 7 days preceding the event. We used multisource data in GIS environment; satellites, hydro-meteorological, socioeconomic and field data, to assess the role of various factors in the flooding. The event was aggravated by the geomorphic setup of the Valley. Tributaries in the south, characterized by high gradient, decreased time of runoff concentration and increased flood peakedness with short lag, almost simultaneously discharge enormous volumes of floodwaters into the Jhelum around Sangam. Owing to the flat gradient of the Jhelum from Sangam downstream (<5o), floods historically inundate vast areas in the stretch. The situation was exacerbated by the anthropogenic drivers, such as extensive urbanization of the floodplain, loss of wetlands, and decreased channel capacity due to the siltation from the deforested mountainous landscapes. The dilapidated flood control infrastructure and the institutional inability to manage the enormity of the event made the situation worst causing unprecedented damage to the infrastructure in the basin with the capital city Srinagar inundated up to ∼30ft for more than a week.
... Dal Lake, a Himalayan urban lake which is one of the beautiful lakes known for its pristine beauty, has been a great concern for ecologists due to fast decline in its size and water quality. The main natural process responsible for the decrease of lake area is siltation, a process wherein the catchment inflows dump huge silt into the water body (Rashid and Naseem, 2007). ...
A study was conducted from July 2013 to June 2014 to assess the outcome of dredging activity on the water characteristics and zooplankton community structure in Dal Lake. An assessment was done with respect to alterations in physico-chemical parameters and zooplankton community changes in predredged and post-dredging periods. The results showed a considerable reduction in Secchi transparency while water depth, conductivity, total dissolved solids, nitrate and total phosphorous concentrations increased noticeably in post dredging scenario. Variations in the values of dissolved oxygen, pH and temperature as a result of dredging were not statistically significant. The environmental changes as a result of dredging activity affected the structure and distribution of zooplankton community; the abundance of rotifers decreased, while the crustaceans increased. The prominent taxa were Brachionus sp., Keratella cochlearis, Bosmina longirostris, Chydorus sphaericus and Diaptomus sp. Key words : Dredging, water quality, zooplankton, rotifer, crustacean.
... The discharges from houses, hotels, restaurants and the house boats act as nutrients to these weeds. Studies have found that there is an alarming growth of duckweed, water ferns and algae in the water bodies of Srinagar city (Rashid and Naseem, 2007). The efforts for weeding out the lakes are grossly inadequate and slow, resulting in spread of marshy area. ...
Nature is the necessary condition for the existence and development of society. But increasing interventions by man in recent past have altered the natural environment to ‘humanize’ it for their benefits. The relationship between man and nature is twofold. On one hand, man’s actions and activities are influenced and conditioned by natural environment. On the other hand, mankind continuously conquers nature and reform geographical surrounding in the process of their development. The bridge between these is man’s productive activity through which he continuously changes his geographical surroundings. Every natural system has its carrying capacity. Over dependency and over exploitation of this system beyond its capacity leads to destruction and disintegration of living and non-living components of the system. The present study focuses on the interaction between ‘hanjis’ and ecologically important Dal Lake and its surroundings in Srinagar city (India). The Dal is one of the beautiful lakes of the world for which Lawrence has said, “Perhaps in the whole world there is no corner as pleasant as the Dal lake”. The study finds that the Hanjis with increase in their population have inflected transformations in and around the lake with their activity. These transformations are leading to deterioration of the Dal lake and its environs and there is an urgent need for intervention for the welfare of the Hanjis and the management of the Dal lake.
... There are various studies that have already been cited in our manuscript, which suggest that the unique geomorphology and heterogeneous lithology influence the hydrological response at the basin scale (Strahler 1964;Chow 1964;Dietrich 1989, 1992;Brasington and Richards 1998;Ward and Robinson 2000;Rakesh et al. 2000;Hudson and Colditz 2003;Yildiz 2009;Bhat and Romshoo 2009;Diakakis 2011;Romshoo et al. 2012;Altaf et al. 2013;Meraj et al. 2013). 2. During the last 3-4 decades, KB has lost numerous wetlands to urbanization and there has been consequent increase in the imperviousness, particularly in the floodplains of Jhelum basin (Rashid and Naseem 2008;Kuchay and Bhat 2014a;Romshoo and Rashid, 2014). During this period, large tracts of the agriculture lands in the Jhelum floodplains have also been converted into horticulture and built-up areas (Bhat 2008;Kuchay and Bhat 2014b;Murtaza and Romshoo 2015). ...
This is a response to the comment made by Shah (2015) to the study carried out by Meraj et al. (2015), published in the Natural Hazards (doi:10.1007/s11069-015-1775-x). We thank the commentator for his comments on our manuscript. The original manuscript published by Meraj et al. (2015) focused on the influence of the geomorphology and land cover on flood vulnerability in two Himalaya watersheds: one each from the Pir Panjal and Greater Himalaya ranges. The 2014 floods were mentioned in the manuscript just to indicate the validity and correctness of the approach adopted to assess the vulnerability of these two watersheds in Kashmir basin (KB). KB is also synonymously used for Karewa basin or Jhelum basin as well. The downstream areas of both these watersheds were inundated during the 2014 floods up to varying depths and duration. The September 2014 floods in the KB were a consequence of the extreme rainfall event that was quite widespread in extent. The situation was exacerbated due to the loss of wetlands, unplanned urbanization, the siltation of water courses in KB and the inadequate flood control infrastructure (Romshoo 2015). The commentator has made most of the comments about the genesis of 2014 floods, which was not specifically the focus of the research published by Meraj et al. (2015), and hence the genesis of the 2014 floods was not addressed therein. It is therefore appropriate that the comments made in Shah (2015) are properly responded to point by point, in order to provide a balanced perspective to the readership of the journal.
... In their paper from the 12th World Lake Conference, the scientists argued that the natural discharge system had collapsed due to the degradation of the network of lakes. Incessant rains for two or three days would raise flood threat in Jhelum river in 2008 while as such rains wouldn't be a risk two to three decades back [11]. The flood inundation levels recorded in the floodplains of the Jhelum were the highest in the archived hydrological history of Kashmir with vast areas in Kashmir province inundated, many of these areas remained under floodwaters for about two weeks and some low lying areas of capital city Srinagar for more than 4 weeks. ...
September 2014 unprecedented floods in Jammu & Kashmir tell the tale of human misery not witnessed by this state in over 100 years. The devastation caused by the flood is colossal. It claimed over three hundred human lives and destroyed everything that came its way-residential houses, schools, colleges, hospitals, paddy fields, orchards, government establishments and businesses et-cetera. It has rendered thousands of people homeless and jobless. The destruction around has left the entire society traumatized. The signs of history, art, culture, heritage, architecture and pristine natural beauty stand ruined. Hundreds of educational institutions suffered a colossal damage. Six large hospitals in the capital city were inundated in the floods. Fourteen neonates have died at the G B Pant Children Hospital after the water entered the building. This was a disaster of international ramifications -a classic case on urban flooding and need to be studied worldwide. Kashmir suffered losses in excess of one trillion INR. Across the State, 125,000 families have been affected, 5642 villages were affected across the State and 800 villages remained sub-merged for over two weeks. More than 350000 structures – mostly residential houses – have been damaged. State government has projected a 44000 crore INR for relief and rehabilitation. Government must create Taskforce for Rehabilitation and also a Reconstruction Authority to co-ordinate the rebuilding programme. Kashmir needs technological innovation that will enable people to produce more welfare without tampering with nature and history of living in this 'Paradise on Earth'. There is a need for an Eco-sensitive Development in the Fragile Himalayan Environment. Health effects like PTSD in population are an emerging issue that will need attention of public health authorities. Community based research is required to measure the morbidity due to psychiatric diseases as a consequence of floods. Similarly the impact of disaster on the mental health of children and young adults should be a priority. Serious efforts are required to make disaster preparedness an important agenda of governance.
... Incessant rains for two or three days would raise flood threat in Jhelum River in 2008 while as such rains wouldn't be a risk two to three decades back. 11 The ...
During the first week of September 2014, the incessant rains in Kashmir resulted in unprecedented floods that tell the tale of human misery not witnessed by this state in over 100 years. The devastation caused by the flood is colossal. It claimed over three hundred human lives and destroyed everything that came its way—residential houses, schools, colleges, hospitals, paddy fields, orchards, government establishments and businesses et-cetera. It has rendered thousands of people homeless and jobless. The destruction around has left the entire society traumatized. The signs of history, art, culture, heritage, architecture and pristine natural beauty stand ruined. Water level at some places rose up to 25 feet. Many houses were submerged while people were asleep. Hundreds of educational institutions suffered a colossal damage. Six large hospitals in the capital city were inundated in the floods. Fourteen neonates have died at the G B Pant Children Hospital after the water entered the building. This was a disaster of international ramifications - a classic case on urban flooding and need to be studied worldwide. Kashmir suffered losses in excess of one trillion INR. Across the State, 125,000 families have been affected, 5642 villages were affected across the State and 800 villages remained sub-merged for over two weeks. More than 350000 structures – mostly residential houses – have been damaged. State government has projected a 44000 crore INR for relief and rehabilitation. Government must create Taskforce for Rehabilitation and also a Reconstruction Authority to co-ordinate the rebuilding programme. Kashmir needs technological innovation that will enable people to produce more welfare without tampering with nature and history of living in this ‘Paradise on Earth’. There is a strong need for institutional revolution to modernize irrigation bureaucracies. In the long term government should plan to rejuvenate small and medium towns in Kashmir. Above all we need an Eco-sensitive Development.
... Even the water quality of river Jhelum has also got deteriorated due to the direct discharge of urban waste including both domestic and human excreta and almost every water body has now turned into the " Reservoir of Sewage " wastes and effluents [19]. The water tests have also found high level of pH value, total alkalinity, nitrogen and total phosphorous in the waters of Dal lake [20] ( Growth of weeds in water bodies: The land transformations and activities in and around the water bodies have resulted in rapid undergrowth of weeds in all the water bodies in Srinagar city, especially the recent grown up weed Azolla Pinnata. This has converted the water into dense marsh because of various nitrogen and phosphorous effluents dumped by houses, hotels, restaurants and the house boats, which act as the fertilizer to these weeds. ...
Human actions rather than natural forces are the source of most contemporary changes in the state and flows of the biosphere. Understanding these actions and the social forces that drive them is crucial to understanding, modelling and predicting local, regional as well as global environmental change and also for managing and responding to such change. The present study investigates the patterns of urban land transformation in Srinagar City, which lies in fragile hill eco-system of Kashmir valley. The results points towards unplanned and haphazard urban expansion and transfor-mation. These transformations have severely destroyed the water bodies both in terms of area as well as its quality.
Groundwater resources are depleting at an alarming rate all over the world. Therefore, ensuring water security is the foremost priority of every nation. This paper presents a simple methodology to estimate groundwater recharge from rural ponds and to study the impact of climate change and urbanization on the recharge potential. It was found that built-up in the study area has increased by 51% since 2002 as a consequent of which, the total area occupied by ponds has decreased by 11%. This has resulted in a decrease in the recharge volume from these ponds by 14.74 %. Thus, there is an urgent need to rejuvenate and maintain natural ponds and lakes, which is much more economical than constructing artificial percolation tanks and injection wells as discussed in the report. This study will also help various Government initiatives of rejuvenation of natural ponds and lakes in identifying those ponds which need to be revived based on their size, amount of surface runoff stored by the ponds and the volume of groundwater recharge through seepage from the bed of ponds.
The urban areas of developing countries are densely populated and need the use of sophisticated monitoring systems, such as remote sensing and geographical information systems (GIS). The urban sprawl of a city is best understood by studying the dynamics of LULC change which can be easily generated by using sequential satellite images, required for the prediction of urban growth. Multivariate statistical techniques and regression models have been used to establish the relationship between the urban growth and its causative factors and for forecast of the population growth and urban expansion. In Srinagar city, one of the fastest growing metropolitan cities situated in Jammu and Kashmir State of India, sprawl is taking its toll on the natural resources at an alarming pace. The present study was carried over a period of 40 years (1971–2011), to understand the dynamics of spatial and temporal variability of urban sprawl. The results reveal that built-up area has increased by 585.08% while as the population has increased by 214.75%. The forecast showed an increase of 246.84 km2 in built-up area which exceeds the overall carrying capacity of the city. The most common conversions were also evaluated.
During the first week of September 2014, the incessant rains in Kashmir resulted in unprecedented floods that tell the tale of human misery not witnessed by this state in over 100 years. The devastation caused by the flood is colossal. It claimed over three hundred human lives and destroyed everything that came its way—residential houses, schools, colleges, hospitals, paddy fields, orchards, government establishments and businesses et-cetera. It has rendered thousands of people homeless and jobless. The destruction around has left the entire society traumatized. The signs of history, art, culture, heritage, architecture and pristine natural beauty stand ruined. Water level at some places rose up to 25 feet. Many houses were submerged while people were asleep. Hundreds of educational institutions suffered a colossal damage.
Six large hospitals in the capital city were inundated in the floods. Fourteen neonates have died at the G B Pant Children Hospital after the water entered the building. This was a disaster of international ramifications - a classic case on urban flooding and need to be studied worldwide. Kashmir suffered losses in excess of one trillion INR. Across the State, 125,000 families have been affected, 5642 villages were affected across the State and 800 villages remained sub-merged for over two weeks. More than 350000 structures – mostly residential houses – have been damaged. State government has projected a 44000 crore INR for relief and rehabilitation. Government must create Taskforce for Rehabilitation and also a Reconstruction Authority to co-ordinate the rebuilding programme. Kashmir needs technological innovation that will enable people to produce more welfare without tampering with nature and history of living in this ‘Paradise on Earth’.
There is a strong need for institutional revolution to modernize irrigation bureaucracies. In the long term government should plan to rejuvenate small and medium towns in Kashmir. Above all we need an Eco-sensitive Development in the Fragile Himalayan Environment.
KEYWORDS: Deluge, Kashmir, Floods, Disaster
Geospatial presentation of habitat has become a key issue for planning conservation and management of any ecosystem. Hokersar
wetland, one of the best resorts of migratory waterfowl in Kashmir, is under anthropogenic pressure and siltation due to floods.
This has resulted in the degradation and change in the habitat quality of varied aquatic flora and fauna. Moreover, the seasonal
changes affect the water level and land cover characteristics of the landscape. In the present study temporal mapping of the
wetland has been carried out using the data sets for the autumn and spring seasons to assess the land cove/land use dynamics.
The temporal change analysis, in the urban sprawl and the wetland, has been carried out to assess the rate of changes in the
wetland and its environs. The wetland initially comprised of patch of marshy waterfowl habitat with some open water bodies.
It has been fragmented into a large number of land uses because of anthropogenic activities. The increase in the settlement
has been observed proportionate to the rate of fragmentation in the wetland. This study has created an information base, which
will help to design conservation schemes for long term maintenance of the wetland.
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