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A study of the type and characteristics of relaxing music for college students
Abstract
It is believed that music has the power to soften emotions and alleviate pains. The essence of the power has being encoded by researchers. This study was aimed to explore the effects of music preference and stress-associated responses of college students when they listen to music. The objectives of this study were (1) to survey the music types of relaxing music for college students, and the difference in gender and study majors; (2) to investigate the effects of musical preference, music expertise, and awareness of musical content on their perceptivity of relaxation; and (3) to analyze the relativities of musical emotions with musical characteristics, such as tempo, mode, and dynamic range. Participants were asked to listen to selected music pieces, and to rate their three-dimensional emotional responses, pleasant-unpleasant, calm-arousal, and relaxing-stress, on five-point Likert scales. Data collection of music compositions and personal music taste was acquired using surveys. The findings are expected to (1) understand college students' listening habit, (2) collect repertoire suitable for university students in terms of stress releasing, and (3) offer advices for music appreciation teaching, psychological consultation personnel, and clinical therapist.
... Through this autonomic reflex, music modulates arousal levels (e.g. anxiety, relaxation) and emotions in a way that can optimize or impair subsequent behaviors (Juslin and Sloboda 2001;Gabrielsson and Lindstrom 2003;Rickard 2004;Ilie and Thompson 2006;Wang 2014). ...
... Additionally, high volume levels and fast tempo, which increase arousal and motivation levels, may lead to increased psychoactive substance consumption (Juslin and Sloboda 2001;Gabrielsson and Lindstrom 2003;Rickard 2004;Ilie and Thompson 2006;Wang 2014) as well as excessive consumption (e.g. binge; Engels et al. 2012;Buvik and Rossow 2015). ...
Music is increasingly considered to promote the health and well-being of clinical populations treated in hospital and psychiatric settings. Research shows numerous benefits of music on physical and mental health issues by responding to psychological, emotional, social and physical needs. However, while music's benefits are largely supported among clinical populations, it appears that marginalized populations remain stigmatized through a lasting emphasis on their difficulties, including their use of music. Nevertheless, music appears as an innovative, accessible and promising tool to address such needs in individuals who experience social inequity regarding their access to health and helping services. Among those are marginalized individuals who suffer psychoactive substance abuse. Though research in this population remains scarce, we observe beneficial and harmful influences of music on psycho-active substance use and on the long-term addictive trajectory. In a more comprehensive manner, this article critically explores the relevance of the music and health conceptual framework developed by V€ astfj€ all et al. to explain the role of music on the addictive trajectory. Accounting for music, individual and contextual factors, the model explains how music alters emotional states positively or negatively, which in turn modulates psychoactive substance use and the different periods encountered through the associated addictive trajectory. Despite some limitations, the model offers insights that can usefully guide and contribute to adapt its use in community interventions and as a harm reduction tool, conditional to the careful consideration of individuals' needs and interpretation of their musical experiences. ARTICLE HISTORY
... Research has shown that music with a strong rhythm can activate brainwaves to resonate in sync with the sound, with faster beats providing stronger focus and more alert thought and a slower tempo encouraging a relaxed, meditative state (Wang, 2014 Listening to music can reduce stress, increase focus, improve mood and increase Green people management: HR issues from beginning to end -the wh... http://ensovoort.co.za/index.php/2022/08/08/green-people-manageme... ...
For the transformation of a harsh unapproachable work environment into a soft, tolerant green environment, special characteristics are needed, both from the company and the workforce. The business must discover the answer on the “it” question. What is “it”: that this company has that compels employees to work for this company? What makes the company better to work for than another company? What should a company do to make a significant impact on the manner employees view this company? Are changes to convert ordinary employee management into green people management sustainable? It should be clear that the company is a proponent of green people management. With green people management, the company also adheres to social justice. Green work ethics and ethics of care should be at the order of the day. The company’s top structure must be at the forefront of research on the green concept regarding all aspects of the company. The layout of the company infrastructure must be indicative of what the company stands for. In carrying out its duties, the company must be at the forefront of practices that embraces healthy green people management and environmental practices and benchmark their company as such. The web page on which information about the organization appears must clearly spell out the green policy towards the environment and staff.
... These contradictory findings suggest the relationships amongst these factors are complex. Indeed, several studies have observed the interactions between arousal and familiarity (Iwanaga, Ikeda, & Iwaki, 1996), between arousal and music preference (Jiang, Zhou, Rickson, & Jiang, 2013), and between music type and music training (Wang, 2014). For example, Jiang et al. (2013) found that listening to lowarousal music induced significantly lower tension and state anxiety levels than listening to high-arousal music when music was not preferred. ...
Introduction:
Since decades, the "Mozart effect" has been studied. However, the diverse effects of Mozart's music components have not been yet defined. Authors aimed to identify a differential response to short-term exposure to Mozart's music, or to its rhythmic signature only, on subjective and objective measures.
Methods:
The Mozart Sonata in A major K 331 (Mozart), the same piece consisting only of beat (Destructured), and duration-matched silence were administered to 25 healthy young adults, stood supine in a relaxing setting. The Italian Mood Scale questionnaire was administered before and after each listening. Heart rate variability (HRV) metrics were calculated from ECG recording, and breath flow was registered during experiments.
Results:
After Destructured, there was no change of fatigue and tension. After Mozart, fatigue was significantly reduced (and a tendency appeared for tension), whereas vigor was not. Breathing rate tended to be higher during Mozart. The nonlinear parameter HFD of HRV analysis, even though not significantly, was slightly lower during Destructured; Poincaré plots SD1 and SD2 tended to be lower during Mozart.
Discussion/conclusion:
Mozart's music may allow to maintain arousal during relaxing condition. Psychological response of music and physiological dynamics were not necessarily entangled. Musical pieces based on individual physiological signature may lead musical psychological interventions.
To examine the effects of sedative and stimulative music and music preference on stress reduction when participants are exposed to a stressor, 144 female music education students performed a stressful, mental arithmetic test. After the stress was induced successfully, participants were randomly assigned to four experimental groups. They listened to preferred sedative music, preferred stimulative music, unpreferred sedative music, and unpreferred stimulative music, respectively. Tension and state-anxiety levels were obtained after listening to music. The results revealed that participants who listened to sedative music showed significantly lower tension and state-anxiety levels than did those who listened to stimulative music when music was unpreferred. However, there was no significant difference of tension and state-anxiety levels between listening to sedative music and stimulative music when music was preferred. These findings demonstrate that the effects of sedative and stimulative music on stress reduction depend on music preference. Our study has important implications for the practice of clinical music therapy since it provides strong support for the use of preferred music when working to reduce patient stress.
The authors examined similarities and differences between (1) listeners' perceptions of emotions conveyed by 30-s pieces of music and (2) their emotional responses to the same pieces. Using identical scales, listeners rated how happy and how sad the music made them feel, and the happiness and the sadness expressed by the music. The music was manipulated to vary in tempo (fast or slow) and mode (major or minor). Feeling and perception ratings were highly correlated but perception ratings were higher than feeling ratings, particularly for music with consistent cues to happiness (fast-major) or sadness (slow-minor), and for sad-sounding music in general. Associations between the music manipulations and listeners' feelings were mediated by their perceptions of the emotions conveyed by the music. Happiness ratings were elevated for fast-tempo and major-key stimuli, sadness ratings were elevated for slow-tempo and minor-key stimuli, and mixed emotional responses (higher happiness and sadness ratings) were elevated for music with mixed cues to happiness and sadness (fast-minor or slow-major). Listeners also exhibited ambivalence toward sad-sounding music.
Previous research suggests that while subjective anxiety is reduced by relaxing music, the effect of music on physiological stress indices is less consistent. In the current study, the effect of relaxing music on participants' subjective and physiological response to stress was explored, with attention paid to methodological factors and mediating variables that might have contributed to inconsistencies in previous studies. Undergraduate students (43 females & 44 males) were exposed to a cognitive stressor task involving preparation for an oral presentation either in the presence of Pachelbel's Canon in D major, or in silence. Measures of subjective anxiety, heart rate, blood pressure, cortisol, and salivary IgA were obtained during rest and after presentation of the stressor. The stressor caused significant increases in subjective anxiety, heart rate, and systolic blood pressure in male and female controls. These stress-induced increases were each prevented by exposure to music, and this effect was independent of gender. Music also enhanced baseline salivary IgA levels in the absence of any stress-induced effects. These findings provide experimental support for claims that music is an effective anxiolytic treatment, the robustness of which is demonstrated by retention of the effect in the presence of a range of potentially mediating variables.
Listening to classical and self-selected relaxing music after exposure to a stressor should result in significant reductions in anxiety, anger, and sympathetic nervous system arousal, and increased relaxation compared to those who sit in silence or listen to heavy metal music. Fifty-six college students, 15 males and 41 females, were exposed to different types of music genres after experiencing a stressful test. Several 4 x 2 mixed design analyses of variance were conducted to determine the effects of music and silence conditions (heavy metal, classical, or self-selected music and silence) and time (pre-post music) on emotional state and physiological arousal. Results indicate listening to self-select or classical music, after exposure to a stressor, significantly reduces negative emotional states and physiological arousal compared to listening to heavy metal music or sitting in silence.
A basic issue about musical emotions concerns whether music elicits emotional responses in listeners (the 'emotivist' position) or simply expresses emotions that listeners recognize in the music (the 'cognitivist' position). To address this, psychophysiological measures were recorded while listeners heard two excerpts chosen to represent each of three emotions: sad, fear, and happy. The measures covered a fairly wide spectrum of cardiac, vascular, electrodermal, and respiratory functions. Other subjects indicated dynamic changes in emotions they experienced while listening to the music on one of four scales: sad, fear, happy, and tension. Both physiological and emotion judgments were made on a second-by-second basis. The physiological measures all showed a significant effect of music compared to the pre-music interval. A number of analyses, including correlations between physiology and emotion judgments, found significant differences among the excerpts. The sad excerpts produced the largest changes in heart rate, blood pressure, skin conductance and temperature. The fear excerpts produced the largest changes in blood transit time and amplitude. The happy excerpts produced the largest changes in the measures of respiration. These emotion-specific physiological changes only partially replicated those found for non-musical emotions. The physiological effects of music observed generally support the emotivist view of musical emotions.
This study examined the effects of music versus silence on measures of state anxiety, perceived relaxation, and physiological responses of chiropractic patients prior to and immediately following chiropractic treatment interventions. Subjects (N = 30) were randomly assigned to one of 3 conditions. The control group (I) was instructed to relax in silence. The first experimental group (II) listened to a preferred style of music with relaxation instruction. The other experimental group (III) listened to New Age music with deep-breathing visualization relaxation instruction. State anxiety inventory, 10-point Likert tension scale rating, and blood pressure measurements were administered before and after chiropractic procedures for each condition. Additionally, a questionnaire was completed posttreatment. Significant differences (p < .05) were found from pretest to posttest among the 3 groups for state anxiety and the Likert scale ratings for tension. There was no significant difference for physiological measurements across conditions.
The present study was designed to examine the effect of repetitive exposure to music on subjective and physiological responses. Subjects were 12 undergraduate and graduate behavioral sciences majors. The pieces used in this study were Stravinsky's “Sacrifice Dance” from The Rite of Spring as the excitative selection and the orchestral version of Satie's Gymnopedie No. 1 as the sedative selection. Both pieces were presented a total of four times at 5-minute intervals. Musical activity was perceived as consistently higher for the excitative selection than for the sedative one. Subjects reported consistently high levels of relaxation and low tension while listening to the sedative music while they reported contrasting feelings during the excitative piece. Subjects also reported that relaxation increased with repeated listenings. There was significant music by phase interactions for heart rate (HR) and respiration rate (RR); HR and RR did not change during the excitatve music, while they gradually decreased during the sedative music. Results indicate that the sedative effect of music was more apparent in the second half of the pieces.
The role of music in relaxation was examined by having subjects rate their level of relaxation after 15 minutes of either
listening to one of five types of music or sitting in silence. Subjects also rated the pleasurable quality of the experience,
ability to empty the mind, and liking of the music. No single type of music was found to lead to significantly more relaxation;
however, atonal music produced significantly less relaxation. The most important factor in relaxation was the degree of liking
for the music; significant correlations occurred between liking and relaxation, pleasure and not thinking. Individual preferences
must thus be considered when using music to aid relaxation; precategorized soothing music may not always be soothing.
Forty-nine nonmusician student volunteers and 42 music therapy majors rated 34 musical selections pre-categorized along a stimulative-sedative continuum using a 9-point Likert scale. Sedative selections were subgrouped into three classifications: (a) Western Art Music; (b) Halpern Music; and (c) Stress Anxiety Neutralizing Tape (SANT). Six multivariate analyses of variance were conducted to determine if any significant differences between the two groups' ratings of the 34 selections could be found under the following conditions: (a) overall (all 34 selections); (b) all sedative selections only; (c) all stimulative selections only; (d) sedative selections— Western Art Music only; (e) sedative selections—Halpern Music only; and (f) sedative selections—SANT only. Significant differences between the two groups were found overall and for the sedative, Western Art Music, and SANT subgroups, while none were found for the stimulative and Halpern subgroups of selections. No consistent directional difference between the groups' ratings was found. Subsequent discriminant function analyses indicated the groups differed significantly on only one dimension, which was interpreted to be the stimulative-sedative continuum. Univariate F tests indicated significant differences between the groups on nine of the 34 dependent variables.
Background:
The stress response has been well documented in past music therapy literature. However, hypometabolism, or the relaxation response, has received much less attention. Music therapists have long utilized various music-assisted relaxation techniques with both live and recorded music to elicit such a response. The ongoing proliferations of relaxation music through commercial media and the dire lack of evidence to support such claims warrant attention from healthcare professionals and music therapists.
Objective:
The purpose of these 3 studies was to investigate the correlational relationships between 12 psychophysical properties of music, preference, familiarity, and degree of perceived relaxation in music.
Methods:
Fourteen music therapists recommended and analyzed 30 selections of relaxation music. A group of 80 healthy adults then rated their familiarity, preference, and degree of perceived relaxation in the music.
Results:
The analysis provided a detailed description of the intrinsic properties in music that were perceived to be relaxing by listeners. These properties included tempo, mode, harmonic, rhythmic, instrumental, and melodic complexities, timbre, vocalization/lyrics, pitch range, dynamic variations, and contour. In addition, music preference was highly correlated with listeners' perception of relaxation in music for both music therapists and healthy adults. The correlation between familiarity and degree of relaxation reached significance in the healthy adult group.
Conclusions:
Results from this study provided an in-depth operational definition of the intrinsic parameters in relaxation music and also highlighted the importance of preference and familiarity in eliciting the relaxation response.
This study took popular music from the Top 30 charts and, in a pretest, evaluated its energy and joyfulness as musical qualities. The findings were used to create sets of musical selections that were either low or high in these qualities. In the experiment proper, respondents were placed in states of bad, neutral, or good moods and then, in an ostensibly independent study, provided the opportunity to freely choose from the sets of musical selections. The selections were offered by computer software that recorded individual exposure times by selection. To ensure selectivity, exposure time was limited to about one third of the total running time of all available selections. Consistent with predictions from mood-management theory, respondents in bad moods elected to listen to highly energetic-joyful music for longer periods than did respondents in good moods. Respondents in bad moods, moreover, were more decisive in exercising their musical preferences. Following the listening period, respondents' moods did not appreciably differ across the experimental mood conditions.
Previous research has demonstrated that musical soundtracks can influence the emotional impact, interpretation, and remembering of visual information. The present research examines the reverse relationship and whether visual information influences the perception and memory of music. In Experiment 1, listeners were presented with affectively ambiguous tunes paired with visual displays varying in their affect (positive, negative) and format (video, montage), or a control condition (no visual information at all). After each, participants were asked to provide a set of perceptual ratings that evaluated different melody characteristics and qualities of the visual displays. Results showed that both the affect and format of visual information differentially influenced the way a melody was perceived. Experiment 2 extended these findings by revealing that the affect of visual displays distorted melody recognition in a mood congruent fashion. These results are discussed in terms of their theoretical implications for audiovisual processing.
THIS article is from the manuscript of an address delivered by the national chairman of the MENC Committee on Functional Music at the Functional Music Forum, March 21, at the St. Louis Biennial Convention. Dr. Gaston is professor of music education and chairman of the department at the University of Kansas, Lawrence.
This study was designed to investigate empirically the “aesthetic experience” as individually defined by each subject. Subjects ( N = 30) were faculty members and advanced graduate students at a large university school of music. Each subject listened to a 20-minute excerpt from Act I of Puccini's La Bohème and simultaneously manipulated the dial of a Continuous Response Digital Interface (CRDI) to indicate perceived aesthetic level. The CRDI dial represented a negative/positive continuum along a 256-degree arc. Data collected were charted graphically to indicate levels of aesthetic response across time. Subjects completed a questionnaire designed to estimate frequency, duration, location, and magnitude of perceived aesthetic experiences and also indicated whether dial manipulation roughly corresponded to these experiences.
Results indicated that there were different responses throughout the excerpt by all subjects. Heightened aesthetic responses were evident during certain parts of the excerpt. “Peak experiences” were relatively short (15 seconds or less in duration), preceded by a period of concentrated focus of attention, and generally followed by an “afterglow” ranging from 15 seconds to several minutes. All subjects reported having at least one aesthetic experience and also reported that movement of the CRDI dial roughly approximated this experience. “Aesthetic responses” for subjects seemed to cluster at many of the same places in the music, with one collective “peak” experience that was represented by the highest and lowest dial movements.
The purpose of this study was to examine aural perception in a selective listening task using a Continuous Response Digital Interface (CRDI). Undergraduate college students (60 musicians, 60 nonmusicians) listened to an excerpt from Billy the Kid by Aaron Copland. Subjects indicated focus on instrumental family by manipulating the indicator of the CRDI. “Sound intervals” were determined by changes in predominant instrument family in the orchestral texture. Families were divided into five categories: (a) brass, (b) percussion, (c) woodwinds, (d) strings, and (e) all The “all” category indicated focus on three or more families simultaneously (e.g., tutti). Results were based on examination of subjects' category selections in terms of percentages of time focused on each category within each interval Analyses of cumulative seconds across all intervals indicated that nonmusicians focused on brass and percussion longer than did musicians. Musicians focused on strings longer and selected strings mare frequently than did nonmusicians. Musicians also indicated focus on three or more families simultaneously more than did nonmusicians.
Whereas young audiences are known to distinguish among several types of popular music, there is evidence that the several genres are organized from the listener's standpoint, that music types go together to form “metagenres.” In addition, it is suggested that, for a variety of reasons, gender is central to the ways in which popular music is used and tastes are organized. This article presents an analysis of the music preference structure of college students based on responses to a variety of music use and preference measures and concludes: first, that the underlying structure of music preference cannot be accounted for by reference to two or three factors but is multivariate; second, that there are crucial differences between males and females in terms of their “mapping” of music types.
The purpose of this study was to measure physiological and psychological responses to preferred, relaxing music. Eighteen
subjects, nine females and nine males ranging in age from 18 to 43, were randomly selected for participation in the study.
All music was provided by the subjects, who were tested individually on three separate occasions. Physiological data collected
included: (a) vascular constriction, (b) heart rate, (c) muscle tension, and (d) finger skin temperature. Psychological data
were assessed with the Spielberger State Anxiety Inventory and a seven-point Likert type scale for self-rated relaxation.
Results indicated that state anxiety decreased and relaxation increased from pre to posttest conditions consistently across
trials. The change, however, was significant only for state anxiety (p < .05). Physiological data showed that the music aroused and excited rather than soothed autonomic and muscular activity.
Significant subject × time interaction effects for muscle tension and vascular constriction and significant differences between
subjects for finger skin temperature were found, providing evidence for the existence of idiosyncratic physiological responses
within subjects.
Assessed the effect of S-selected and experimenter-chosen music on affect, anxiety, and relaxation. 25 male and 29 female university students (aged 18–33 yrs) completed pre- and posttesting with 15 min of uninterrupted music or quiet between. Music was selected on the basis of claims that the music was composed specifically to relieve tension and increase relaxation. On the State Anxiety Inventory and visual analog scale, significant relaxation responses were achieved by the Ss in all experimental conditions. Neither the presence/absence of music nor the choice of music appeared to make a difference in the relaxation response. The Multiple Affect Adjective Check List revealed that depression scores did not change under any of the conditions, while all Ss reduced their hostility scores regardless of condition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study took popular music from the Top 30 charts and, in a pretest, evaluated its energy and joyfulness as musical qualities. The findings were used to create sets of musical selections that were either low or high in these qualities. In the experiment proper, respondents were placed in states of bad, neutral, or good moods and then, in an ostensibly independent study, provided the opportunity to freely choose from the sets of musical selections. The selections were offered by computer software that recorded individual exposure times by selection. To ensure selectivity, exposure time was limited to about one third of the total running time of all available selections. Consistent with predictions from mood-management theory, respondents in bad moods elected to listen to highly energetic-joyful music for longer periods than did respondents in good moods. Respondents in bad moods, moreover, were more decisive in exercising their musical preferences. Following the listening period, respondents' moods did not appreciably differ across the experimental mood conditions.
Recent studies of music performance have shown that systematic variations in tempo, sound level, articulation, and timbre may be used by the performer to communicate representations of specific emotions to listeners. However, although performance analyses show that performers use certain cues to communicate emotions, they cannot explain how listeners use these cues to decode the expression. The purpose of this study was thus to examine listeners' cue utilization. This was done in two listening experiments using synthesized performances of a short melody. In the first experiment, an attempt was made to recreate representative cue profiles of five emotional expressions; happiness, sadness, anger, fear, and tenderness. The cues manipulated included tempo, sound level, spectrum, articulation, attack, vibrato, and timing. Listeners made forced choice judgments regarding the intended emotional expression. The results showed that (a) listeners were successful in decoding the intended emotional expression of the synthesized performances, (b) decoding accuracy was as high for synthesized performances as for live performances, and (c) reversal of the sequences reduced decoding accuracy to a larger extent for live performances than for synthesized performances, suggesting that live performances were relatively more dependent on prosodic contours. In the second experiment, five cues – tempo, sound level, spectrum, articulation, and attack – were systematically varied in a factorial design. Listeners were instructed to describe the emotional expression of each cue combination by ratings on adjective scales. An attempt to describe the listener's judgment policy was made using multiple regression. The results showed that (a) listeners used all of the available cues in their judgments, (b) none of the cues had more than a probabilistic (i.e., uncertain) relation to the listeners' judgments, (c) the predictive strength of each cue varied a lot depending on the emotion judged, and (d) the hypotheses based on our earlier studies of emotional expression in music performance (e.g., Gabrielsson & Juslin, 1996; Juslin; 1997d) were supported.
Thesis (M.M. Ed.)--University of Kansas, Music Education, 1971.
ALTHOUGH STILL CONTROVERSIAL, studies suggest that music therapy can be an effective nursing intervention in stressful situations for decreasing anxiety, blood pressure, and heart rate. This article (1) reviews research related to the effect of music on anxiety, blood pressure, and heart rate; (2) proposes a potential physiological framework for the effects of music; and (3) suggests clinical implications for the use of music therapy in acute- and chronic-care settings by clinical nurse specialists (CNSs). Findings from clinical research suggesting that music may facilitate a reduction in the stress response include decreased anxiety levels, decreased blood pressure and heart rate, and changes in plasma stress hormone levels. Findings from laboratory research using animal models, provide beginning, although speculative, support for a physiological framework of music's influence on the stress response. Music therapy may be useful in a wide range of clinical settings with patients experiencing health problems as diverse as hypertension/cardiovascular disease, migraine headaches, and gastrointestinal ulcers. Suggestions for development of a music therapy procedure and for areas in need of additional research are offered.
Results of physiological responses to music are inconclusive considering results of several studies, probably due to the insufficient control of the musical stimuli. The present study aimed to examine the effects of music type and preference on subjective and physiological responses using controlled stimuli by subjects' evaluations for music activity and preference. Subjects were 47 undergraduate students selected from a pool of 145 undergraduates. Results of evaluations of music activity and music preference for musical stimuli in preliminary research determined participation in the study. The music used in this study included the 4th movement of Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 4 as an excitative piece and the 3rd movement of Mahler's Symphony No. 6 as a sedative one. The excitative music aroused feelings of vigor and tension more than did the sedative one, while sedative music eased tension. Favorite music, regardless of music type, lowered subjective tension. Physiological responses (heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure) were greater during excitative music than during sedative music. Music preference did not, however, affect physiological responses. These results indicate that the dominant factor affecting emotional response was music type but not preference.
To assess the potential clinical use, particularly in modulating stress, of changes in the cardiovascular and respiratory systems induced by music, specifically tempo, rhythm, melodic structure, pause, individual preference, habituation, order effect of presentation, and previous musical training.
Measurement of cardiovascular and respiratory variables while patients listened to music.
University research laboratory for the study of cardiorespiratory autonomic function.
12 practising musicians and 12 age matched controls.
After a five minute baseline, presentation in random order of six different music styles (first for a two minute, then for a four minute track), with a randomly inserted two minute pause, in either sequence.
Breathing rate, ventilation, carbon dioxide, RR interval, blood pressure, mid-cerebral artery flow velocity, and baroreflex.
Ventilation, blood pressure, and heart rate increased and mid-cerebral artery flow velocity and baroreflex decreased with faster tempi and simpler rhythmic structures compared with baseline. No habituation effect was seen. The pause reduced heart rate, blood pressure, and minute ventilation, even below baseline. An order effect independent of style was evident for mid-cerebral artery flow velocity, indicating a progressive reduction with exposure to music, independent of style. Musicians had greater respiratory sensitivity to the music tempo than did non-musicians.
Music induces an arousal effect, predominantly related to the tempo. Slow or meditative music can induce a relaxing effect; relaxation is particularly evident during a pause. Music, especially in trained subjects, may first concentrate attention during faster rhythms, then induce relaxation during pauses or slower rhythms.
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