Content uploaded by Yusniza Kamarulzaman
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Yusniza Kamarulzaman on Sep 20, 2014
Content may be subject to copyright.
9
ISSN 2289-1471
772289 147004
Asia-Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and Tourism (APJIHT)
Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Taylor’s University Sdn Bhd
Asia-Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and Tourism
APJIHT
About the Journal
The aim of the journal is to promote and enhance research development and innovation in the
field of hospitality and tourism. The journal seeks to provide an international platform for
hospitality and tourism educators, postgraduate students and researchers, to debate and
disseminate research findings, facilitate the discussion of new research areas and techniques, and
highlight best practices for industry practitioners. The articles published in the journal take a
multi-disciplinary and inter-disciplinary approach to study the marketing, finance, economics
and social aspects of hospitality and tourism. Papers dealing with theoretical, conceptual and
empirical aspects of the subject matter will be considered for publication.
Article Categories
• Annual review of trends
• Applied research
• Empirical research
• Techniques & innovations
• Management styles
• Methods & principles
• Short research notes
• Book reviews
The Review Process
All articles are reviewed (double blind) by at least two academic experts in the particular field of
the submitted paper prior to acceptance. A maximum of 45 days/1.5 months is envisaged for
the completion of the blind review process.
Paper Contributors
Papers are accepted from public and private institutions of higher education, the industry, non-
governmental organizations, research centres and associations.
Frequency
It is a bi-annual journal with the issues being published in March and September of each year.
Sponsor and Publisher
The journal is sponsored by the Center for Research and Innovation in Tourism, Hospitality
and Food Studies (CRiT), School of Hospitality, Tourism and Culinary Arts, and published by
Taylor’s University Sdn. Bhd.
Editorial Board
Editor-in-Chief
Muhamad Muda, Director of Center for Research and Innovation in Tourism, Hospitality
and Food Studies (CRiT), Taylor’s University, Malaysia
Email: muhamad.muda@taylors.edu.my
Co-Editor-in-Chief
Kashif Hussain, Taylor’s University, Malaysia
Email: kashif.hussain@taylors.edu.my
Managing Editor
Sushila Devi S. Rajaratnam, Taylor’s University, Malaysia
Email: sushiladevi.rajaratnam@taylors.edu.my
Advisory Board
Levent Altinay, Oxford Brookes University, UK
Neethiahnanthan Ari Ragavan, Taylor’s University, Malaysia
Norman Au, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
Frederic Albert Lou Bouchon, Taylor’s University, Malaysia
Dimitrios Buhalis, Bournemouth University, UK
Ahmet Ozturk Bulent, Central Florida University, USA
Kaye Chon, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
Nuraisyah Chua Abdullah, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
Gudelia Cruz Saporna, Taylor’s University, Malaysia
Allan de Guzman, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines
Kadir Din, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Malaysia
Yusel Ekinci, Oxford Brookes University, UK
Smitha Geetha, Taylor’s University, Malaysia
Amran Hamzah, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia
Faridah Hassan, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
Perry Hobson, Taylor’s University, Malaysia
Stanislav Ivanov, International University College, Bulgaria
Christina Geng-Ging Chi, Washington State University, USA
Timo Giotto, University of Toulouse II-Le Mirail, France
Dogan Gursoy, Washington State University, USA
Christian Kahl, Taylor’s University, Malaysia
Jay Kandampully, Ohio State University, USA
Suresh Kannan, Taylor’s University, Malaysia
Azilah Kasim, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Malaysia
Sonia Khan, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Malaysia
Catheryn Khoo-Lattimore, Taylor’s University, Malaysia
Woody Kim, Florida State University, USA
Cyrille Laporte, University of Toulouse II-Le Mirail, France
Emily Ma, Griffith University, Australia
Parikshat Singh Manhas, University of Jammu, India
Ehsanollah Mansourirad, Taylor’s University, Malaysia
Paul J.McVety, Johnson and Wales University, USA
Badaruddin Mohamed, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
Salleh Mohd Radzi, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
Paolo Mura, Taylor’s University, Malaysia
Halil Nadiri, Eastern Mediterranean University, North Cyprus
Pradeep Kumar Nair, Taylor’s University, Malaysia
Vikneswaran Nair, Taylor’s University, Malaysia
Ruben Mediona Nayve JR, Lyceum University of the Philippines, Philippines
Christy Ng Yen Nee, Taylor’s University, Malaysia
Fevzi Okumus, University of Central Florida, USA
Eric Jose Olmedo, University of Toulouse II-Le Mirail, France
Nor’ain Othman, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia
Radesh Palakurthi, Drexel University, USA
Ramachandran Ponnan, Taylor’s University, Malaysia
Jean-Pierre Poulain, University of Toulouse II-Le Mirail, France
Sridar Ramachandran, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
Scott Richardson, CQ University, Australia
Regina Schlüter, Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, Argentina
Mohit Shahi, Taylor’s University, Malaysia
Ahmed Shuib, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
Marianna Sigala, University of the Aegean, Greece
Vineetha Sinha, National University of Singapore, Singapore
Pimtong Tavitiyaman, SPEED, Hong Kong
Samir Thapa, Silver Mountain School of Hotel Management, Nepal
Laurence Tibere, University of Toulouse II-Le Mirail, France
John Tribe, University of Surrey, UK
Muzaffer S. Uysal, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, USA
Bihu (Tiger) Wu, Peking University, China
Atila Yuksel, Adnan Menderes University, Turkey
Contents
Great Expectations: Building Research Capacity in Vocational 125
Tourism and Hospitality Institutes
Alana Harris & Paul Kloppenborg
William Angliss Institute, Australia
The Australian Tourists’ Travel Motivation and 143
Pre- and Post-Images of The Philippines as their Destination
Allan B. de Guzman, Belinda V. de Castro, Josephine Fatima V. Calanog,
Apple Joanne R. Taguinin, Jay Rhyan S. Afalla, Anna Lorraine R. Aldover &
Marie Toni C. Gotangco
University of Santo Tomas, Philippines
Email as a Customer Service Tool: 165
An Investigation into Email Reply Quality of Malaysian Hotels
Noor Hazarina Hashim
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia
Factors Determining Choice of Full Service Airlines and Low Cost Carriers: 179
The Case of Malaysia
Tuck Sai Boey
Taylor’s University, Malaysia
Erdogan H. Ekiz
Al-Faisal University, Saudi Arabia
Yusniza Kamarulzaman
University of Malaya, Malaysia
Asia-Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and Tourism
APJIHT
Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
The Impact of Internships on Students Undertaking Tourism and 195
Hospitality Programs
Scott Richardson
Central Queensland University, Australia & University of Johannesburg, South Africa
Gareth Butler
University of Johannesburg, South Africa
Empowering Women through Tourism: A Study of Kullu Valley 215
Sushma Rewal Chugh
Himachal Pradesh University, India
Book Review 229
Noe, F.P., Uysal, M. & Magnini, V.P. (2010). Tourist Customer
Service Satisfaction: An Encounter Approach
by John T. Mgonja
Clemson University, USA
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Great Expectations: Building Research Capacity in Vocational Tourism and Hospitality Institutes 125
Asia-Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and Tourism
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012 pp. 125-141
ISSN 2289-1471
Correspondence: Alana Harris ,William Angliss Institute, Melbourne, Australia, 555 La Trobe Street,
Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia.
Email: alanah@angliss.edu.au
Great Expectations: Building Research Capacity in Vocational
Tourism and Hospitality Institutes
Alana Harris & Paul Kloppenborg
William Angliss Institute, Australia
Abstract: Significant changes are taking place in post-secondary tourism and hospitality
education in Australia. Along with an expansion of degree offerings by universities,
vocationally focused degrees are also emerging from Vocational Education and Training
(VET) organisations also registered as Higher Education Providers (HEP). Among the
many implications of this emergence is building research capacity in the HEPs. This
exploratory study reviews experiences in other countries to identify considerations for building
research capacity in the emergent VET environment in Australia where hospitality and
tourism degrees are offered. Using William Angliss Institute as a case study, these
considerations are drawn together to develop a model to drive the research capacity for VET
HEPs delivering tourism and hospitality degrees in Australia. Applications and implications
for the direction of research capacity development among other like institutions are discussed.
Keywords: Research capacity, hospitality and tourism, Higher Education Providers (HEP),
Vocational Education and Training (VET)
Introduction
While training in hospitality and tourism has traditionally been the domain of Vocational
Education and Training (VET) institutions, the growth of hospitality and tourism
degree programs in Australian universities has been rapid and extensive (Paul, 2010,
Breakey & Craig-Smith, 2008), Educational sectors are now distinguished by an
institution’s research role rather than orientation (vocational or higher education) or
Research Paper
Suggested citation: Harris, A. & Kloppenborg, P. (2012). Great expectations: building research
capacity in vocational tourism and hospitality institutes. Asia-Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality
and Tourism, 1(2), 125-141.
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Alana Harris & Paul Kloppenborg126
student enrolment (Moodie, 2008). In Australia, Transforming Australia’s Higher Education,
was a major catalyst towards de-commissioning Australia’s education divide (Vocational
and Higher Education) away from institutional structures and towards educational
relationships (Bradley, 2008).
Academia in higher education institutes pursue ‘learning as empowerment’ (White,
1997) embedding teaching, scholarship, subject development and research as an
expectation. The role of teachers in VET institutions has traditionally been aligned to
interpreters of curricula, broad and flexible teaching practices and assessment
requirements rather than researchers and originators of knowledge. As a result, offering
degree courses beyond universities highlights a need for the advancement of research
capacity in VET HEPs. VET providers are faced with a number of challenges as they
broaden their scope beyond vocational, skills-based training into the academic arena.
These include teacher identity and professional status, curriculum and assessment issues
and changing learning environments.
One specific challenge for building VET HEPs’ research capacity in hospitality
and tourism is to identity and define the research discipline itself. In the Australian
context, many current hospitality and tourism university programs developed from
colleges into the university space during the 1980s and 1990s and have moved to
“differentiate themselves from the delivery of ‘vocationalism’’’ (Robinson, Breakey
& Craig-Smith, 2008). It raises the questions of how VET HEP institutes, in the
current environment, can carve a research space and how they can develop capacity
that creates purposeful and applicable research outputs. The aim of this study is to
draw on theories of research capacity building and overseas experiences to develop
a model within which research capacity and a research culture can be developed in
Australian VET HEP institutes.
This paper thus forms part of a deepening discussion on developing research
capacity in Australian VET institutes and is organised as follows. First, a review of
literature, including overseas experiences, identifies considerations for building research
capacity in the emergent VET environment in Australia where hospitality and tourism
degrees are offered. In the second part of the paper, the exploratory case study
reviews William Angliss Institute in order to further refine these considerations. The
discussion for this section proposes a model to drive the research capacity for VET
providers delivering tourism and hospitality degrees in Australia. The final part of the
paper discusses applications and implications for the model in the development of
research capacity among VET HEP institutes.
Background
In Australian post-secondary education, there are two opposing trends which are
having a significant impact on studies of tourism and hospitality. On one hand VET
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Great Expectations: Building Research Capacity in Vocational Tourism and Hospitality Institutes 127
providers, who have traditionally offered more lower-level, practical and applied
vocational qualifications, have been expanding their qualification offerings upwards
to include associate degree and bachelor degree courses. At the same time, there is a
growing trend of universities pushing downwards to include qualifications at the
lower end of the Australian Qualification Framework (AQF), such as diplomas. In
2011, there were 96 institutions in Australia which were accredited to offer both
vocational and higher education qualifications (Moodie, 2010). In the state of Victoria,
there were18 publicly funded TAFE institutions, including six VET HEPs. The
ambiguity of educational sector divisions is indicative of a merging single tertiary
education sector that remains highly stratified and ill defined. It equates to VET
providers offering advanced qualifications and the universities increasingly competing
in vocational education, for example Monash College as the vocational arm of Monash
University.
The broadening of scope for vocational institutes to include degree programs is
not a new trend. Over recent decades, similar changes have taken place in many
countries including the United Kingdom, Hong Kong, South Africa and New Zealand.
Each of these offers lessons for the emerging Australian experience. A key
commonality has been the emphasis on research in what have been traditionally
vocationally orientated institutions.
Literature Review
Research, in the traditional university context, describes the process of systematic
inquiry which results in the discovery of new facts or relationships (Veal, 2005). It
encompasses knowledge transfer, innovation, dissemination of findings as well as
underpinning teaching and quality graduate attributes. A review of the literature provides
some insights into the research capacity in those institutes that do not share the same
research tradition as universities.
Research Capacity Building Models
Research, as an activity, is not the exclusive domain of universities. Government and
private institutions also establish research centres which require development of capacity
in order to achieve outcomes. The literature offers a number of models which, in
essence, consider environmental (external), organisational (internal) and individual factors.
The following section highlights developmental or structural models offered by
different research areas. Commonality is highlighted and then the development of
research capacity specifically in education is discussed. There are various models that
apply in the emerging VET HEP landscape.
The area of health research offers a number of structural models of building
research capacity, such as Birdsell et al. (2005) who offered the ‘box’ model. This
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Alana Harris & Paul Kloppenborg128
model attempted to identify internal, external and moderating factors which could be
tested for their contribution to health research use. The authors also outlined the
‘circle’ model suggesting five interdependent groups (structure, culture, people, political
dynamics and external environment) by which research factors could be categorised.
Crisp, Swerissen & Duckett (2000) suggested that there were four domains of
intervention: top down, bottom up, building partnerships and community organisation.
In the agricultural research environment, Horton (2003) offered a structural framework
which focussed on organisational capacity (organisational performance, organisational
capacity, external operating environment and internal environment). Focus on the
organisation and the extent to which the organisation interacts with the external
environment is a common theme among these models.
In family medicine research, Del Mar & Askew (2004) proposed different levels
of research engagement, categorising users, participants and leaders and suggested
that research capacity can be a temporal development over the three stages. Heinemann
(2005) described contributing factors (such as research training, infrastructure, funding)
and outlined metrics for measuring outputs. Stineman & Kennedy (2005) responded
to Heinemann with a broader ‘panoramic’ view of research capacity development.
Their dynamic cycle model was aimed at building strong and sustainable research
capacity. These temporal or developmental models reflect the issues of growth and
sustainability which are, arguably, not evident in the structural models.
Building Research Capacity in Education
Puryear (2005, p. 94) defined education research capacity as, “a productive, modern,
internationally connected, diverse and self-producing community of professionals
conducting research at quality levels comparable with peers elsewhere in the world.”
The ideas of sustainability and growth from some health sciences developmental
models are also important in education research capacity.
The review of educational literature suggests that the factors influencing the
development of research capacity are linked to over-arching forces such as government
structures and perceived prestige and credibility. Shamai & Kfir (2002, p. 398) noted
that “any higher education institution worthy of its name must promulgate research
and a research culture.” Research is seen as a key criterion for scholarly recognition
and promotion (Harman & Harman, 2003) as well as central to academic practice
and informed teaching in higher education (Turner, McKenzie, McDermott & Stone,
2009b). An understanding of how the Australian university sector develops research
culture and capacity may inform the way in which VET HEPs can fit within this
mould.
Brennan (1995) identified two elements of a research culture in the Australian
context. At one level the research agenda is determined, operationalised and funded
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Great Expectations: Building Research Capacity in Vocational Tourism and Hospitality Institutes 129
at a national level, largely undertaken by the Australian Research Council (ARC). Then
there is the activity undertaken at institute level. There are many examples which tie
funding from national bodies with university research outputs. Geuna & Martin (2003)
offer a detailed discussion of different models used across Europe, United Kingdom,
Asia and the Pacific (including Australia). The literature discusses how international
reforms to higher education have impacted research capacity, culture and outputs. In
the UK, for example, the introduction of the Research Assessment Exercise (RAE) in
1986 linked the quality of research outputs with government funding. The environment
became more competitive when British polytechnics were granted university status
(in 1992) and joined the competition for unregulated research money (Li, Millwater
& Hudson, 2008). Although these so-called ‘new universities’ have not benefited greatly
from a funding perspective in this system and, as Geuna & Martin (2003) noted, this
has resulted in more institutions applying for the same source of research funding.
New Zealand has also experienced a similar situation when its tertiary sector
underwent reform in the 1990s which resulted in an openly competitive environment
in higher education. In a competitive system for research funds, the polytechnics were
effectively ‘forced’ into developing a research culture. Middleton (2005, p. 7) noted
of New Zealand’s research scheme that “vocational education institutions faced the
dilemma of joining this scheme in order to contest for relatively small amounts of
funding and risk reputational damage of the inevitable low rankings when the results
were published.” He went on to note that 20 of the 22 institutes and polytechnics
opted not to participate and, that the rankings in 2004 revealed that the bottom nine
institutions were all vocational education institutions. This suggests a reluctance to
have research imposed and a lack of success in those instances where it has been.
Research outputs and funding have been linked with prestige. In his evaluation of
research performance in the 2002 UK Research Assessment Exercise (RAE), Page
(2003) noted that tourism research outputs can enhance the public image of an institute
and Law & Chon (2007) stated of hospitality and tourism research that, “good
performance in research... tends to help them receive more funding from their
government and/or related industry.” Linking outputs and funding with prestige
presents two challenges for VET HEPs offering degree courses in tourism and
hospitality. Firstly, the institutes offering these courses do not, in the Australian context,
qualify for funding under the Excellence in Research Australia (ERA) Initiative. Secondly,
they are not viewed by the broader or academic communities as prestigious. These
VET HEPs are private colleges (with a tradition of fee for service education) or
TAFE (Technical and Further Education) which are government supported vocational
institutes but in both cases there is disconnect between research outputs and the broader
community.
Hazelkorn (2005) argued that institutes need to connect their own research activity
with commercialisation, national benefit and competitiveness. This reflects the ‘bottom-
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Alana Harris & Paul Kloppenborg130
up’ approach and connecting with the community featured in some of the research
building capacity models. Rather than VET HEPs having a research culture imposed
by a national framework of funding, the research indicates that an organic, individual
institute-based model provides the opportunity to connect with other institutions and
the national system.
Further examples in the literature include Middleton (2005) who discussed research
as a second career for teachers in the VET sector, focusing on Auckland College of
Education. Hornblow (2002) attributed direction and leadership at the Executive
Director level as the key to the gradual development of research capacity at the Open
Polytechnic of New Zealand. Mercer (2002) identified that ‘support and mentoring’
and attendance at research meetings foster research practice at Eastern Institute of
Technology (NZ). Research meetings, or communities of practice, have also been
discussed in the Australian context. Renwick & Burrows (2008) used Box Hill Institute,
a TAFE provider which has been delivering accredited degrees since 2004, to discuss
the use of an Applied Research Community of Practice. They noted that they used a
wiki (a type of internet site) to facilitate four meetings a year and that the membership
was ‘organic’. Issues identified by Renwick & Burrows (2008) including organisational
and professional identity of teachers, and the capacity of this cohort to move beyond
pedagogical expertise into shaping their work towards scholarly collectives, informs
much of the current Australian debate on VET HEPs and research.
Commonality among the examples in the literature is the gradual pace and organic
nature of building research capability within these VET HEPs. This is partly due to
the professional role of teaching, and the requirements for accountability and
productivity within vocational education (Lorrimar, 2006). Organisational structures
are geared towards teaching rather than research (including but not limited to, teaching
loads, availability of study leave, industry focus of professional development activities
and lack of financial and non-financial incentives).
These examples reflect the nuances surrounding the changes to vocational and
higher education and the inter-related nature of the culture, environment, institutional
direction, resources, community perception, individual interests, skills and constraints.
In this environment there is no one single, simple research capacity model (structural
or developmental) that can be applied in the Australian situation.
The Study
The literature highlights the difficulties in applying any one model of research building
capacity. The aim of this study is to reflect on and propose an alternative model for
the development of research capacity for VET HEP institutes offering tourism and
hospitality degree courses. It should be noted that Australia has a two tiered system
of post-secondary education; higher education (HE) and vocational education and
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Great Expectations: Building Research Capacity in Vocational Tourism and Hospitality Institutes 131
training (VET). There are also universities which have both a HE and VET division.
Such institutions are referred to as dual sector. These were not considered in this study
for a number of reasons including this observation: the HE divisions of these institutes
qualify for federal funding and have a tradition of research activity (these institutions
self-accredit their degrees) and the VET divisions can utilise existing research
infrastructure (such as library resources) and expertise (such as researchers on campus).
As such these institutions develop research capacity differently from those which are
VET HEPs. However it is important to acknowledge these institutions, their structures
and how they contribute to the system of education and research being studied.
William Angliss Institute was used as a case study (Yin, 1999) in this research. A
case study approach was deemed suitable because the relevant context is paramount
and unclear boundaries pre-dominate the investigation. William Angliss Institute is a
government recognised ‘Specialist Centre’ in foods, hospitality and tourism and has a
70-year history of training in these areas. The institute is a VET HEP provider based
in Victoria, offering a Bachelor of Tourism and Hospitality Management and Bachelor
of Culinary Management. Like other VET HEPs, William Angliss Institute is required
under the conditions of its HE registration to demonstrate scholarly activity and
research. William Angliss has approached the development of research capacity by
nurturing existing interest, skills and talent. Broadly, the institute has a focus on applied
research linked to its area of specialisation.
Methods
Data were collected in three stages: first, a review of the literature with a focus on the
role of research development among VET HEPs offering degree courses and, where
possible, in the tourism and hospitality fields. Second, qualitative data was collected
via observation and semi-structured interviews (Carruthers, 1990; Veal, 2005). The
researcher commenced the role at William Angliss Institute in August 2010 with one
responsibility of the role being to review and develop a research strategy. For the
period of August 2010 to September 2011, the researcher has been involved in
discussions regarding research issues and considerations both inside and outside the
organisation. A schedule of questions was designed in April 2011 for the purposes
of semi-structured interviews with individuals from other Victorian VET HEPs.
These interviews took place with the Higher Education Manager of William Angliss
Institute and representatives of two Victorian TAFEs offering tourism and hospitality
degrees. Others were reluctant to speak ‘on the record’. It was suggested that the
competitive nature of the current tourism and hospitality education market coupled
with sensitivities around the degree accreditation process were contributing factors.
Instead, the researcher engaged in non-transcribed ‘conversations’ with key themes,
concerns and considerations being noted. These conversations were, in effect, overt
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Alana Harris & Paul Kloppenborg132
participant observation, with respondents having the nature and purpose of the research
disclosed at the commencement of the conversation.
Thirdly, a series of William Angliss Institute internal documents were sourced
and analysed (Veal, 2005; Yin, 2009). These included strategic planning documents,
previous research strategies, plans and activities, minutes from Research Committee
meetings and other relevant governance boards and committees and a review of
policies and procedures. Consistent with the case study approach (Yin, 2009), the data
were analysed and themes drawn from the data were categorised and contextualised
within the parameters of the Australian education landscape to develop a model of
research capacity.
Developing an Alternative Model
Findings
The literature review suggests that attempts by VET HEPs to develop research capacity
in tourism and hospitality in Australia will be faced by a number of external challenges.
On one hand, VET HEPs do not fit into the national structure of research funding
(ERA), nor do they have the prestige associated with the history and contribution of
research by universities. The organisational cultural differences of the sectors slowing
the emerging VET HEPs from any over-arching scholarly framework is reiterated
(Wheelahan, Moodie, Billett & Kelly, 2009b). The semi-structured interviews reflected
this with all participants noting an absence of a research culture in their respective
institutes. Some of the terms used by participants to describe their institute’s attempts
at building research activity included; ‘piecemeal’, ‘ad-hoc’ and ‘sporadic’; another
common theme was the lack of a consolidated approach and commitment to
developing research.
This suggests limitations of the ‘top-down’ approach for developing research
capacity at such institutes. On the other hand, the ‘bottom-up’ approach appears to
offer a means of developing research capacity at a pace and within the resource
constraints of these institutions. A number of participants noted financial support at
their institute for staff to undertake higher degrees. However, the absence of time-
release was also noted. It reinforces a view that the motivation to undertake scholarly
activity and research rested primarily on the individual teacher especially to meet the
demands of a course or maintain current subject knowledge in their own time (Turner,
McKenzie & Stone, 2009a). In the case study institute, the ineffectiveness of the top-
down approach was also highlighted. For example a Research Strategy had been
prepared but was two years out of date at the commencement of this study (2010),
during which time both internal structures and external factors had changed
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Great Expectations: Building Research Capacity in Vocational Tourism and Hospitality Institutes 133
considerably. Moreover, the outdated strategy did not specify roles or responsibilities
and only discussed research in broad, non-specific terms.
The interview data reflected a lack of research collaboration activities with other
institutes, other universities or like-institutes. Several respondents acknowledged that
collaboration and relationship building was an important start as “we are all in the
same boat”, but a tradition of competition coupled with an increasingly unstable
external environment and a lack of leadership by any single institute meant that this
did not eventuate. In the case study institute, the outdated Research Strategy notes as
an objective to “establish research partnerships with government bodies, industry,
universities and other providers in the VET sector”, although a review of the Institute’s
Research Committee minutes 2008-2010 did not detail how this objective would be
met.
Detailed analysis of documentation of the case study institute and semi-structured
interviews and observations in the other institutes in the study support the contention
that attempts in VET HEPs to develop research have been largely window dressing.
Boyer’s (1997) theory of scholarship was used as a guiding framework in one institution.
Beyond this, there did not appear to be a theoretical underpinning from which research
capacity itself could be built. Arguably, any research strategy or plan which does not
take into consideration the issues of capacity or culture is unlikely to be successful.
A Proposed Model for Building Research Capacity
The first step in developing a model in the case study was the identification of those
factors specific to the wider research landscape. The literature points to a number of
factors which influence the development of research capacity in VET HEPs offering
degrees in Australia.
1. National research agenda.
In Australia, the ERA is the national structure for research funding in tertiary
institutions. The ERA, however, disallows research funding to be linked to VET
HEP research outputs, effectively limiting resourcing and the prestige traditionally
connected with the research activity and funding.
2. Industry relationships and engagement
Given the historically strong relationships between VET providers and the hospitality
and tourism industries, there is a need to maintain the connection between the
two. Moreover, industry may provide an audience for research outputs. VET
institutions, by their nature, have strong links with industry and VET HEPs could
direct research outputs towards industry applicability. An applied research focus
could strengthen this relationship, create value (if not prestige) for research outputs
and possibly provide a funding source from industry (Law & Chon, 2007).
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Alana Harris & Paul Kloppenborg134
3. Individual researchers
Those who are conducting research in VET HEPs are, effectively, the ‘building
blocks’ of research capacity and the motivation, capability and interest of these
individuals is critical. Many currently in this sector come from a vocational
background and hence lack the skills, experience and (in many cases) the initiative
to embark on research activity. Considerations of recruitment (future composition
of the VET HEP research workforce), ‘importing’ research skills and development
of existing staff are all important issues.
The organisational structures and factors necessary for developing capacity at an
institutional level were identified. Salazar-Clemeña & Almonte-Acosta (2003) took a
similar approach in their operational construct of research culture in Filipino Higher
Educational Institutions.
The model (see Figure 1) proposes an institute specific approach to developing
research capacity in VET HEPs of degrees in tourism and hospitality. This model
uses the considerations outlined in the section above as ‘Environmental Considerations’,
then ‘Institutional Factors’ required for building research capacity are outlined. Finally,
Figure 1. Model of VET research capacity building
Environmental considerations
Institutional factors
Research activity
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Great Expectations: Building Research Capacity in Vocational Tourism and Hospitality Institutes 135
the model suggests that the operationalisation of these factors, ‘Research activity’, is
nested within the two.
The model acknowledges the shortcomings of the ‘top-down’ approach from
the overseas vocational education experiences and the limitations of the ‘bottom-up’
approach in the current environment of rapid change. Moreover it builds the external
factors (environment) and internal factors (organisational structures) from the models
in the literature. The end result is a structural model of building research capacity that
is integrated with research activity and focused on research outcomes.
Effectively, the model supports a concurrent development of building research
capacity. One where the environment (current and predicted) sets the parameters for
institutional factors to develop which, in turn, builds research capacity and drives
activity. At the same time, individual and collaborative research activity contributes to
institutional factors and ‘organically’ develops research capacity. Arguably, research
activity will carve out a ‘natural path’ of research from existing skills, interest and
demands. At the same time, research capacity building at an institutional level will be
directed (to varying degrees) by that path.
Implementing the Model
Figure 2 reflects how William Angliss Institute defines and operationalises the
‘Institutional Factors’ from the model for the purposes of building research capacity.
This model is currently being used by the research unit of the institute to drive the
development of the institute’s research strategy. While the list below is represented
linearly, in reality these institutional factors are inter-related and co-dependent. Further,
they are being developed and directed by both environmental considerations (present
and some future) and the current research activity.
Practical Implications for Development of Vocational Research Capacity in
Hospitality and Tourism
The Institute has an important role in shaping the direction of research and contributing
to the development of research capacity. In practical terms, however, few VET
HEPs have the resources to tackle all these factors concurrently. Instead a review of
existing resources and priorities at an institute level may provide the starting point. For
example, an institute may ‘import’ research expertise by recruiting staff who are PhD
qualified. This necessitates an academic promotion policy and articulation of working
conditions (such as study leave). Another approach may be the development of a
‘visiting scholar’ program, which would require adequate research resources (e.g.
databases, library facilities) to result in research outputs. Along with raising the profile
of the institute, such a strategy would foster collaboration and present staff mentoring
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Alana Harris & Paul Kloppenborg136
opportunities. A further strategy may cultivate research capacity of existing staff
through professional development, time release for research activity, financial support
towards staff higher research degrees and enabling staff collaboration (through both
academic networks and internal groups). Some institutes may be in a position to use
funds to stimulate research capacity, such as financial incentives for staff to generate
research outputs or development of internal competitive grants.
These approaches show how the model allows flexibility and a degree of
innovation to be applied in the development of research capacity at an institute level.
Figure 2. Institutional factors of VET research building capacity at William Angliss Institute
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Great Expectations: Building Research Capacity in Vocational Tourism and Hospitality Institutes 137
Sectoral reform prescribes some of the parameters for the development of research
capacity (top-down) but an innovative approach (at institute level) can foster the
development of research that is both staff-driven and appropriate for the institute.
Outcomes of the Model in the Case Study
One outcome of the implementation of the model has been embedding in institutional
key performance indicators (KPI), a defined set of peer review publications or
presentations to encourage research responsibility and commitments on the part of
teachers and other staff. For example, at William Angliss Institute an expected 30%
increase in this KPI since 2011 offers a qualitative indicator illustrating partnerships
between teachers, the research office and the broader teaching and learning community.
Staff initiated research, especially in defined areas of the Institute’s expertise, furthers
not only discipline strength and integrity, but also consolidates a research profile and
the possibility of external collaboration and funding opportunities. Fowler et al. (2009)
noted that capacity is built most effectively when provision responds to the needs of
the workforce and builds upon the foundations already in place. At William Angliss
Institute, the encouragement of research output can be facilitated through both financial
and time support policies. A proposed study time release policy provides the potential
for staff to engage more fully in research capacity building activities. Recruiting more
senior academics with research experience into the Higher Education department will
provide support for research mentoring amongst staff, as well as building an academic
culture. Three ‘academic disciplines’ – tourism, hospitality and events, gastronomy
and management have been established. Not only do these groups meet to discuss
pertinent research issues collaboratively but are beginning to drive the emerging research
agenda. There is also a commitment that senior academics will be appointed to each
of these streams in the near future to provide academic leadership.
Contribution of the Model
The model developed through the case study draws elements from a number of
research capacity building models offered in the literature. This is a structural model,
which is flexible enough to adapt with the changing external forces over time. The
integrated nature of the model has been reflected in the outcomes outlined in the
previous section. These preliminary findings suggest that an approach which considers
top-down, bottom-up, internal and external factors in an integrated manner may
offer a way forward for the development of hospitality and tourism research
development in the VET HEPs in Australia.
A limitation of the research is that the proposed model is specific to a single
institution in its implementation. However, the section above outlines possible
application in other VET HEPs, which could then be further refined and developed.
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Alana Harris & Paul Kloppenborg138
Also, the model does not explicitly detail VET employment conditions (study leave,
lessening teaching loads and so on) although, arguably, this could come under
‘Government structures’, ‘regulatory bodies’ and/or ‘education system’. This issue
has been discussed widely in the literature and examples of how existing VET structures
and working conditions have challenged the development of research capacity overseas
are plentiful.
There is a pressing need for a discussion around the approach of VET HEP
research building capacity in Australia. This study suggests that existing research capacity
building models cannot successfully position research in vocational institutes in terms
of building capacity, delivering outputs or attracting the prestige of their university
counterparts. An alternative is offered to develop research capacity necessary for
both the evolution of tourism and hospitality studies in Australia and broader scholarly
discussions. First, this study acknowledges the research presence and emerging
contribution of VET HEPs to tourism and hospitality degrees. In doing so, it identifies
a potentially wider application for research outputs and acknowledges ‘new players’.
Additionally, it contributes to the debate around whether tourism (Tribe, 1997) or
hospitality (Ottenbacher, Harrington & Parsa, 2009) are discrete academic disciplines
and what implications this has for research. While the value of scholarly pursuit and
research in these areas is supported by the academe, it raises the question of flexibility,
openness and alternative research applications within the discipline. Finally, much
discussion has been focused on the changes to tourism and hospitality degree programs
in Australia over recent years (Breakey & Craig-Smith, 2008, Robinson et al., 2008)
and the growth of VET HEPs offering degrees in this discipline cannot be overlooked,
and their capacity to build research should be included in this discussion.
Conclusion
The approaches to building research capacity drawn from the literature appear limited
when applied in a dynamic environment such as the one faced in Australia. For example,
changes at a government agenda level (like the introduction of ERA in Australia) may
significantly shift the landscape of research activity when the foundations for research
may have been laid under a prior research agenda. This study acts as a starting point
for weaving VET HEPs’ research capacity into some wider philosophical discussions.
By identifying considerations, the proposed model lays the foundations for how
VET HEPs can approach the development of research capacity.
It also opens the door to research outputs and the role VET HEPs can play. The
discussion of cross-institutional collaboration and industry engagement are worthy
of further exploration. VET HEP institutions are not eligible to develop their research
capacity within the confines of the ERA, but are in a position to be responsive to
industry research needs. This suggests that there may be a place for VET providers,
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Great Expectations: Building Research Capacity in Vocational Tourism and Hospitality Institutes 139
offering vocational tourism and hospitality degrees to provide applied research for
industry. Potentially, this could be a source of funding which, along with the development
of an approach to building research capacity, could advance the disciplines in Australia.
References
Birdsell, J., Zerbe, W., O’Connell, P., Thornley, R. & Hayward, S. (2005). Building capacity for
evidence-based management in Regional Health Authorities. Paper presented at the
Innovations in Health Care: A Reality Check. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference
on Organizational Behaviour in Health Care.
Boyer, E. L. (1997). Scholarship reconsidered. Priorities of the professoriate. Princeton, NJ: The Carnegie.
Bradley, D. (2008). Review of Australian Higher Education Final Report.
Breakey, N. & Craig-Smith, S. J. (2008). Trends and issues in tourism and hospitality degree
education in Australia: Will the bubble burst? Paper presented at the CAUTHE 2008:
Where the Bloody Hell are we?
Brennan, M. (1995). Education doctorates: reconstructing professional partnerships around
research? Australian Universities, 38(2), 20-22.
Carruthers, J. (1990). A rationale for the use of semi-structured interviews. Journal of Educational
Administration, 28(1), 63-68.
Crisp, B. R., Swerissen, H. & Duckett, S. J. (2000). Four approaches to capacity building in health:
consequences for measurement and accountability. Health Promotion International, 15(2), 99-
107.
Del Mar, C. & Askew, D. (2004). Building family/general practice research capacity. The Annals of
Family Medicine, 2 (suppl 2), S35-S40.
Fowler, Z., Baird, A., Baron, S., Davies, S. M. B., Procter, R. & Salisbury, J. (2009). Building
research capacity in education: evidence from recent initiatives in England, Scotland and
Wales. Retrieved http://www.dspace.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/1810/224926/1/3512.pdf
Geuna, A. & Martin, B. R. (2003). University research evaluation and funding: an international
comparison. Minerva, 41(4), 277-304.
Harman, G. & Harman, K. (2003). Institutional mergers in higher education: Lessons from
international experience. Tertiary Education and Management, 9(1), 29-44.
Hazelkorn, E. (2005). Developing research in new institutions. Paris: OECD.
Heinemann, A. W. (2005). Metrics of rehabilitation research capacity. American Journal of Physical
Medicine & Rehabilitation, 84(12), 1009.
Hornblow, D. (2002). From salivation to celebration: confirmation of a research culture at the
open polytechnic of New Zealand. Paper presented at the Interacting to Innovate.
Horton, D. (2003). Evaluating capacity development: experiences from research and development
organizations around the world. IDRC, Canada.
Law, R. & Chon, K. (2007). Evaluating research performance in tourism and hospitality: The
perspective of university program heads. Tourism Management, 28(5), 1203-1211.
Li, B., Millwater, J. & Hudson, P. B. (2008). Building research capacity: Changing roles of universities
and academics. Paper presented at the Australian Association of Research in Education
(AARE) Conference.
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Alana Harris & Paul Kloppenborg140
Lorrimar, J. (2006). Organisational culture in TAFE colleges: Power, gender and identity politics
Murdoch University.
Mercer, C. (2002). The research culture of a polytechnic faculty. Paper presented at the Interacting
to Innovate.
Middleton, S. (2005). Research as a second career: Research culture in a VET setting. Paper
presented at the AVETRA Conference, Emerging Futures: Recent, Responsive & Relevant
Research. Brisbane, Australia.
Moodie, G. (2008). From vocational to higher education: An international perspective: Berkshire, England:
Open University Press.
Moodie, G. (2010). Mixed-sector tertiary education: implications for self-accrediting and other
higher education institutions .No. 1921809590. NCVER.
Ottenbacher, M., Harrington, R. & Parsa, H. (2009). Defining the hospitality discipline: a discussion
of pedagogical and research implications. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 33(3),
263.
Page, S. J. (2003). Evaluating research performance in tourism: The UK experience. Tourism
Management, 24(6), 607-622.
Paul, R. F. (2010). Tourism education and curriculum design: A time for consolidation and
review? Tourism Management, 31(6), 699-723.
Puryear, J. M. (2005). Building education research capacity in developing countries: Some
fundamental issues. Peabody Journal of Education, 80(1), 93-99.
Renwick, K. & Burrows, J. (2008). Metacognition and adaptive expertise: building research
capability through effective use of online technology. Paper presented at the No Frills.
Robinson, R., Breakey, N. & Craig-Smith, S. J. (2008). Evolution of Food and Beverage Studies
in Hospitality degree programs: An Australian case study paper presented at the CAUTHE
2008: Where the Bloody Hell are we?
Salazar-Clemeña, R. & Almonte-Acosta, S. (2003). Developing research culture in Philippine
higher education institutions: Perspectives of university faculty, pp.1-13.
Shamai, S. & Kfir, D. (2002). Research activity and research culture in academic teachers colleges in
Israel. Teaching in Higher Education, 7(4), 397-410.
Stineman, M. & Kennedy, B. (2005). Response to ‘metrics of rehabilitation research capacity’:
within and beyond our borders. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation,
84(12), 1020.
Tribe, J. (1997). The indiscipline of tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 24(3), 638-657.
Turner, R., McKenzie, L. M., McDermott, A. P. & Stone, M. (2009a). Emerging HE cultures:
perspectives from CETL award holders in a partner college network. Journal of Further and
Higher Education, 33(3), 255-263.
Turner, R., McKenzie, L. & Stone, M. (2009b). ‘Square peg - round hole’: the emerging professional
identities of HE in FE lecturers working in a partner college network in south-west England.
Research in Post-Compulsory Education, 14(4), 355-368.
Veal, A. J. (2005). Business research methods: a managerial approach. Frenchs Forest, NSW: Person
Education Australia.
Wheelahan, L., Moodie, G., Billet, S. & Kelly, A. (2009a). Higher education in TAFE. Adelaide:
NCVER.
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Great Expectations: Building Research Capacity in Vocational Tourism and Hospitality Institutes 141
Wheelahan, L., Moodie, G., Billett, S. & Kelly, A. (2009b). Higher education in TAFE: Support
document. National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER), 49.
White, J. (1997). Philosophy and the aims of higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 22(1),
7-17.
Yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods (Vol. 5). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage
Publications, Inc.
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Australian Tourists’ Travel Motivation and Pre- & Post-Images of The Philippines as Destination 143
Asia-Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and Tourism
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012 pp. 143-164
ISSN 2289-1471
Correspondence: Belinda V. de Castro, Institute of Tourism and Hospitality, University of Santo
Tomas, Manila, 1015 Philippines
Email: bheldc@yahoo.com
The Australian Tourists’ Travel Motivation and Pre- and Post-Images
of The Philippines as their Destination
Allan B. de Guzman, Belinda V. de Castro, Josephine Fatima V. Calanog, Apple Joanne
R. Taguinin, Jay Rhyan S. Afalla, Anna Lorraine R. Aldover & Marie Toni C. Gotangco
University of Santo Tomas, Philippines
Abstract: This quantitative study aims to identify the travel motivation and the pre- and
post-images of 205 Australian tourists of the Philippines as their destination. Data were
gathered, using the multi-aspect researcher-made instrument (Cronbach Alpha Test = 0.97).
Respondents were first made to fill in a ‘robotfoto’ for purposes of profiling their baseline
characteristics. They were later asked to rate the listed indicators, using a 8-point Likert Scale.
Using statistical tools such as Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient, Chi-square test of
independence, ANOVA, paired t-test, mean and standard deviation, data were treated to an
indepth analysis. Factor analysis of the respondents’ travel motivation yielded five significant
dimensions, namely: ‘Globetrotter Tourist’, ‘Gee Tourist’, ‘Gild Tourist’, ‘Go Tourist’ and
‘Geo-gala Tourist’. On the whole, ‘Humdinger Image’, ‘Hangdog Image’, ‘Hypsi-flown
Image’, ‘Handy Image’, ‘Hospice Image’, ‘Hazard Image’, ‘Hand and Glove Image’, ‘Have
Image’, ‘Hodge-Podge Image’, ‘High-life Image’, and ‘Hyaloid Image’ categorise the pre-
and post-images of Australian tourists. Results indicate that length of stay and
accommodation influence respondents’ travel motivation. Interestingly, only ‘Hazard Image’
was found to have no significant relationship with travel motivation. In promoting the
Philippines as a tourist destination, this study could be an important variable for tourism
market segmentation.
Keywords: Australian tourists, travel motivation, pre- and post-images, Philippines
Research Paper
Suggested citation: de Guzman, A.B., de Castro, B.V., Calanog, J.F.V., Taguinin, A.J.R., Afalla,
J.R.S., Aldover, A.L.R. & Gotangco, M.T.C. (2012). The Australian tourists’ travel motivation
and their pre- and post-images of The Philippines as their destination. Asia-Pacific Journal of
Innovation in Hospitality and Tourism, 1(2), 143-164.
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Allan B. de Guzman, Belinda V. de Castro, Josephine Fatima V. Calanog et al144
Introduction
The Department of Tourism (DOT) in the Philippines reported remarkable growth
in visitors’ arrivals (18.5%) from July 2010 to July 2011 (DOT, 2011). The increase in
tourist arrivals can be attributed to the influx of inter-regional travelers from Asia
such as Japan, Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, China and Malaysia. Visitors
from North America, Western Europe, Australia and the Pacific Regions also showed
positive growth (DOT, 2011). The Philippines is fourth of the six countries in Asia
and the Pacific, along with Vietnam, Singapore, Cambodia, Thailand and Indonesia,
which posted a double-digit growth (+16.7%) in international tourist arrivals in 2010,
thus garnering USD2,783 million in international tourism receipts (UNWTO, 2010).
Australia has been one of the top ten biggest visitors to the Philippines since 1993
(DOT, 2011). Australians are keen travelers and each year make more than four
million trips to international destinations. Many Australians also live abroad. Every
year, approximately 20,000 Australians approach the Department of Foreign Affairs
and Trade (DFAT) in Canberra and other overseas missions for consular assistance
(DFAT, 2011).
Understanding why Australian people travel and the factors that influence their
visitation to specific destinations such as the Philippines are of significant interest.
Researchers have long studied factors affecting travel-related decisions. They suggest
that travel motivation is a theoretical concept that accounts for people’s choice of
engaging in particular behaviours at certain times (Jang & Zhao, 2005). Individual
traveler motives start the decision making process (de Guzman et al., 2005) and vary
from one person to another. Prior studies on the destination selection process have
attempted to explore a bundle of travel determinants that are significant during the
destination selection process. Numerous tourism researchers have conceptualised or
defined travel motivation, as well as demonstrated destination images, which are
both valuable concepts in the destination selection process and in destination positioning
strategies.
People travel because they are motivated to fulfill a particular need (Kim &
Jogaratnam, 2002). Jang & Cai (2002) posit that motivation means a state of need or
a condition that drives an individual toward certain actions that are seen as likely to
bring satisfaction. Many tourism scholars based their theoretical background on
Maslow’s five-stage hierarchy of needs theory (Pearce & Lee, 2005; Jang & Cai,
2002).
One travel motivation theory was developed based on Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs and was labeled Travel Career Ladder or TCL. TCL describes tourist motivation
as consisting of five different levels namely: relaxation needs, safety/security needs,
relationship needs, self-esteem and development needs, and self-actualisation needs
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Australian Tourists’ Travel Motivation and Pre- & Post-Images of The Philippines as Destination 145
(Pearce & Lee, 2005). From this approach, people may be said to have a travel career,
a pattern of travel motives that changes along within their life span and/or various
travel experiences. Travelers differ with respect to their travel career level due to their
motives for traveling. It is natural for a traveler to ascend the ladder over time but it
is also recognised that the same traveler may vary in his/her TCL depending on the
travel situation (Jang & Cai, 2002; Pearce & Lee, 2005).
Perusal of the literature proposed two factors as travel motives: anomie and
ego-enhancement (Jang & Cai, 2002; Poria, Reichel & Brian, 2006). There is a need to
highlight these motives in order to understand tourist behaviour. Anomie stands for
the desire to transcend the feeling of isolation obtained in daily life where the traveler
simply desires to get away from it all. Ego-enhancement means the need for
recognition, which is obtained through the status conferred by travel.
During the past several decades, growing interest in travel motivation has been
noted. The push and pull theory (Nicholson & Pearce, 2001; Kim & Jogaratnam,
2002; Rittichainuwat, Qu & Leong, 2002; Jang & Cai, 2002; Cohen, 2003; Poria et al.,
2006) affects reasons for traveling and influence destination decisions of tourists.
Push factors refer to internal drivers which motivate people to travel. Pull factors
mean the attractiveness of the destination that motivates people to travel. These
concepts build travel motivation and the very image of the destinations. According to
Jang & Cai (2002), although a complex of motives was identified in previous research,
the push and pull typology is an appropriate approach to the study of travel motivation.
In world travel literature, understanding the characteristics of international tourist
behaviour and attitudes with its effects on the total attractiveness of overseas destination
has been addressed (Jang & Cai, 2002; Qu & Im, 2002; Cohen, 2003). Several articles
were written to identify different motivational determinants of travelers of different
nationalities (Qu & Im, 2002). Korean visitors are mainly attracted to overseas
destinations that can provide adventurous atmosphere, scenery, environment,
friendliness and architectural styles (Qu & Im, 2002). Jang & Cai (2002) conducted a
qualitative research study of the British outbound market and found that ‘knowledge
seeking’, ‘escape’ and ‘family togetherness’ are the topmost factors that motivate the
British to travel overseas. An exploratory study of the growing number of Singapore
vacationers visiting internationally was a reflection of affluence among the new
generation who are no longer, like their forefathers who worked hard but refrained
from leisurely pursuits (Qu & Im, 2002).
Of significant interest is also the concept of image (Giannone, 2002; Kim &
Yoon, 2003; Naoi, 2003; Cohen, 2003; Son & Pearce, 2005), playing a vital role in
tourists travel decisions and motivations. Destination image is usually defined as the
sum of the mental constructs of ideas, impressions and beliefs which people have of
a place or destination (Cohen, 2003; Kim & Yoon, 2003). Image implies the ideas or
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Allan B. de Guzman, Belinda V. de Castro, Josephine Fatima V. Calanog et al146
concepts held individually or collectively about a tourism destination (Kim & Yoon,
2003; Cohen, 2003) and are influential and integral part of the travelers’ decision
process (Giannone, 2002; Naoi, 2003).
Destination image is considered a critical concept in examining tourists’ perception
and behaviour, thus it has been given much space and attention in tourism literature.
As current destinations have become more competitive with other destination markets,
a clearer and better understanding of destination image is essential to the enhancement
of destination attractiveness and market competitiveness (Kim & Yoon, 2003).
Due to the importance of destination image in tourism research, there have been
several studies conducted in the past two decades (Kim & Yoon, 2003; Cohen, 2003;
Naoi, 2003; Rittichainuwat & Qu, 2003; Son & Pearce, 2005). Destination image has
been conceptualised in various ways. Image has been said to have two distinct but
interrelated components – affective (feelings) and cognitive (beliefs) (Naoi, 2003;
Kim & Yoon, 2003; Cohen, 2003). Affective components dwell on the emotional
response of individuals to a place or product (Kim & Yoon, 2003), and thus relate to
tourist values and motives (Naoi, 2003). Cognitive components refer to knowledge
of a place or product feature (Kim & Yoon, 2003), and therefore the physical features
of the destination environment (Naoi, 2003). Other tourism scholars delineated three
components of images: (1) affective – internal sources or stimuli, (2) cognitive –
external sources or stimuli and (3) connotative image, which are distinguished on the
basis of its sources of stimuli and motives (Kim & Yoon, 2003).
The concept of image has then received substantial attention of tourism scholars,
industry practitioners and destination marketers (Son & Pearce, 2005). Nicholson &
Pearce (2001) also noted that understanding tourists’ perceived images should help
researchers comprehend tourist motivation better.
Problem and Research Objectives
In tourism literature, a strong link between travel motivations and destination choices
is well documented (Jang & Cai, 2002). Development of a destination as well as its
marketing activities should be well planned as factors that uniquely motivate travelers
to specific destinations. Today, tourism marketers need to consider where the
destinations are located in terms of travel motivations. Effective marketing and
promotional programs would be of much help in establishing a strong fit between
destination attributes and motivations of target markets. The perceived image of a
destination influences deeply the idea of a destination which organises the tourist’s
vision of the place (Giannone, 2002). Preconceived images have a significant role in
tourists’ decisions and motivations and much impact on travel itself (Cohen, 2003). It
is widely believed that the more favourable the image of a destination, the greater the
likelihood of choice of that destination.
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Australian Tourists’ Travel Motivation and Pre- & Post-Images of The Philippines as Destination 147
Thus this study was conceptualised to look into the perceived images and travel
motives of Australian tourists and how these images relate to their motivation in
coming to the Philippines (Figure 1). An attempt was made to elaborate on the
following elements: first, to determine the profile of the Australian tourists as to age,
gender, marital status, occupation, primary purpose of visit, length of stay, frequency
of visit to the Philippines, accommodation, and travel arrangement; second, to identify
the group of factors that determine the Australian travel motivation to visit the
Philippines; third, to ascertain the pre- and post-conceived images of Australian visitors
about the Philippines as a destination; fourth, to establish significant relationships
between Australian travel motivation and their demographic characteristics; and fifth,
to determine if the Australians’ pre- and post-conceived images of the Philippines as
a travel destination affect their travel motivation. In sum, the results of this study will
not only contribute to a better understanding of Australian travel motivation and
their pre- and post-conceived images about the Philippines, but also have implications
for the development and improvement of the Philippine destination image and
marketing strategies in order that more competitive destination products are delivered
to current and potential tourists.
Methods
Study Site and Subjects of the Study
On-site surveys were conducted at the Ninoy Aquino International Airport Terminal
1 using Boarding gate 2 of Qantas Airways flights, the flag carrier of Australia. From
the computer-generated flight schedule of the said carrier, a random sample of 20%
of the scheduled flights for two weeks was randomly selected, which resulted in a
total of 20 flights. Taking each flight as one group of respondents, a stratified random
Pre-Image
Post-Image
Travel
Motivation
Figure 1. The research paradigm
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Allan B. de Guzman, Belinda V. de Castro, Josephine Fatima V. Calanog et al148
selection of the participants was done. Since the researchers do not have access to the
flight manifesto indicating the exact number of Australian passengers in a flight, around
10 to 15 Australian tourists were requested to answer the questionnaire per flight
while waiting for boarding for a month. On the average, 3 to 4 flights from Manila to
different airports in Australia leave in a day. To avoid response biases, only one in
each Australian group of passengers/families was asked to answer the survey. A total
of 250 Australian tourists took part in the survey. Of these, 205 (89%) questionnaires
were considered usable.
Research Instrument and Data Collection Procedure
A three-part research-made instrument was used to gather data and information
needed in the study. It was assessed by a research expert to enhance item clarity and
content validity. Part I called the ‘robotfoto’ (a Dutch term meaning a cartographic
sketch of the respondents) (Kelchtermans & Ballet, 2001 cited by Caña et al., 2005)
sought the baseline characteristics of the respondents. Part 2 consisted of 61 items
dwelling on Australian travel motivations toward the Philippines as a tourist destination,
while Part 3, a 39-item instrument, described the pre- and post-images of Australians.
Respondents rated the items, using a 8-point Likert scale. Results of the Cronbach
Alpha Test of 0.97 showed that the developed instrument had a high reliability index
indicating its usability and administrability to other settings.
Prior to data gathering, a letter of request, along with a sample questionnaire was
sent to the Airport Manager of the Qantas Airways Ltd., the flag carrier of Australia,
for approval and scheduling. With the permission of the Airport Manager and the
approval of the Pass Control Office of the NAIA, Terminal 1, the three-part
questionnaire was distributed to the natural-born Australian passengers present during
the scheduled flights. Briefing was observed by the researchers during the questionnaire
fielding. The secured permission from Qantas Airways and the purpose of the study
were presented to the respondents before they were asked to answer the survey
questions.
Data Analysis
All data were analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS
version 17). Descriptive statistics such as frequencies and percentages were computed
on the demographic characteristics of the respondents. Factor analysis was conducted
to determine underlying factors that describe Australian tourists’ travel motivation
and pre- and post-images of the Philippines. Finally, Pearson correlation, chi-square,
ANOVA, paired t-test, mean and standard deviation were used to assess the significant
relationships and differences among Australian tourist motivations and images.
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Australian Tourists’ Travel Motivation and Pre- & Post-Images of The Philippines as Destination 149
Results
Socio-economic Profile of Respondents
From the 205 Australian respondents, 68.6% were males and 29%, females. As
indicated, most respondents (42.9%) belong to the 41-60 age bracket and 38.6% 20-
40 age group (see Table 1). The majority of the subjects were single (172), comprising
58.1% and were professionals (70 or 33.3%). Further, 89 (42.4%) of the respondents’
primary purpose was visiting friends and relatives, 147 (70%) of whom have been
staying in the Philippines for more than a week.
The largest group of Australian tourists, 78 (37.1%), were first time visitors in the
Philippines. Most preferred to stay in a hotel (41.9%) and their friends or relatives’
house (33.8%). Interestingly, 134 (63.8%) opted to travel alone.
Travel Motivations
Table 2 illustrates the top 5 and least 5 factors that determine Australian travel motivation
to visit the Philippines. Among the top motivators, ‘to have fun’ ranked the highest,
followed by ‘to see different attractions and destinations’ and ‘to go to places not yet
visited before’. ‘To experience Filipino hospitality’ and ‘to visit friends and relatives
residing in the Philippines’ came as fourth and fifth tourist motivation indicators.
Least 5 factors indicate that ‘to gamble or visit casino’ ranked first as the least
motivation factor. ‘To visit Philippine universities’, ‘to avail low-cost airfare’ and ‘to
participate in sports events’ come after and lastly, ‘to purchase Filipino made handicrafts’
was the fifth least motivation indicator.
Factor Analysis of Travel Motivation Items
Table 3 presents the results of the factor analysis of the travel motivations of Australian
tourists. Principal component factor analysis, using varimax rotation with Kaiser
normalisation, was employed to assess the number of underlying factors in the data
and identify the items associated with each factor. Sixty-one motivation indicators
were analysed. All factor loadings above 0.4 were retained for subsequent analyses.
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy indicated that the 56
remaining indicators were adequate for factor analysis to proceed (KMO measure =
0.91). Five factors with eigenvalues greater than one were extracted. In addition to
delineating factor structure, factor analysis served to consolidate and simplify data
pertaining to travel motivations.
Scales were labeled according to the common theme of the attributes loading on
each factor in the order of decreasing explained variance. These were labeled as
follows: ‘Globetrotter Tourist’, ‘Gee Tourist’, ‘Gild Tourist’, ‘Go Tourist’ and ‘Geo-
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Allan B. de Guzman, Belinda V. de Castro, Josephine Fatima V. Calanog et al150
Profile Frequency % Profile Frequency %
Age Length of stay
12-19 22 10.5 Less than 3 nights 15 7.1
20-40 81 38.6 3-5 nights 27 12.9
41-60 90 42.9 6-7 nights 15 7.1
61-above 12 5.7 more than 1 week 147 70.0
Gender Frequency of visit to
the Philippines
Male 144 68.6 Once 78 37.1
Female 61 29.0 Twice 46 21.9
Three times 18 8.6
Marital Status More than three times 61 29.0
Single 122 58.1
Married with children 60 28.6 Accommodation
Married without children 19 9.0 Hotel 88 41.9
Widow/Widower 4 1.9 Friends/ relatives’ house 71 33.8
Both 15 7.1
Others 19 9.0
Occupation
Management/Administration 32 15.2 Travel Arrangement
Professional 70 33.3 Traveling alone 134 63.8
Government 13 6.2 Traveling in group 55 26.2
Self-employed 29 13.8 Both 2 1.0
Student 34 16.2
Blue collar worker 6 2.9
Retired/ Not in work force 20 9.5
Primary Purpose of Visit
Pleasure vacation 51 24.3
Visiting friends and relatives 89 42.4
En route 4 1.9
Business meeting/ Convention 39 18.6
Health 3 1.4
Religion 1 .5
Work 3 1.4
Special Events 4 1.9
Others 11 5.2
Table 1.
Demographic profile of respondents
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Australian Tourists’ Travel Motivation and Pre- & Post-Images of The Philippines as Destination 151
Top Motivators Mean SD Rank Least Motivators Mean SD Rank
To have fun 5.72 2.48 1 To gamble or visit casino 2.29 2.13 1
To see different 5.57 2.43 2 To visit Philippine 2.31 2.10 2
attractions and Universities
destinations
To go to places not yet 5.48 2.53 3 To avail low-cost airfare 2.77 2.31 3
visited before
To experience Filipino 5.40 2.35 4 To participate in sports 2.93 2.37 4
hospitality events
To visit friends and 5.33 2.97 5 To purchase Filipino 3.06 2.37 5
relatives residing in made handicrafts
the Philippines
Table 2.
Top and least factors that determine the Australian travel motivation to visit the Philippines
Image Factor Factor Eigenvalue Variance Reliability
Loading (%) Coefficient
Globetrotter Tourist 10.47 23.37 0.97
To see different attractions & destinations 0.82
To go to places not yet visited before 0.79
To experience new and different lifestyle 0.77
To gain new friends/to meet new people 0.76
To experience Filipino hospitality 0.76
To enrich knowledge about the Philippines 0.75
To discover interesting countryside 0.73
To experience different cultures 0.72
To explore the unknown 0.71
To have unpredictable experience 0.70
To learn its historic background 0.69
To develop personal interest 0.68
To have fun 0.67
To see outstanding scenery 0.64
To gain new perspectives in life 0.61
To have some entertainment 0.61
To try exotic Filipino cuisine 0.60
To shop in flea markets 0.58
To experience recreational activities 0.57
Table 3.
Results of factor analysis of Australian tourists’ travel motivation
Continued next page
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Allan B. de Guzman, Belinda V. de Castro, Josephine Fatima V. Calanog et al152
To visit natural ecological sites 0.56
To experience tropical weather 0.53
To share skills and knowledge with others 0.52
To feel a sense of belonging 0.50
To find thrills or excitement 0.40
Gee Tourist 2.80 10.61 0.91
To escape from city stress/ experience peace 0.73
and calm
To do nothing at all 0.69
To experience ultimate relaxation 0.58
To be close with nature 0.57
To escape from the demands at home 0.50
To strengthen relationship with companion 0.49
To experience world class service 0.49
To immerse myself to unique or different 0.47
aboriginal or indigenous people
To escape pressures from work 0.43
Gild Tourist 3.14 10.56 0.94
To work on personal and spiritual values 0.74
To understand oneself more 0.70
To enjoy isolation 0.65
To feel inner harmony/peace 0.64
To rediscover oneself 0.61
To better appreciate nature 0.53
To see exotic and endangered animals 0.49
To experience a simple lifestyle 0.45
To avail of great package of activities 0.40
‘Go’ Tourist 1.63 6.64 0.86
To celebrate special holidays with family 0.62
and friends
To purchase Filipino made handicrafts 0.61
To participate in sports events 0.55
To visit Philippine universities 0.48
To experience primitive outdoor outing 0.42
To avail of low-cost air fare 0.40
Geo-gala Tourist 1.20 5.44 0.79
To explore different adventure sites 0.68
To visit historical places 0.67
To be part of traditional feasts celebrated 0.53
Table 3.
Continued from previous page
* Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy = 0.913
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Australian Tourists’ Travel Motivation and Pre- & Post-Images of The Philippines as Destination 153
gala Tourist’. Factor 1: ‘Globetrotter Tourist’, consists of 24 indicators categorised as
tourists who are extensively traveled. They are motivated by the usual activities of a
typical traveler. Factor 2: ‘Gee Tourist’, includes 9 indicators, which regarded tourists
looking for an escape from daily routines. They are motivated for purposes of
relaxation. Factor 3: ‘Gild Tourist’, are primarily motivated by their personal well-
being and a better perspective of giving a fair external appearance of things around.
It is composed of 9 indicators. Factor 4: ‘Go Tourist’, categorised as being motivated
by their immediate and specific reason for travel includes 6 indicators, which signal
on the go to a journey. Finally, Factor 5: ‘Geo-gala Tourist’, includes 3 indicators
motivated by the attractions of a region. This type of tourist is characterised by their
appreciation of the grandeur attributes of a destination. The alpha coefficient for
each of the five factors ranged from 0.97 to 0.79, suggesting acceptable reliability.
Australian Pre- and Post-Images of the Philippines
The top five Australian pre- and post-images of the Philippines as a destination are
indicated in Table 4. Top pre-images indicate that Filipinos are ‘friendly people’,
‘hospitable people’, and that ‘traffic and pollution’, ‘good shopping’ and ‘good value
cuisines and hotels’ can be found in the Philippines. Notably, 4 out of 5 of these pre-
images remain as part of their top 5 post images of the country with the inclusion of
being perceived as a texting capital.
Table 5 shows the least five Australian pre- and post-images of the Philippines as
a destination. These attributes were ‘drugs haven’, ‘sex tourism industry’, ‘affordable
and quality medical treatment’, ‘healing paradise’ and ‘sports enthusiasm’. Noticeably,
two indicators were replaced after their stay in the country. Indicators such as affordable
and quality medical treatment and sports enthusiasm were perceived better after coming
to the country. Although the Australian tourists perceive the country as a source of
high quality export products, they perceived terrorism as the third least image after
coming to the country.
Factor Analysis of Australian Pre-Images
Thirty-nine indicators for both pre- and post-images were factor analysed, using the
principal component with varimax rotation to delineate the underlying factors of
Australians image perception of the Philippines as reflected in Tables 6 and 7. Kaiser-
Meyer Olkin measure of 0.82 (pre-images) and 0.88 (post-images) indicate that the
sample is adequate for factor analysis to proceed. The same inclusion criteria for the
indicators were used as in the motivation patterns. No indicators were discarded
from the lists.
The scale labeled in decreasing order explained variance produced by the following
pre-images: ‘Humdinger Image’, ‘Hangdog Image’, ‘Hypsi-flown Image’, ‘Handy
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Allan B. de Guzman, Belinda V. de Castro, Josephine Fatima V. Calanog et al154
Image’, ‘Hospice Image’, ‘Hazard Image’, ‘Hand and Glove Image’ and ‘Have Image’.
Factor 1: ‘Humdinger Image’ involves ten indicators categorised as an image conferring
the natural beauty of the Philippines, which makes a deep impression on tourists.
Factor 2: ‘Hangdog Image’ reflects degrading appearance, concludes seven variables
associated with the socio-economic problems of the Philippines. Factor 3: ‘Hypsi-
flown Image’ entails six indicators referring to territorial competencies; distinct
characteristics in which a destination can offer and be proud of. Factor 4: ‘Handy
Image’ describes the attributes of the Philippines as a tourist destination highlighting
convenience and manageability consisting of six indicators. Factor 5: ‘Hospice Image’
revealed 3 indicators providing tourists a picture of leisure and entertainment
destination. Factor 6: ‘Hazard Image’ gives a negative and alarming impression among
tourists such as 3 indicators pertaining to the risks and uncertainties of the destination.
Factor 7: ‘Hand and Glove Image’, includes two indicators referring to the nature of
the Filipinos. It portrays intimate relationship among Filipinos. Finally, Factor 8: ‘Have
Image’, involving two variables, signifies the gnostics and skills which the Filipino
people possess.
Pre-image Indicators Mean SD Rank Post-image indicators Mean SD Rank
Friendly people 6.68 1.58 1 Hospitable people 6.78 1.55 1
Hospitable people 6.62 1.38 2 Traffic and pollution 7.76 1.94 2
Traffic and Pollution 6.35 2.08 3 Friendly people 6.60 1.76 3
Good shopping 6.27 1.66 4 Texting capital 6.29 1.98 4
Good value cuisines 6.26 1.63 5 Good value cuisines 6.23 1.83 5
and hotels and hotels
Table 4.
Top 5 Australian pre- and post-images of the Philippines as a destination
Indicators Mean SD Rank Indicators Mean SD Rank
Drugs haven 3.78 2.27 1 Drugs haven 3.87 2.22 1
Sex tourism industry 4.39 2.36 2 Healing paradise 4.56 2.11 2
Affordable and quality 4.62 2.23 3 Terrorism 4.57 2.20 3
medical treatment
Healing paradise 4.77 2.10 4 Sex tourism industry 4.80 2.40 4
Sports enthusiasm 4.93 2.11 5 High quality export 4.80 2.15 5
products
Table 5.
Least 5 Australian pre- and post-images of the Philippines as a destination
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Australian Tourists’ Travel Motivation and Pre- & Post-Images of The Philippines as Destination 155
Image Factor Factor Eigenvalue Variance (%) Reliability
loading coefficient
Humdinger Image 4.07 13.81 0.92
Scenic natural beauty 0.85
Wealth of wonders 0.74
Rich culture 0.73
Beautiful beaches 0.63
Adventurous activities 0.63
Historical site 0.60
Adventure site 0.59
Good value cuisines and hotels 0.54
Healing paradise 0.52
Island paradise 0.46
Hangdog Image 3.61 12.13 0.88
High crime rate 0.80
Traffic and pollution 0.73
Brand imitation 0.72
Third world country 0.72
Social and environmental problems 0.71
Graft and corruption 0.70
Superstitious beliefs 0.64
Hypsi-flown Image 2.67 11.80 0.90
Melting pot of various cultures 0.78
World class talents 0.75
High quality export products 0.73
Cultural attraction 0.69
Good nightlife 0.54
Friendly people 0.46
Handy Image 2.53 10.67 0.87
Easy access tourist destination 0.75
Safe travel destination 0.73
Tropical paradise 0.68
Perfect sunset 0.66
Affordable and quality medical treatment 0.54
Sports enthusiasm 0.49
Table 6.
Results of factor analysis of Australian pre-images of the Philippines as a destination
Continued next page
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Allan B. de Guzman, Belinda V. de Castro, Josephine Fatima V. Calanog et al156
Hospice Image 1.36 8.27 0.79
Hospitable people 0.74
Good shopping 0.73
Relaxed and joyful living 0.54
Hazard Image 1.40 5.88 0.76
Drugs haven 0.75
Terrorism 0.66
Sex tourism industry 0.64
Hand and Glove Image 1.06 5.79 0.70
Texting Capital 0.82
Romantic Filipinos 0.62
‘Have’ Image 1.11 5.23 0.74
Fluency in English 0.77
High literacy level 0.72
Table 6.
Continued from previous page
* Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy = 0.821
Factor Analysis of Australian Post-Images
Table 7 shows seven post-image factor dimensions identified from the 36-item
indicators, labeled in the order of decreasing variance. Factor 1: ‘Hodge-Podge Image’,
consisting of 15 indicators, is a mixture of ingredients (‘Humdinger’, ‘Hospice’, ‘Hypsi-
flown’) pertaining to the total characteristics of a grandiose destination. Since four
other post-image factors resulted and constituted the same variables as that of the
pre-image factors, these were retained as Factor 2: ‘Hangdog Image’; Factor 3: ‘Handy
Image’; Factor 4: ‘Hand and Glove Image’; Factor 5: ‘Have Image’
(Table 3). Factor 6:
‘High-life Image’ pertains to the ways of living of the Filipino society which consists
of three indicators. Factor 7:‘ Hyaloid Image’ is composed of three indicators namely:
‘social and environmental problems’, ‘safe travel destination’ and ‘good value cuisine
and hotels’ transparent to tourists. This type of image signifies realities of what they
have seen and experienced in the Philippines.
Australian Travel Motivation and Demographic Profile
Significant relationships between Australian travel motivation factors to demographic
profile of respondents appear in Table 8. No significant relationships between the
motivational factors and the respondents’ age, gender, marital status and occupation
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Australian Tourists’ Travel Motivation and Pre- & Post-Images of The Philippines as Destination 157
Image Factor Factor Eigenvalue Variance (%) Reliability
loading coefficient
Hodge-Podge Image 6.77 23.05 0.95
Adventure site 0.84
Cultural attraction 0.78
Scenic natural beauty 0.76
Adventurous activities 0.73
Historical site 0.73
Wealth of wonders 0.72
World class talents 0.72
Melting pot of various cultures 0.69
High quality export products 0.68
Beautiful beaches 0.67
Island paradise 0.60
Healing paradise 0.59
Rich culture 0.54
Relaxed and joyful living 0.46
Good shopping 0.45
Hangdog Image 3.69 12.86 0.89
Graft and corruption 0.75
Brand imitation 0.75
Terrorism 0.73
Drugs haven 0.72
Sex tourism industry 0.67
High crime rate 0.63
Third world country 0.59
Superstitious beliefs 0.58
Handy Image 1.28 8.05 0.85
Tropical paradise 0.73
Perfect sunset 0.62
Easy access tourist destination 0.60
Hand and Glove Image 1.34 7.02 0.78
Texting capital 0.83
Romantic Filipinos 0.80
Table 7.
Results of factor analysis of Australian post-images of the Philippines as a destination
Continued next page
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Allan B. de Guzman, Belinda V. de Castro, Josephine Fatima V. Calanog et al158
‘Have’ Image 1.13 6.72 0.69
Fluency in English 0.87
Hospitable people 0.61
High-life Image 1.13 6.52 0.68
Friendly people 0.73
Good nightlife 0.59
Traffic and pollution 0.51
Hyaloid Image 1.37 5.95 0.69
Social and environmental problems 0.74
Safe travel destination 0.71
Good value cuisines and hotels 0.57
Table 7.
Continued from previous page
* Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy = 0.887
Demographic Travel motivation
Profile Globetrotter Gee Gild Go Geo-gala
Tourist Tourist Tourist Tourist Tourist
r-value
Age -0.09 0.04 -0.03 0.02 -0.04
Length of stay 0.33** 0.20** 0.18* 0.18* 0.17*
Frequency of visit -0.00 0.09 0.07 0.15* 0.04
chi-square value
Gender 117.42 71.47 75.37 45.16 21.84
Marital status 321.61 175.77 193.76 107.47 47.31
Occupation 724.57 416.36 317.13 249.43 107.07
Accommodation 334.98 211.89 246.48* 139.50 86.51*
Travel arrangement 313.99* 131.84 178.90* 84.55 46.10
Table 8.
Significant relationships between Australian travel motivation and their demographic profile
* Significant at 0.05 level
** Significant at 0.01 level
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Australian Tourists’ Travel Motivation and Pre- & Post-Images of The Philippines as Destination 159
were noted. All motivational factors were significantly related to length of stay. The
longer the length of stay, the more tourists are motivated to travel. Only ‘Go Tourists’
significantly relates to frequency of visit. The more a tourist visits a place, the more
they are being motivated by their immediate and specific reason to travel. ‘Gild Tourists’
and ‘Geo-gala Tourists’ are significantly influenced by choice of accommodation.
Being motivated by their personal well-being and by the attractions of a region,
tourist tends to stay in their friends or relatives’ house. The respondents’ travel
arrangement is significantly associated with ‘Globetrotter Tourists’ and ‘Gild Tourists’.
Traveling in groups is mostly preferred by tourists who are extensively traveled and
tourists who are motivated by their personal well-being.
Analysis of Australian Pre- and Post-Images
The mean scores of pre- and post-Australian images of the Philippines are listed in
Table 9. The paired mean t-test was conducted to examine the significant mean
differences (gaps) of Australian images upon arrival and departure. As indicated, the
image factors ‘safe travel destination’, ‘easy access tourist destination’ and ‘sex tourism
industry’ were found to have statistically significant difference at 0.05 level. Australian
pre-images (‘safe travel destination’, ‘easy access tourist destination’ and ‘sex tourism
industry’) indicated a high perception mean score after they had visited the Philippines.
Australian Travel Motivation and Images
Table 10a indicates the significant relationship between Australian motivations and
their pre-images of the Philippines as a destination. On the whole, significant
relationships at 0.05 and 0.01 level exist in the respondents’ pre-image and their travel
motivation. Interestingly, among the Australian pre-images, it was only in ‘Hazard
Image’ where no significant relationship was noted.
Significant relationship between Australian post-images and travel motivation is
presented in Table 10b. As illustrated, ‘Hodge-Podge Image’, ‘Hangdog Image’, ‘Handy
Image Factor Pre-image Post-image T-value
Mean SD Mean SD
Safe travel destination 5.28 1.74 5.81 1.84 2.98*
Easy access tourist destination 5.24 1.99 5.72 1.93 2.67*
Sex tourism industry 4.39 2.44 4.81 2.36 2.27*
Table 9.
Significant difference in the Australian images of the Philippines between upon arrival and departure
* Significant at 0.05 level
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Allan B. de Guzman, Belinda V. de Castro, Josephine Fatima V. Calanog et al160
Travel motivation
Australian Globetrotter Gee Gild ‘Go’ Geo-gala
Post-image Tourist Tourist Tourist Tourist Tourist
Hodge-Podge Image 0.54** 0.50** 0.53** 0.43** 0.41**
Hangdog Image 0.22* 0.23** 0.27** 0.23** 0.18*
Handy Image 0.39** 0.44** 0.41** 0.37** 0.30**
Hand and Glove Image 0.14 0.18* 0.15 0.26** 0.09
‘Have’ Image 0.27** 0.20* 0.18* 0.18* 0.18*
High-life Image 0.30** 0.26** 0.18* 0.22* 0.18*
Hyaloid Image 0.27** 0.22* 0.24** 0.18* 0.24**
Table 10b.
Significant relationships between Australian travel motivation and their post-images of the Philippines as a
destination
* Significant at 0.05 level
** Significant at 0.01 level
Travel motivation
Australian Globetrotter Gee Gild ‘Go’ Geo-gala
Pre-image Tourist Tourist Tourist Tourist Tourist
Humdinger Image 0.52** 0.51** 0.59** 0.51** 0.44**
Hangdog Image 0.25** 0.21* 0.19* 0.20* 0.20*
Hypsi-flown Image 0.52** 0.52** 0.51** 0.48** 0.42**
Handy Image 0.41** 0.56** 0.48** 0.52** 0.38**
Hospice Image 0.46** 0.48** 0.43** 0.41** 0.23**
Hazard Image -0.03 -0.02 0.08 0.12 -0.03
Hand and glove Image 0.33** 0.36** 0.30** 0.40** 0.23**
‘Have’ Image 0.23* 0.23* 0.62** 0.26** 0.24**
Table 10a.
Significant relationships between Australian travel motivation and their pre-images of the Philippines as a
destination
* Significant at 0.05 level
** Significant at 0.01 level
Image’ and ‘Hyaloid Image’ were found to have a significant relationship with all the
motivation factors both at 0.05 and 0.01 level.
Interestingly, no significant relationship was noted in three of the five motivation
factors in ‘Hand and Glove Image’ namely ‘Globetrotter Tourist’, ‘Gild Tourist’
and
‘Geo-gala Tourist’.
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Australian Tourists’ Travel Motivation and Pre- & Post-Images of The Philippines as Destination 161
Discussion
Results of this quantitative study yielded marked significant relationships and differences
in Australian travel motivation and the pre- and post-images of the Philippines as
their destination.
Significantly, the leading and least Australian travel motivation to visit the Philippines
supports Kim & Jogaratnam (2002) earlier findings. ‘To have fun’, “to see different
attractions and destinations’, ‘to go to places not yet visited before’ ‘to experience
Filipino hospitality’ and to visit friends and relatives’ are all leading in travel motivation.
Intercultural interaction and travel motivations were observed to have critical association.
‘To have fun’ was found to be the vital motive of Australian tourists in coming to the
Philippines. Pearce & Lee (2005) also identified that the main reason for visiting Asian
countries were to know their cultures and engage in different experiences. While the
least important Australian travel motivations are ‘to gamble or visit the casino’, ‘to
visit Philippine universities’, ‘to avail of low-cost airfare’, ‘to participate in sports
events’ and ‘to purchase Filipino-made handicrafts’. Essentially, results indicate that
Australians are not adequately satisfied in these areas and might not be interested in
these segments. The Philippines, as a destination is not a place for gambling unlike
Macao and Las Vegas. It is also noted that most respondents were professionals
(33.3%), which signifies no interest in visiting Philippine universities (Table 1). Further,
this study identified five main motives, which categorised Australians as ‘Globetrotter
Tourists’, ‘Gee Tourists’, ‘Gild Tourists’, ‘Go Tourists’ and ‘Geo-gala Tourists’. In
regard to these five key motivations, a number of studies have endorsed and reinforced
these results (Poria et al., 2006; Pearce & Lee, 2005; Jang & Cai, 2002). According to
the Travel Career Ladder theory, the most important factors in identifying travel
reasons are novelty, escape/relax, relationship and self-development. These
motivational dimensions show notable similarity with the results of the study:
‘Globetrotter Tourist’ (novelty seeking motive), ‘Gee Tourist’ (escape/relax seeking
motive), ‘Gild Tourist’ (self-development seeking motive), ‘Go’ and ‘Geo-gala Tourist’
(relationship seeking motive).
Interestingly, all motivational factors were identified to have a significant relationship
with respect to the respondent’s length of stay. This implies that the longer an individual
stays in the Philippines, the more they are motivated to travel here. It is evident that
the Australian tourists were able to appreciate their stay here in the country.
Australians’ pre- and post-images were also found to be associated with the
Filipinos such as their products and services and the local environment. Similarities
between top and least images upon departure and arrival of Australian tourists were
identified in the study. ‘Friendly people’, ‘hospitable people’, ‘traffic and pollution’
and ‘good value cuisine and hotels’ were among the top Australian pre- and post-
images of the Philippines. Least-liked images included ‘drugs haven’, ‘sex tourism
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Allan B. de Guzman, Belinda V. de Castro, Josephine Fatima V. Calanog et al162
industry’ and ‘healing paradise’. Perceptions of an idea, product or service play an
important role in an individual choice (preference or non-choice) of that particular
idea, product, or service. Notably, findings of Australian images upon arrival and
departure support the approach that tourist perception should not be neglected in
tourism research as a factor relevant to understanding tourist behaviour. This also
sustains the ideas that preferences for tourist destinations are enhanced by favourable
perceptions which travelers have about those destinations (Giannone, 2002;
Rittichainuwat, Qu & Leong, 2002). This also confirms Fishbein’s theory that, “favorable
impressions or perceptions of a tourist area increases the probability of choice of
(preferences for) that area as a destination.”
‘Safe travel destination’, ‘easy access tourist destination’ and ‘sex tourism industry’
were image factors found to have significant differences upon arrival and departure.
Seemingly, these Australian images of the Philippines were good examples of the
two dimensions of tourist destination images conceptualised by Gunn. C (1972).
Organic image, deals with tourists’ impression of a destination without physically
visiting the place, and induced image, which is forged through actual visitation. The
Philippines, as perceived and visited by Australians, is said to be a safe and easy to
access travel destination. However, an increase in the awareness of sex tourism was
also concluded.
Among the eight Australian pre-image indicators, only ‘Hazard Image’
was found
to have no significant relationship with travel motivation. During the destination
selection process, potential travelers compare perceived benefits and situational
constraints associated with destinations and select the destinations that best serve their
needs (Rittichainuwat, Qu & Leong, 2002). ‘Hodge-podge Image’, ‘Hangdog Image’,
‘Handy Image’ and ‘Hyaloid Image’ were found to influence Australian travel
motivation to a certain extent. Apparently, destination image does not only affect the
pre-purchase destination selection process. It is also anticipated to be important during
the post-purchase destination selection process (Rittichainuwat et al., 2002).
‘Hodge-
podge Image’, ‘Handy Image’ and ‘Hyaloid Image’ were constructive while ‘Hangdog
Image’ was unfavourable to a destination.
Conclusion
This study attempted to identify Australian tourists’ travel motivation and the image
of the Philippines as a destination. Interestingly, findings of the study showed insights
regarding the respondents’ traveling motives and their positive and negative images
of the Philippines. On the whole, Australians perceived the Philippines as a favorable
tourist destination. The Philippines’ scenic natural beauty, Filipino culture and hospitality
have a great impact on attracting tourists. By way of contrast, traffic and pollution
were perceived as disappointing experiences.
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Australian Tourists’ Travel Motivation and Pre- & Post-Images of The Philippines as Destination 163
In view of tourism literature scantiness on the Philippines as a tourist destination,
this study could be an important variable for tourism market segmentation. Since
destination image is a central concept in tourism studies, these findings have implications
for the field of tourism as a whole. Tourism and education marketers might be able
to use this valuable information to target tourists more successfully. A destination can
enhance the probability of target selection by identifying and marketing its ability to
meet the needs which their chosen travel segments consider important. Diagnosis of
destination strengths and weaknesses on relevant tourism attributes will make a
contribution in making specific changes, additions and/or modification in the tourism
destination. Results of the study could help bring about positive images of the
Philippines against unfavorable impressions. However, given the dynamism of travel
motives and destination images, continuing research efforts and investigation is vital
for attaining quality and improvement.
Though this study was confined only to the identification of Australian tourists’
images and travel motivations in the Philippines as a destination from a positivist
viewpoint, future investigations may dwell on capturing the same delineated factors,
using qualitative techniques.
References
Caña, M., Cueto, Q. L.G., De Guzman, A. B., Fuchigami, K., ManaloL. R. & Yu, J. C. U. 2005.
Clientele recognition of library terms and concepts used by librarians: A case of an academic
library in the Philippines. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science 37 (4): 195 204.
Cohen, E. (2003). Images of Israel: a structural comparison along gender, ethnic,
denominational and national lines. Tourist Studies, 3(3): 253-280.
de Guzman, A., Leones, J., Tapia, K., Wong, W. & de Castro, B. (2005). Segmenting WOW
Philippines tourists’ motivations. Annals of Tourism Research, 33(3): 57-60.
Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. (2011). Travel Advise. Retrieved 18 November 2006
from http://www.gov.au./zw-cgi/views/Advise/Philippines
Department of Tourism.(2011). Tourist Arrivals. http://www.gov.ph/news/?i=6410
Giannone, M. (2002). Tourist local systems and territorial development. Journal of Quality Assurance
in Hospitality and Tourism, 3(1/2): 125-131.
Gunn, C. (1972). Vactionscape: designing tourist regious. Austin: University of Texas.
Jang, Y. & Zhao, J. (2005). Exploring customers’ motivation and satisfaction with international
casual-dining restaurants in Korea. International Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
Administration, 6(4): 91-106.
Jang, S. & Cai, L. (2002).Travel motivations and destination choice: a study of British outbound
market. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 13(3): 111-133.
Kim, K. & Jogaratnam, G. (2002). Travel motivations: a comparative study of Asian international
and domestic American college students. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 13(4): 61-
83.
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Allan B. de Guzman, Belinda V. de Castro, Josephine Fatima V. Calanog et al164
Kim, S. & Yoon, Y. (2003). The hierarchical effects of affective and cognitive components on
tourism destination image. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 14(2): 1-22.
Naoi, T. (2003). Tourists’ evaluation of destinations: the cognitive perspective. Journal of
Travel and Tourism, 14(1): 1-19.
Nicholson, R. & Pearce, D. (2001). Why do people attend events: a comparative analysis of visitor
motivations at Four South Island Events. Journal of Travel Research, 39(4): 449-460.
Pearce, P. & Lee, U. (2005). Developing the travel career approach to tourist motivation. Journal of
Travel Research, 43(3): 226-237.
Poria, Y, Reichel, A & Biran, A. (2006). Heritage site perceptions and motivations to visit. Journal
of Travel Research, 44(3): 318-326.
Qu, H. & Im, H. (2002). A study of Southeast Asia tourists’ perceptions of ser vice quality in the
San Francisco Bay Area. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 13(3): 35-60.
Rittichainuwat, B., Qu, H. & Leong, J. (2003). The collective impacts of a bundle of travel
determinants on repeat visitation. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, 27(2): 217-236.
Son, A. & Pearce, P. (2005). Multi-faceted image assessment: international students’ views of
Australia as a tourist destination. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 18(4): 21-35.
UNWTO Tourism Highlights. Retrieved 5 May 2012 from http://mkt.unwto.org/sites/ all/files/
docpdf/unwtohighlights11enlr.pdf.
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Email as a Customer Service Tool: An Investigation into Email Reply Quality of Malaysian Hotels 165
Asia-Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and Tourism
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012 pp. 165-177
ISSN 2289-1471
Correspondence: Noor Hazarina Hashim, Fakulti Pengurusan dan HRD, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
81110, Skudai, Malaysia. Email: m-hazarina@utm.my
Email as a Customer Service Tool:
An Investigation into Email Reply Quality of Malaysian Hotels
Noor Hazarina Hashim
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia
Abstract: This exploratory research applied the Diffusion of Innovations theory to
investigate email presence and examine the quality of email reply by 530 Malaysian hotels.
Of the 530 hotels, only 359 hotels provided email information on their website and 167
replied to the mock email. This study used content analysis technique to measure the quality
of email response based on 5P features: Prompt, Polite, Personal, Professional and
Promotional. Findings of this study found poor email reply quality, reflecting poor customer
service by Malaysian hotels. Malaysian hotels performed best in providing a polite opening
in their email and answering the questions and weakest on using email as a promotional
tool. Academically, this study helps generalise email diffusion study and the influence of
organisational characteristics with technology implementation. Suggestions to improve
hotel email use for customer service and marketing are also offerred.
Keywords: Email, customer service, service quality, hotels, diffusion of innovations, Malaysia
Introduction
As the most widely used and popular Internet technology, email is an important
customer service and relationship tool for businesses (Coussement & Van den Poel,
2008; Murphy, Schegg & Olaru, 2007). A survey by Econsultancy.com on UK consumer
market found 44% of consumers preferred using email to communicate but
frustratingly, only 33% found it being used effectively by business (Charlton, 2011).
Likewise, as a business correspondence, a customer email should be replied promptly,
Research Paper
Suggested citation: Hashim, N. H. (2012). Email as a customer service tool: An investigation
of Email reply quality by Malaysian hotels. Asia-Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and
Tourism, 1(2), 165-177.
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Noor Hazarina Hashim166
politely, using proper salutations and more importantly answering the enquiries (Murphy,
Olaru, Schegg & Frey, 2003). While a company could use automation, email
management software or other self-service technologies to increase responsiveness, it
is frustrating for a consumer to receive a general auto-generated reply with their
questions left unanswered. A manual reply to customer enquiries could be time
consuming for business; however, it provides a personal touch to fulfill costumer
needs. In the hotel industry where personal touch and hospitality is essential, an email
could be a critical selling point with customers. In just a click, customers could move
to another hotel if they experience a frustrating reply.
Based on Diffusion of Innovations (DOI) theory and hotel email studies, this
study investigates the adoption and implementation of email by Malaysian hoteliers.
Adoption refers to email presence while implementation relates to the presence of
email reply features. This study adds to the existing literature on email as a customer
service tool. Despite the proliferation of hotel Internet studies, most studies focus on
developed countries, with only limited research on developing countries such as Malaysia
(Hashim, Murphy, Purchase & O’Connor, 2010). Given the important role played by
the hotel sector within the Malaysian tourism industry and based on a number of
Internet studies on hotels in Malaysia, this study extends hotel Internet diffusion research
to Malaysian hotels.
This paper begins with a review on DOI theory followed by a review on previous
email studies on hotels. Next, this paper describes the methodology and discusses the
findings followed by the conclusion and implications of the study on the hospitality
industry.
Literature Review
Diffusion of Innovations
The Diffusion of Innovations (DOI) theory is well known for explaining innovation
adoption and implementation (Fichman, 2000; Rogers, 2003). Although different
terms could be in use, in most DOI literature, adoption generally refers to acquisition
while implementation refers to the assimilation of an innovation in an organisation
(Fichman, 2000; Jeyaraj, Rottman & Lacity, 2006). Non-domain specific studies applied
and tested this theory across fields such as education, agriculture, anthropology,
sociology, medicine and marketing (Rogers, 2003). The rise of the Internet in the past
decade has broadened the application of DOI into the e-commerce field (Dinlersoz
& Pereira, 2007; Zhu, Kraemer & Xu, 2006)
DOI has two research streams, adoption and diffusion modelling (Fichman,
2000; Rogers, 2003). For over half a century, the two research streams of the diffusion
of innovations (DOI) – adoption and diffusion modelling – have explained factors
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Email as a Customer Service Tool: An Investigation into Email Reply Quality of Malaysian Hotels 167
related to individual and organisational technology adoption and use (Fichman, 2000).
Adoption studies examine the presence of a technology in an organisation and diffusion
modelling investigates how organisations implement the technology in their work
processes. For instance, diffusion research in e-commerce found organisational and
environmental factors such as management support and industry pressure relates to
e-commerce adoption (Premkumar, 2003; Zhu et al., 2006) while compatibility with
the existing systems and technology affects the implementation rate of an innovation
within an organisation (Cooper & Zmud, 1990; Fichman, 1992).
Similarly, hotel Internet studies use the DOI to explain the relationships between
hotel characteristics such as size, rating and affiliation with Internet adoption and
implementation (Baloglu & Pekcan, 2006; Matzler, Pechlaner, Abfalter & Wolf, 2005;
Murphy et al., 2003; Siguaw, Enz & Namiasivayam, 2000). These studies measure
adoption based on email presence while implementation includes following basic
email reply guidelines. The results show strong support for relationships between
hotel characteristics with Internet adoption but are weak with Internet implementation.
Large, high rated and affiliated hotels lead in Internet adoption but hotels face
difficulties to provide quality email replies. For instance, a study of international upscale
hotels found only one out of two hotels replied their customer’s email within a day
(Schegg, Murphy & Leuenberger, 2003). Similarly, a study of Tunisian hotels found
less than 50% of the hotels replied to customer emails (Gherissi Labben, Schegg &
Murphy, 2003).
Email Use in the Hospitality and Tourism Industry
Email is an example of technology that meets Rogers’ (2003) criteria for rapid adoption,
e.g. relative advantage, compatibility, simplicity, trialability and observability. It is easy
to use and highly compatible with most software and hardware. Despite wide email
adoption, findings reflect poor email implementation in the hospitality industry (Gardini,
2007; Schegg et al., 2003). For instance, studies on Swiss (Frey, Schegg & Murphy,
2003), Tunisian (Gherissi Labben et al., 2003) and luxury chain hotels (Schegg et al.,
2003) found most hotels gave sloppy and inadequate replies. Similarly, Gardini’s (2007)
investigation on 111 German, Swiss and Austrian four- and five-star hotels found
non-chain hotels appeared more attentive and customer oriented whereas chain hotels
were more technical and formal in their email reply.
Studies assessed the quality of hotels’ email replies based on five Ps - Prompt,
Polite, Personal, Professional and Promotional - to profile proper email responses
(Murphy et al., 2003). Prompt means answering an email quickly (within 24 hours).
Polite includes using courteous openings such as ‘Dear’, thanking the person for their
interest, using please and a formal closing such as ‘Sincerely’ or ‘Best Regards’. Personal
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Noor Hazarina Hashim168
refers to addressing the sender by name, giving personalised answers and closing with
the sender’s name and title. Professional replies use proper grammar. Promotional
replies use a branded email address and signature file. The signature file may include
the sender’s name and title, company name, website and email address, physical address,
fax, phone and company slogan.
Several studies investigated hotel responsiveness and quality of email reply. Studies
found that hotels struggle to provide quality response to guests. Schegg et al. (2003)
investigated 491 hotels from 13 international hotel chains and found five-star hotels
had difficulty providing prompt, accurate and timely email response to their customers.
An investigation on 1643 Austrian hotels found significant differences in response
rate, response time and reply quality across hotel size, rating, location and between
off and high season (Matzler et al., 2005). In addition, the study found response
behaviour to be better during off-season than during high season. In contrast, Gardini
(2007) found non-chain hotels appeared more attentive and customer oriented whereas
chain hotels were more technical and formal in their email reply.
Guests sending emails to Swiss and Tunisian hotels have less than a one in ten
chance of receiving a prompt, polite and personal reply (Frey et al., 2003; Fux, Noti,
& Myrach, 2006; Gherissi Labben et al., 2003). Murphy & Tan (2003) who investigated
email management by Singapore travel agents discovered poor email customer service
with a seemingly high number of bounced emails. The study found one in four
chance of receiving a reply and three in 100 of receiving a proper email reply. Finally,
a study on 12 ASEAN National Tourism Organisations (NTOs) found poor email
management by the ASEAN NTOs. Less than one quarter, only 12 of the 46 emails
were replied to (Hashim, Murphy, & Kassim, 2007). Having completed the literature
review, the following section discusses the hypotheses.
Hypothesis Development
Studies found size as the variable most often related to technology adoption in
organisations (Jeyaraj et al., 2006; Rogers, 2003). Strong financial resources and the
pressure to maintain and support their market position accelerate technology adoption
in large organisations (Frambach & Schillewaert, 2002; Premkumar & Roberts, 1999).
For instance, large US hotels adopted more technology than small hotels did (Siguaw,
Enz et al., 2000). Similarly, a study of global hotels found that large hotels hired
external expertise to build their websites (Wei, Ruys, van Hoof & Combrink, 2001).
Studies on technology adoption in the hospitality industry support that hotels’
affiliation status (chain or independent) and star rating relate positively to technology
adoption (Murphy, Olaru, & Schegg, 2006; Murphy et al., 2003). For instance, US
luxury and chain hotels were early adopters of technology (Siguaw et al., 2000). A
Malaysian study on domain name branding found that high rated and affiliated hotels
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Email as a Customer Service Tool: An Investigation into Email Reply Quality of Malaysian Hotels 169
showed advanced Internet use by matching their website names and email addresses
(Hashim & Murphy, 2007). Thus:
Hypothesis 1: Malaysian hotels’ email adoption relates positively with hotel (i) size,
(ii) rating and (iii) affiliation.
Technology implementation rates differ among organisations. For instance, despite
wide adoption of Computer Aided Design technologies in the 1980s, after 12 years
the usage is still limited (Liker, Fleischer, & Arnsdorf, 1992). A review of studies on
hotels’ email use found that high rated, affiliated and large hotels used email better in
their internal and external communication than low rated, non-affiliated and small
hotels did (Jogaratnam & Tse, 2004; Wei et al., 2001). Similarly, previous hotel studies
found large, high rated and affiliated hotels had a higher response rate than the small,
low rated and non-affiliated hotels (Gherissi Labben et al., 2003; Matzler et al., 2005).
Extending the findings to Malaysian hotels, this study proposes:
Hypothesis 2: Malaysian hotels’ email response rate relates positively with hotel (i)
size, (ii) rating and (iii) affiliation.
Results from the studies help illustrate the two stages of organisational technology
adoption, initiation followed by implementation (Rogers, 2003; Zaltman et al., 1973).
Though the overall response quality was poor, previous hotel email studies found
quality of email replies differed across organisation size, category, location and linguistic
regions (Frey et al., 2003; Matzler et al., 2005; Schegg et al., 2006). Large, high rated
and affiliated hotels may have passed the initiation stage, demonstrated by their higher
response rates and email reply quality. Extending the findings to Malaysia hotels, this
study proposes;
Hypothesis 3: Malaysian hotels’ email response quality relates positively with hotel (i)
size, (ii) rating and (iii) affiliation.
Methods
The population was a census of 540 hotels registered with the Ministry of Tourism
Malaysia in 2009. A mail survey identified eight hotels to be no longer operating and
two hotels declined to participate, leaving the sample at 530 hotels. A search through
Google and Yahoo search identified 359 out of 530 or 67% hotels with an email
presence. Fourteen hotels used the same third party email, a company that managed
the hotels’ websites and email. Because this did not reflect genuine email use by the
hotels, this study excluded the fourteen hotels from the mystery email study, reducing
the sample to 345 hotels.
Similar to mystery shopping where a company sends mystery shoppers to evaluate
their service, this study used a mystery email to hotels. Mystery shopping, used
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Noor Hazarina Hashim170
extensively in retail and hospitality sectors, helps companies monitor their service
quality and identify areas needing improvement (Beck & Li, 2003; Wilson, 1998). The
mystery email asked the hotels to respond to a short message asking about special
rates and availability of a non-smoking room for two adults and two children during
the end-of-year holiday season.
A pre-test of 12 hotels in in other countries helped familiarise the researcher with
the process. The 345 emails were sent individually to avoid information overload and
spam filters (Murphy et al., 2003). Emails that failed to arrive due to server being
down or spelling errors were sent again the following day. Further, to eliminate
gender and country of origin biases, this study used a unisex English name and a
Yahoo email address ending in a global domain.
This study used content analysis and measured the quality of email response
based on 5Ps derived from hotels email studies - Prompt, Polite, Personal, Professional
and Promotional - to profile proper email responses (Matzler et al., 2005; Murphy et
al., 2003; Strauss & Hill, 2001). Table 1 describe the evaluation criteria of the 5Ps.
Copying the responses into a Microsoft Word document allowed the researcher
to investigate the presence of each feature in the response. Using Microsoft Word’s
search function, the researcher searched for words included in the 13 criteria such as
‘Thank you’, ‘Dear’ and any spelling or grammar errors in the reply. A coding sheet
helped the researcher record the presence of each features.
Features Description
Prompt Reply within 24 hours
Polite Open with ‘Dear’
Thanked the recipient
Used ‘Please’
Closed politely such as with ‘Best regards’
Personal Greeted recipient by name
Closed with sender’s name
Included sender’s title
Professional Answered question
Used proper English – No grammar and spelling error.
Provided a provisional booking
Promotion Signature file
Slogan or other promotional messages
Table 1.
Evaluation criteria for email reply quality
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Email as a Customer Service Tool: An Investigation into Email Reply Quality of Malaysian Hotels 171
Results
Email Adoption
A search of the 530 hotels from the Malaysian Accommodation Directory, Google
and Yahoo and information from the mail survey identified 359 or 67% hotels with
an email address. Three statistical tests - T-test for number of rooms, Kruskall Wallis
for rating and Chi Square for affiliation - indicated significant differences in email
across room size, rating and affiliation. Similar to other email studies, small, low
rated and non-affiliated hotels, large, high-rated and affiliated Malaysian hotels led in
email adoption, supporting Hypothesis 1. Table 2 shows the results on email adoption
and mystery email response rate.
Out of 345 emails sent, only 48% of the hotels replied to the mystery email (167
out of 345). Emails to one out of ten hotels (34 out of 345) bounced. As shown in
Table 1, the results failed to support Hypothesis 2(i) on the positive relationship between
size and email replies. However, the results supported Hypothesis 2(ii) on the positive
relationship between hotel rating with email replies. On average, large hotels responded
more to the mystery email than the small hotels did. As for rating, high rated hotels
responded significantly more to the mystery email than the low rated hotels did.
Almost six of ten high rated hotels replied to the mystery email. The results failed to
N Email T-test/Kruskall N Email T-test/Kruskall
adoption Wallis/ response Wallis/Chi
rate Chi Square rate Square and
and p-value p-value
Yes No Reply Did not
reply
Size
Average number 530 198 84 12.02, p<.001 345 227 181 1.514, p=.130
of rooms
Star rating (%)
One and Two 225 38 62 153.99, p<.001 80 32 46 5.20, p=.023
Three 148 87 13 122 49 43
Four and Five 157 98 2 143 57 39
Affiliation (%)
Affiliated 207 94 6 81.03, p<.001 182 48 46 0.995, p=.319
Non affiliated 323 54 46 163 48 37
Total 530 345
Table 2.
Email adoption and mystery email response rate by Malaysian hotels
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Noor Hazarina Hashim172
support Hypothesis 2(iii). The affiliated and non-affiliated hotels shared equal
percentages of email reply.
Email Reply Quality
Investigation on the email reply quality found Malaysian hotels scored the highest in
providing personal replies (77%) followed by politeness (72%). Most hotels (90%)
opened their email politely with ‘Dear’. About two out of three hotels answered the
email within 24 hours and thanked the recipient for the enquiry (64%). Over one in
two used (57%) ‘Please’ in their reply and three out of four hotels (75%) closed their
email politely, for example, with ‘Best regards’ or ‘Yours sincerely’. Almost three out
of four hotels (74%) greeted the recipient by name. Almost nine out of ten hotels
(87%) included the sender’s name, but only seven out of ten (70%) included their title
or position in the response. Nearly eight of ten hotels answered the questions (75%)
and over three out of five hotels (63%) answered with proper English. Sixty-five
percent of the hotels included a provisional booking offer in their reply. The hotels
performed the poorest in using email as a promotional tool with an average presence
of 36%. Forty-one percent of hotels included a signature file but only 30% of the
hotels included a slogan or other promotional message in their email. Table 3 shows
the percentage presence of each feature across the three categories of hotels.
Large hotels led significantly in implementation by providing quality email replies
except on one feature, thanking the recipient, where the small hotels led. Results on
star rating showed only five features with positive and significant relationship: using
‘please’, provisional booking, using signature file and promotional message. Two
features, using ‘please’ and including the sender’s title, showed a significant result but
in the opposite direction. The one- and two-star hotels led the three-star hotels on
these features. Similarly, hotel affiliation status showed a positive and significant
relationship on four email reply features, including the sender’s title, using proper
English, using a signature file and promotional message. Based on the results,
Hypothesis 3(i), (ii) and (iii)
on the positive relationship between hotel size, rating and
affiliation with email reply features was rejected.
Discussion and Conclusion
Using the two research streams from DOI theory (Rogers, 2003), adoption and
diffusion modelling, this study investigated Internet adoption and implementation by
Malaysian hotels. Adoption refers to email presence; implementation relates to the
presence of 13 email reply features. The adopter study showed a significant relationship
between hotel characteristics with email adoption. In line with the literature, large,
high rated, affiliated hotels led in email adoption (Murphy et al., 2003; Siguaw et al.,
2000; Wei et al., 2001).
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Email as a Customer Service Tool: An Investigation into Email Reply Quality of Malaysian Hotels 173
Percentage Presence 64 90 64 50 75 74 87 70 75 63 61 41 30
Average With feature 242 233 219 249 233 233 231 252 228 247 266 315 301
number Without feature 200 165 239 197 208 208 191 168 222 192 151 166 195
of T-statistic 36.5 46.9 36.5 37.2 37.1 37.0 43.7 36.5 37.1 36.5 36.4 41.7 47.8
rooms p-value <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001 <.001
Star One and two 58 100 62 39 73 8 1 89 58 73 5 8 27 12 8
rating Three 57 83 5 8 54 6 7 7 0 80 5 5 75 48 6 5 23 1 7
(% Four and Five 71 91 69 65 82 75 93 84 75 7 5 78 63 47
K/W 1.36 0.001 0.04 0.85 0.16 2.36 0.001 8.91 0.02 4.57 2.21 29.33 21.35
p-value .145 .053 .402 .043 .132 .553 .083 <.001 .974 .004 <.001 <.001 <.001
Affilia- Affiliated 68 90 65 60 76 69 88 80 75 71 71 60 46
tion (% Non-affiliated 60 90 63 5 3 73 80 87 58 75 5 4 60 19 13
Chi square 0.69 0.00 0.02 0.43 .16 1.19 0.00 4.46 0.00 2.29 1.11 14.66 10.67
p-value .122 .492 .421 .179 .686 .062 .487 .001 .481 .016 .068 <.001 <.001
Prompt - Replied
within 24 hours
Polite - Opened with
‘Dear’
Polite - Thanked the
recipient
Polite - Used ‘Please’
Polite - Closed with
‘Best regards’
Personal - Greeted
recipient with name
Personal - Closed with
sender’s name
Personal - Include
sender’s title
Professional -
Answered question
Professional - Used
proper English
Professional - Include
Provisional booking
Promotion - Include
Signature file
Promotion - Include
Slogan and other
promotional messages
Table 3.
Hotel profile and percentage of email reply quality features presence
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Noor Hazarina Hashim174
The diffusion modelling study, however, failed to support the hypotheses on a
significant relationship between hotel characteristics with email reply quality. Despite a
50% email adoption rate, the results showed poor email and website implementation
by the Malaysian hotels. This finding supports the arguments that widespread adoption
does not necessarily lead to widespread implementation and this indicates assimilation
gap problems (Fichman & Kemerer, 1999). Emails of about 10% (34 of 359 hotels,
bounced, and almost half of the hotels (42%) failed to reply.
Similarly, this study found 24% of the 167 hotels that responded to the mystery
email failed to reply within 24 hours. The last reply arrived two weeks later. Hotels
that do not respond quickly to email enquiries neglect an opportunity to attract
additional guests (Murphy et al., 2003). Customers might email several hotels
simultaneously. Slow and incomplete replies might exclude a hotel from the set of
alternatives in the final decision process.
The results showed email as a popular online medium by Malaysian hotels. Efficient
email handling is a critical business success factor (Coussement & Van den Poel, 2008).
As in the case of offline customer service in traditional media such as the telephone
and surface mail, evaluating online customer services is important. Hotels should
consider mystery emails to assess e-service features such as email correspondence for
online complaints and enquiries. The assessment will provide hotels with details on
the strengths and weaknesses of their e-services, such as the level of responsiveness
and quality of reply based on the 5Ps – prompt, professional, personal, polite and
promotional.
There are several recommendations that hoteliers could take for better email
management. First, hotels should provide email addresses but must avoid problems
such as bounced emails, low reply quality or worse, no reply to enquiries as these
harm the hotel’s service quality. Second, hotels should train their staff on email policies
(Hashim & Murphy, 2007) or use automatic email classification to improve their
online customer services (Coussement & Van den Poel, 2008). Finally, hotels could
analyse their email response and address common email questions through an FAQ
section on their websites (Murphy et al., 2003; Schegg et al., 2003).
There are 2256 hotels in Malaysia (The Ninth Malaysia Plan, 2006-2010). However,
given no valid hotel list, this study limited its population to a census of the 540 hotels
registered with the Ministry of Tourism Malaysia. Future studies could include more
hotels for a comprehensive view on Malaysian hotels’ Internet use. Similarly, extending
and comparing the population to other locations, particularly developing countries,
could improve the generalisability and relevance of the results. Similarly, future studies
could use quality of email replies to investigate relationship with hotel performance
metrics such as sales and online reservations. Do hotels with higher website features
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Email as a Customer Service Tool: An Investigation into Email Reply Quality of Malaysian Hotels 175
and good email replies generate higher reservations than hotels with fewer website
features and lower email reply quality? This could be an area for further research.
In closing, as email continues to be important for hotel sales and online customer
services (O’Connor & Murphy, 2004), good quality email reply (Murphy et al., 2003)
is essential to build and retain customer trust and confidence. This study found that
Malaysian hotels provide poor email replies indicating poor customer relationship
management. It is time for hoteliers to evaluate the returns from their email investment.
If Malaysian hotels are to succeed in their online business, addressing these weaknesses
is an essential priority.
References
Baloglu, S. & Pekcan, Y. A. (2006). The website design and internet site marketing practices of
upscale and luxury hotels in Turkey. Tourism Management, 27(1), 171-176.
Beck, J. & Li, M. (2003). Mystery shopping in lodging properties as a measurement of service
quality. Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality & Tourism, 4(1/2), 1-21.
Charlton, G. (2011). 44% prefer email for customer service: survey. Retrieved 31 January, 2012,
from http://econsultancy.com/us/blog/7999-44-prefer-email-for-customer-service
Cooper, R. B. & Zmud, R. W. (1990). Information technology implementation research: a
technological diffusion approach. Management Science, 36(2), 123-139.
Coussement, K. & Van den Poel, D. (2008). Improving customer complaint management by
automatic email classification using linguistic style features as predictors. Decision Support
Systems, 44(4), 870-882.
Dinlersoz, E. M. & Pereira, P. (2007). On the diffusion of electronic commerce. International
Journal of Industrial Organization, 25(3), 541-574.
Fichman, R. G. (1992). Information technology diffusion: a review of empirical research. Paper
presented at the 13th International Conference on Information System, Dallas.
Fichman, R. G. (2000). The diffusion and assimilation of information technology innovations.
framing the domains of IT management. In R. W. Zmud (Ed.), Projecting the Future through
the Past (pp. 105-128). Cincinnati, Ohio: Pinnaflex Publishing.
Fichman, R. G. & Kemerer, C. F. (1999). The illusory diffusion of innovation: an examination
of assimilation gaps. Information Systems Research, 10(3), 255-275.
Frambach, R. T. & Schillewaert, N. (2002). Organizational innovation adoption: A multi-level
framework of determinants and opportunities for future research. Journal of Business Research,
55(2), 163-176.
Frey, S., Schegg, R. & Murphy, J. (2003). E-mail customer service in the Swiss hotel industry.
Tourism and Hospitality Research, 4(3), 197-212.
Fux, M., Noti, M. & Myrach, T. (2006). Quality of feedback to email requests - an explorative
study in alpine tourism destinations. In M.Hitz, M.Sigala & J.Murphy (Eds.), Information
and communication technologies in tourism 2006, proceedings of ENTER 2006 (pp. 370-382).
Lausanne, Switzerland: Springer-Verlag.
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Noor Hazarina Hashim176
Gardini, M. A. (2007). A study on online sales efficiency of upscale and luxury hotels in Germany,
Switzerland and Austria. Advances in Hospitality and Leisure, 3, 173-192.
Gherissi Labben, T., Schegg, R. & Murphy, J. (2003). E-mail customer service in the Tunisian
hotel industry. Tourism Review, 58(2), 18-26.
Hashim, N. H. & Murphy, J. (2007). Branding on the Internet: Evolving domain name usage
among Malaysian hotels. Tourism Management, 28(2), 621-624.
Hashim, N. H., Murphy, J. & Kassim, A. (2007). ASEAN NTOs online: websites and email use.
Paper presented at the Council for Australian University Tourism and Hospitality Education,
Manly, Sydney.
Hashim, N. H., Murphy, J., Purchase, S. & O’Connor, P. (2010). Website and email adoption by
Malaysian hotels. [doi: 10.1016/j.ijhm.2009.05.003]. International Journal of Hospitality
Management, 29(1), 194-196.
Jeyaraj, A., Rottman, J. W. & Lacity, M. C. (2006). A review of predictors, linkages, and biases in
IT innovation adoption. Journal of Information Technology, 21, 1-23.
Jogaratnam, G. & Tse, E. C.-Y. (2004). The entrepreneurial approach to hotel operation: evidence
from the Asia Pacific hotel industry. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly,
45(3), 248-258.
Liker, J. K., Fleischer, M. & Arnsdorf, D. (1992). Fulfilling the promises of CAD. Sloan Management
Review, 33(3), 74-86.
Matzler, K., Pechlaner, H., Abfalter, D. & Wolf, M. (2005). Determinants of response to customer
e-mail enquiries to hotels: evidence from Austria. Tourism Management, 26(2), 249-259.
Murphy, J., Olaru, D. & Schegg, R. (2006). Investigating the evolution of hotel Internet adoption.
Information Technology & Tourism, 8(3/4), 161-177.
Murphy, J., Olaru, D., Schegg, R. & Frey, S. (2003). The bandwagon effect: Swiss hotels’ website
and e-mail management. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 44(1), 71-87.
Murphy, J., Schegg, R., & Olaru, D. (2007). Quality cluster: dimensions of email responses by
luxury hotels. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 26(3), 743-747.
Murphy, J. & Tan, I. (2003). Journey to nowhere? Electronic customer service by travel agents in
Singapore. Tourism Management, 24(5), 543-550.
The Ninth Malaysia Plan, 2006-2010. Economic Planning Unit, Office of The Prime Minister of
Malaysia.
O’Connor, P. & Murphy, J. (2004). A review of research on information technology in the
hospitality industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 23(5), 473-484.
Premkumar, G. (2003). A meta analysis of research on information technology implementation
in small business. Journal of Organizational Computing and Electronic Commerce, 13(2), 91-121.
Premkumar, G. & Roberts, M. (1999). Adoption of new information technologies in rural small
businesses. Omega, 27(4), 467-484.
Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of innovations (5th ed.). New York: The Free Press.
Schegg, R., Murphy, J. & Leuenberger, R. (2003). Five-star treatment? E-mail customer service by
international luxury hotels. Information Technology and Tourism, 6(2), 99-112.
Siguaw, J. A., Enz, C. A. & Namiasivayam, K. (2000). Adoption of information technology in
U.S. hotels: strategically driven objectives. Journal of Travel Research, 39(2), 192-201.
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Email as a Customer Service Tool: An Investigation into Email Reply Quality of Malaysian Hotels 177
Strauss, J. & Hill, D. J. (2001). Consumer complaints by emails: an exploratory investigation of
corporate responses and customer reactions. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 15(1), 63-73.
Wei, S., Ruys, H. F., van Hoof, H. B. & Combrink, T. E. (2001). Uses of the Internet in the global
hotel industry. Journal of Business Research, 54(3), 235-241.
Wilson, A. M. (1998). The role of mystery shopping in the measurement of service performance.
Managing Service Quality, 8(6), 414-420.
Zaltman, G., Duncan, R. & Holbek, J. (1973). Innovations and organizations. New York: John
Wiley.
Zhu, K., Kraemer, K. L. & Xu, S. (2006). The process of innovation assimilation by firms in
different countries: a technology diffusion perspective on e-business. Management Science,
52(10), 1557-1577.
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Factors Determining Choice of Full Service Airlines & Low Cost Carriers: The Case of Malaysia 179
Asia-Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and Tourism
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012 pp. 179-194
ISSN 2289-1471
Correspondence: Tuck Sai Boey, Talyor’s University, Lakeside Campus, No.1, Jalan Talyor’s, 47500
Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia.
Email: tucksai.boey@taylors.edu.my
Factors Determining Choice of Full Service Airlines and Low Cost
Carriers: The Case of Malaysia
Tuck Sai Boey
Taylor’s University, Malaysia
Erdogan H. Ekiz
Al-Faisal University, Saudi Arabia
Yusniza Kamarulzaman
University of Malaya, Malaysia
Abstract: Air transport is a vital component of the overall travel and tourism industry, and
air services have played a major role in the growth of tourism in many parts of the world.
Particularly, increasing competition and technology advances have created a challenging
environment for airline companies. Thus knowing passenger preferences has become
more important than ever. Keeping this in mind, this study attempts to determine the
factors that influence the choice of either full service airlines or low cost carriers by passengers
in Malaysia. Results from a study indicate that ‘safety’ is the most important factor in
choosing full service airlines. This paper presents a detailed discussion on the results obtained
and the implications for the passenger airlines industry in Malaysia.
Keywords: Full service airlines, low cost carriers, choice, Malaysia
Introduction
Air transport is a vital component of the total travel and tourism industry, and air
services have played a major role in the growth of tourism in many parts of the
Research Paper
Suggested citation: Boey, T.S., Ekiz, E.H. & Kamarulzaman, Y. (2012). Factors determining
choice of full service airlines and low cost carriers: The case of Malaysia. Asia-Pacific Journal of
Innovation in Hospitality and Tourism, 1(2), 179-194.
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Tuck Sai Boey, Erdogan H. Ekiz & Yusniza Kamarulzaman180
world (Nadiri, Hussain, Ekiz & Erdogan, 2008). Particularly with increasing competition
and technology advances, air transportation has become more affordable to a wider
array of tourists (Sultan & Simpson, 2000). According to the United Nations World
Tourism Organization (UNWTO, 2010), in the year 2020 there will be 1.6 billion
international tourist arrivals with a long-term annual forecasted growth rate of 4.1 %
through 2020. Of these 1.6 billion tourists, 1.2 billion will be intra-regional and 378
million will be long-haul travellers using air transportation including both full service
airlines as well as low cost carriers.
This forecast suggests that the airline industry will play an increasingly important
role in travel, especially for destinations like Malaysia and Hong Kong which are
considered to be on the airline crossroads (Atalik, 2007). Keeping this in mind, this
study attempts to determine the factors that influence the choice of full service airlines
and low cost carriers in Malaysia. In recent years, full service airlines have been losing
their market share to low cost carriers in some routes. Low cost carriers have proven
to be a major competitor to full service airlines in Malaysia. Although there have been
studies done on full service airlines and low cost carriers in many part of the world,
none have been done in the case of Malaysia, especially between Malaysia Airlines and
Air Asia. This study attempts to highlight the underlying success factors of the airlines
in Malaysia. By identifying these factors, it will assist airlines to identify their markets
and cater towards their respective market segments more effectively. It will also provide
useful suggestions to airlines in Malaysia to evaluate their position in the industry and
develop an effective marketing strategy. In light of this, the present study attempts to
look into factors that influence the choice of carriers between leisure and business
travellers. Subsequent to knowing the factors influencing choice of airlines, that is,
full service and low cost carriers(LCC), can the airlines come up with tailor-made
strategies to attract and retain a pool of loyal passengers.
Literature Review
The Case of the Malaysian Airline Industry
The liberalisation of the airline industry in Malaysia has led to a competitive landscape
between our legacy airline, Malaysia Airlines (MH) which is a full service airline and
the entry of Air Asia (AK) in 2002 as a competitor to Malaysia Airlines in the domestic
routes. Malaysia Airlines and Air Asia are chosen for this study because these two
airlines are direct competitors in the domestic market and on some international
routes. Both Malaysia Airlines and Air Asia fly to all the major domestic destinations
in Malaysia and use the same airports in the destinations they serve.
Air Asia started its operations in Malaysia in 2002. The brand name, Air Asia, is
associated with ‘low fares, quality service and dependability’ (Air Asia Annual Report,
2009). By 2010, Air Asia was flying to more than 60 destinations (on 130 routes)
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Factors Determining Choice of Full Service Airlines & Low Cost Carriers: The Case of Malaysia 181
across three continents: Asia, Europe and Australia. On the other hand, Malaysia
Airlines which is classified as a full service airline or full fare airline (Thanasupsin,
Chaichana & Pliankarom, 2010) recorded a net profit of RM598,683,000. Malaysia
Airlines had a complete monopoly in the domestic air but with the entry of Air Asia
in December 2001 as a low cost carrier, the nature of the Malaysian air travel industry
has changed into one that is more competitive. There has been very little data available
on consumer behaviour and factors influencing business and leisure travellers in their
choice of airlines in this closed market. However, with the recent emergence of Air
Asia, the domestic passenger air transport now operates in a duopoly market. There
is now a choice of carriers for passengers in Malaysia travelling to domestic destinations,
even if it is only to selected destinations.
Study Dimensions and Tested Hypotheses
When passengers purchase an airline seat, they are paying for more than just a seat in
the aircraft. They also purchase the service besides the mode of transportation.
Perception of benefits of consuming the product or service, attitudes towards it, and
the resulting behaviour are often described as being closely linked to one another
(Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). When customers evaluate the benefits of either the full
service airlines or low cost carriers, it is bound to have an effect on their attitude,
which in turn affects their purchase behaviour. Purchase and usage, however, are two
different dimensions and the key benefits derived from each situation are usually quite
different. In order to attract a consumer’s attention, benefits or attributes of using
full service airlines and low cost carriers such as price, safety, availability of frequent
flyer membership, the airports used, network connections, and service may be
important. However, during consumption of the service, the information provided
about how to use the service is a key benefit. Fishbein & Ajzen’s (1981) well-established
theory of reasoned action specifically models intentions as better predictors of
behaviour than attitudes towards an object (in this case, an airline service). Researchers
undertaking service studies have also used intention of future communications as a
guide to measure quality and satisfaction performance (Cronin & Taylor, 1992).
Fishbein & Ajzen (1975, p.12) wrote, “Whereas attitude refers to a person’s
favourable or unfavourable evaluation of an object, beliefs represent the information
he has about the object.” They also postulated that “belief will lead to behavioural
intentions.” It is the perceptions of price, safety, frequent flyer membership,
promotions, network connections, service of either full service airlines or low cost
carriers that lead to their purchase intentions. In the theory of reasoned action, Fishbein
& Ajzen (1975) hypothesise that a person’s behaviour is strongly influenced by his
beliefs, attitudes, and intentions towards performing that behaviour. So our purchase
behaviour is influenced by our beliefs, attitudes and intentions. The conceptual model
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Tuck Sai Boey, Erdogan H. Ekiz & Yusniza Kamarulzaman182
that is used is consistent with traditional attitude theory, where performance beliefs
affect behavioural intentions through the attitudes they help devise (Fishbein &
Ajzen,1975). This model postulates that customer loyalty intentions are the result of
customer satisfaction.
Price
The pricing of scheduled airline fares is a complex matter and most passengers have
little or no idea how this is done (Driver, 2001). The price charged by airlines per mile
is not standard for all passengers in a particular flight or when compared with miles
flown on other routes. This is because there are many types of fare. This enables the
airlines to practice price discrimination – by having different requirements or conditions
for each type of fare. This done by determining the amount of flexibility the type of
ticket has, the period of time advance purchase required and the types of passengers,
such as business or leisure travellers. When the type of ticket purchased has flexibility,
it enables passengers on a scheduled flight to make changes to switch to another
flight without notice or penalty. Ticket flexibility enables a passenger to book a flight
almost on demand. The desirability of having flexibility depends on the type of
traveller we are talking about and the availability of alternative flights. This type of
flexibility is meant for the business traveller whose transportation cost is borne by the
employer. The demand by business travellers is relatively inelastic and therefore it
enables airlines to charge business travellers higher prices (Driver, 1999).
H1: Price has a significant influence on the choice of flying with a full service airline
or a low cost carrier in Malaysia
Safety
Safety is one aspect of the airline’s product that should not be compromised. Marketing
with a true consumer orientation would be pre-eminently sensitive to this issue. Yet,
airlines are not homogeneous even in this vital aspect and there is discussion of the
publication of a ‘blacklist’ to inform consumer choice (Knorr, 1997). In 1997, the
International Civil Airline Organization (ICAO) began to seek increased authority to
supervise the implementation of aviation safety and security standards worldwide. It
is currently working with International Air Transport Association (IATA) in the
publication of the progress of airlines in implementing safety and security measures,
and “every link in the aviation chain” in meeting the potential hazard presented by the
millennium bug (Rendell, 1998). Safety record of the airline is ranked as the most
important variable for all respondents (Baisya & Sarkar, 2004). There is further concern
over the quality (service and safety) of new, low-cost start-up airlines (Rose & Justin,
2005) in the face of the competitive environment and cost cutting measures.
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Factors Determining Choice of Full Service Airlines & Low Cost Carriers: The Case of Malaysia 183
H2: Safety record of the airlines has a significant influence on the choice of flying
with a full service airline or a low cost carrier in Malaysia
Frequent Flyer Programs
In the passenger airline market, customer loyalty programs are in the form of frequent
flyer programs. It was first introduced by American Airlines in 1981, and since then it
had been replicated by all major airlines (Long & Schiffman, 2000). Frequent flyer
programs provide upgrades for passengers; enables passengers to collect points (air
miles) in exchange for free trips, exchange for hotel room nights, or redeem gift
items. The main motives for airlines to institute a frequent flyer program are to (i)
generate brand loyalty, (ii) create product differentiation and/or, (iii) create a database
of members’ demographic profile and travel patterns (Toh & Hu, 1988). After seeing
the success of the American Airlines frequent flyer programs, other airlines quickly
introduced their own versions with theirs being more generous than that of the
competitors. However, frequent flyer programs have proven to be costly for airlines
to sustain. The revenues lost from frequent flyer programs in 1988 was estimated at
USD1.24 billion (Toh & Hu, 1988). Frequent flyer programs are basically financial
rewards that are based on the passengers’ relationship with the airline. Low cost
carriers do not have any form of frequent flyer programs where passengers can
accumulate points to exchange for free flights, upgrades, hotel room nights, gifts etc.
H3: The availability of frequent flyer programs has a significant influence on the
choice of either a full service airlines or a low cost carrier in Malaysia.
Promotion
All airlines have some form of promotional activities for their products. They need
to promote their product to either the mass market or their target market. Promotion
is one of the 4Ps of marketing (Kotler, 2003). “Sales promotion consists of a diverse
collection of incentive tools, mostly short term, designed to stimulate quicker or
greater purchase of particular products or services by consumers or the trade” (Sidney,
1971).The tools for sales promotion for consumer promotion include coupons, cash
refund offers, prices-off, premiums, prizes, patronage rewards, etc. Much of the
promotion carried out by Air Asia is consumer promotion because Air Asia targets
the consumer directly through their online booking engine. Malaysia Airlines, as a full
service airline, uses a network of travel agents to market their products. Trade
promotion methods used by Malaysia Airlines include rebates for tickets sold, free
tickets, annual target incentives, prices-off, advertising and display allowances and
sponsorship of events. A company must first establish its objectives of carrying out
sales promotion and then select the most appropriate tools of sales promotion that
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Tuck Sai Boey, Erdogan H. Ekiz & Yusniza Kamarulzaman184
most effectively, efficiently and economically carries out the task. The objective of
sales promotion is to increase sales and market share in the short run, but it does have
a limited effect in the long run. Marketers face a number of challenges in most forms
of sales promotion, especially the high costs of carrying out such programs. Low
cost carriers carry out online sales promotion either subtly or overtly. They have
extremely low fares but the number is usually limited and on certain flights only. Full
service airlines offer airfare promotion based on the length of travel and group size.
From a promotional point of view, marketers for travel products like airline seats
need to ensure that an Internet search for information about travel products will lead
to a useful and positive image about their company’s product or destination’s image.
Information that users come across should create awareness and arouse interest while
creating a favourable image of the company’s offerings or destination’s perceptions
(Wen, 2009).
H4: The use of promotional programmes by airlines has a significant influence on
the choice of either a full service airlines or a low cost carrier in Malaysia.
Strategic Alliances
A major attraction of using full service airlines is the ability to interline with other
carriers at its hub airport. A study done by O’Connell & Williams (2005) found that
the ability of the carrier to leverage network connections enables it to attract a high
percentage of passengers (36.7% for Malaysia Airlines, a full service airlines) particularly
those who wish to connect seamlessly. Low cost carriers operate mostly from point-
to-point destinations only. These carriers explicitly state that they will not be held
responsible if passengers are unable to make their connections even if they are having
a connecting flight with the same carrier. When the passenger fails to make a connecting
flight, they will have to purchase another ticket. However, travellers are willing to take
such a risk (O’Connell & Williams, 2005). The advantage of flying full service airlines
especially one that belongs to one of the global alliances, such as Sky Team, OneWorld
or Star Alliance, is the ability to have access to a wider network of destinations
enabling the passenger to fly ‘seamlessly’. It was found that passengers like to have
flights serving a large number of cities. This could be due to a preference for a one-
stop shopping centre for their travel arrangements, without having to take a connecting
flight or to transfer from one form of transport to another. (Oyewole, Sankaran &
Choudhury, 2007).
H5: When the airlines have a strategic alliance with other airlines, it does have a
significant influence on the choice of either a full service airlines or a low cost carrier
in Malaysia.
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Factors Determining Choice of Full Service Airlines & Low Cost Carriers: The Case of Malaysia 185
Service Quality
Research into airline service quality has increased since the relationship with passenger
satisfaction and profitability has been established (Heskett, Sasser & Schlesinger,1997).
The quality of airline service plays an important role in a business strategy of
differentiation (Tiernan & Waguespack, 2008). According to Tierman et al. (2008),
this has become more important not only recently but will also be in future as full
service airlines and low cost carriers seek to differentiate themselves further. Whereas
low cost carriers seek to differentiate their product in the market through price
leadership, full service airlines seek to pursue a full service differentiation strategy
emphasising hub and spoke network using primary airports, having frequent flyer
programs and affiliation with global alliances.
H6: The services provided by the airlines have a significant influence on the choice of
either a full service airline or a low cost carrier in Malaysia.
Based on the discussion in relevant literature, six hypotheses have been created
and tested in the present study.
Price
Safety
Frequent Flyer
Promotion
Alliances
Service Quality
Carrier
Choice
H1
H2
H3
H4
H5
H6
Methods
Based on the literature reviewed, the researcher developed the questionnaire, using
scales that have already been validated in previous research, as can be seen from Table
1 which summarises the items used in each scale, as well as the authors as reference
variable measures. All items are measured by using a five point Likert scale ranging
from ‘Strongly Disagree’ (=1), ‘Disagree’ (=2), ‘Neutral’ (=3), ‘Agree’ (=4) to ‘Strongly
Agree’ (=5). The data was computed using SPSS 15.0, to check for normality,
significance and correlation.
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Tuck Sai Boey, Erdogan H. Ekiz & Yusniza Kamarulzaman186
Variable measurement Source Number of items Type of variable
Price Driver (1999) 5 Independent
Safety (perceive risk) Flannery (2001) 4 Independent
Customer loyalty Whyte (2002) 4 Independent
Promotions Driver (1999) 5 Independent
Strategic alliance Rajasekar & Fouts (2009) 4 Independent
Service quality US Department of 8 Independent
Transportation (2002)
Carrier choice D e Pelsmacker, Driessen 9 Dependent
& Rayp(2006)
Table 1.
Variables tested and their sources
The data for this study were collected by a structured questionnaire targeting 450
conveniently selected respondents. Convenience sampling was chosen because this is
the cheapest and easiest method to get respondents. The questionnaire was distributed
in Seremban, Nilai, and the Klang Valley. These areas were chosen because it is the
most densely populated area in Malaysia, with a population exceeding 6.7 million in
2005, and is expected to exceed 8.5 million in 2020. More than 50% of the
questionnaires were distributed to college students. Although college students are not
representative of the exact population, they are often used for many cross-cultural
studies (Roth & Romeo, 1992; Martin& Eroglu, 1993). The college student population
is highly generalised due to its diversity (Ozsomer, Bodur & Cavusgill, 1991). Although
a pre-planned 450 sets of questionnaire wereprinted, only 400 were distributed, and
only 376 were returned with a response rate of 83.5%.
Findings
The demographic characteristics of the respondents of both full service airlines and
low cost carriers of this study are tabulated and shown in Table 2. There were a total
for 207 respondents for full service airlines and 143 for the low cost carrier.
There were altogether 207 respondents for full service airlines. Respondents were
mostly female (59.4%), younger than 30 years old (65.2%), Chinese (43.5%), single
(68.1%), had a diploma or bachelor degree (62.8%) and were full time students
(55.1%). Demographic characteristics of the respondents for LCC were similar.
Respondents were mostly female (50.3%), between 21-40 years old (58.4%), Chinese
(45.5%), single (74.1%), had a diploma or bachelors degree (57.4%) and were full
time students (50.3%).Churchill (1979) suggested that before testing any hypothesis in
any quantitative study, an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) through Cronbach’s alpha
coefficient and item-to-total correlations should be performed to verify the factorial
structure, reliability and consistency of the instrument used. Researchers are encouraged
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Factors Determining Choice of Full Service Airlines & Low Cost Carriers: The Case of Malaysia 187
to eliminate any items even dimensions/factors that do not fit the theoretical model.
In the case of the present study, 39 items developed by previous researchers (Driver,
1999; Flannery, 2001; Whyte, 2002; Rajasekar & Fouts, 2009; De Pelsmacker et al.,
2006) were found to be consistent, reliable and valid.
More specifically, the values of the coefficient alpha ranged from 0.68 to 0.96 for
seven factors which are above the cut-off value (0.70) recommended by Nunnally &
Full Service Airlines (N=207) Low Cost Carrier (N=143)
Gender N% N%
Male 83 40.1 71 49.7
Female 123 59.4 72 50.3
Missing value 1 0.5 0 0
Age group
Below 21 years 86 41.5 50 35
21 - 30 years 49 23.7 55 38.5
31 - 40 years 28 13.5 27 18.9
41 - 50 years 32 15.5 7 4.9
51 and above 12 5.9 4 2.8
Ethnic group
Malay 45 21.8 36 25.2
Chinese 90 43.5 65 45.5
Indian 38 18.4 23 16.1
Others 34 16.5 19 13.2
Marital Status
Single 141 68.1 106 74.1
Married 63 30.4 36 25.2
Divorced/Widow 3 1.5 1 0.07
Highest level of education
Secondary school 50 24.2 38 26.6
Diploma 64 30.9 39 27.3
Bachelors degree 66 31.9 43 30.1
Post graduate 19 9.2 17 11.9
Others 8 3.9 6 4.2
Occupation
Professional 25 12.1 27 18.9
Manager 13 6.3 2 1.4
Executive 31 15 16 11.2
Clerical staff 10 4.8 16 11.2
Full time student 114 55.1 72 50.3
Others 14 6.8 6 4.2
Table 2.
Demographic characteristics
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Tuck Sai Boey, Erdogan H. Ekiz & Yusniza Kamarulzaman188
Bernstein (1994). When all the items in the survey instrument were considered, the
coefficient alpha value was found to be 0.83, well above the suggested figure of 0.70.
As for the reliability coefficients for each variable in the study, coefficient alphas were
found to be significant: price (0.68), safety (0.73), promotions (0.88), loyalty programs
(0.72), strategic alliance (0.83), service quality (0.74) and choice decision (0.96).
Multiple regression analysis was carried out to test the hypothesised relationships.
Price, safety, promotions, loyalty programs, strategic alliance and service quality were
taken as independent variables and choice decision as the dependent variable. Multiple
regression analyses were first confirmed by testing the assumptions of normality,
linearity, homoscedasticity, and independence of residuals (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996).
In addition, there was no evidence of any multicollinearity problem, meaning that
each conditioning index is lower then 30, and at least two variance proportions were
lower than 0.50 (Hair, Anderson, Tatham & Black, 1995). The independent variables
jointly explain 46% of the variance (R2) on ‘choice decision’(Table 3).
The results demonstrate that safety and service quality exert significant positive
effects on ‘choice decision’ in full service airlines (=0.16, t-value=3.912) and (=0.14,
t-value=2.177) respectively. These results indicate that the hypotheses H2 (safety =>
choice decision) and H6 (service quality => choice decision) are supported in the case
of full service airlines.
Multiple R= 0.68 R2= 0.46 Adjusted R2= 0.49 Standard error= 0.5876
F= 33.614 p<0.01
Dependent variable: Choice decision (CHO)
Independent variables: Price (PRI)
Safety (SAF)
Promotions (PRO)
Loyalty programs (LOY)
Strategic alliance (ALL)
Service quality (QUA)
Independent variables Beta T-value Significance
PRI 0.057a0.846 0.399 b
SAF 0.167 3.912 0.003
PRO 0.064 0.823 0.412
LOY 0.033 0.476 0.634
ALL 0.095 1.155 0.250
QUA 0.149 2.177 0.002
Table 3.
Multiple regression analysis results for full service airlines
Notes: aStandardised coefficient; bp<0.05
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Factors Determining Choice of Full Service Airlines & Low Cost Carriers: The Case of Malaysia 189
Multiple R= 0.51 R2= 0.37 Adjusted R2= 0.39 Standard error= 0.678
F= 21.721 p<0.01
Dependent variable: Choice decision (CHO)
Independent variables: Price (PRI)
Safety (SAF)
Promotions (PRO)
Loyalty programs (LOY)
Strategic alliance (ALL)
Service quality (QUA)
Independent variables Beta T-value Significance
PRI 0.153a3.842 0.002b
SAF 0.045 0.491 0.624
PRO 0.035 0.378 0.706
LOY 0.175 2.718 0.004
ALL 0.161 2.317 0.022
QUA 0.039 0.369 0.713
Table 4.
Multiple regression analysis results for low cost carriers
Notes: aStandardised Coefficient, bp<0.05
Table 4 presents the results of the multiple regression analysis with LCC data.
The results demonstrate that price, strategic alliances and loyalty exert significant positive
effects on choice decision for low cost carriers (=0.15, t-value=3.842), (=0.17, t-
value=2.718) and (=0.16, t-value=2.317) respectively. These results indicate that the
hypotheses H1 (price => choice decision), H4 (loyalty => choice decision) and H5
(strategic alliances => choice decision) are supported in the case of low cost carries.
The independent variables jointly explain 37% of the variance (R2) on choice decision.
Discussion and Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to determine the factors that influence the choice of
airlines in Malaysia. This study therefore attempts to identify the factors that influence
consumers’ choice of full service or low cost carriers in Malaysia. Knowing the
factor or factors that influence consumers choice would be of interest to full service
airlines and low cost carriers in their attempt to reach their target market. The research
framework-hypothesised relationships were empirically tested using regression analysis
techniques. A number of hypotheses were supported by the results of the research;
quality was significant in in the choice of full service airlines. This finding highlights the
importance of safety and service quality in choosing a full service airline. On the other
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Tuck Sai Boey, Erdogan H. Ekiz & Yusniza Kamarulzaman190
hand, price, strategic alliances and loyalty were found to be significant determinants in
choosing a low cost carrier.
Both low cost carriers and full service airlines give top priority to safety as they
are governed by both national and international air transport organisations (IATA
and ICAO) which require compliance to minimum safety standards. In addition,
aircraft manufacturers have continuously enhanced safety features in their equipment.
Although air traffic accidents are rare in comparison with the number of flights
taking off daily, when an accident occurs, it receives wide media coverage, because it
usually results in fatalities.
Service quality provided both on board and on ground has a significant influence
on the choice of a full service airline in Malaysia. As passengers pay more to full
service airlines, they expect premium service. However, for the low cost carriers,
passengers have a comparatively low expectation of high quality services. The low
cost carrier’s core product is a seat on board the aircraft; however, it is the variety of
services that correspond to a greater or lesser extent to passenger expectations that
attracts passengers to a full service airline (Driver, 2001). Airline passengers therefore
are also seeking an experience. On a long haul flight that exceeds 4 hours, passengers
also expect meals to be offered on board the aircraft, either inclusive of the airfare or
purchased separately. Airlines do not only transport the passenger but also their personal
effects.
Price is the most important reason why passengers chose LCC. This result is
consistent with previous research (Whyte, 2002; Rajasekar & Fouts, 2009). This is
considered to be one of the strengths of LCC over full service airlines. However,
given that more and more LCCs are entering the market and full service airlines are
lowering their prices, competition for existing passengers is expected to be intense
(Nadiri et al., 2008; Sultan & Simpson, 2000).
Customer loyalty programs have a significant influence on the choice of carriers.
This is supported by a study done by IATA (1997). which showed that additional
benefits offered by airlines do attract passenger attention. According to LCC passengers,
existence of a loyalty programs is a significant reason why they choose LCC. Whilst
flight comfort was perceived to be the most valued, other benefits were not noticeable.
Although the survey did not specifically ask the class the passengers used while flying,
most people fly on economy class although there is the choice of first, business or
economy class. The additional benefits offered by full service airlines to its regular
customers mostly include airport lounges, priority boarding, gourmet meals and others.
Most of the respondents did not fly on either business or first class, and 48.8 % took
less than two flights per year. There is a big price differential between economy,
business and first class, due to the limited number of seats available.
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Factors Determining Choice of Full Service Airlines & Low Cost Carriers: The Case of Malaysia 191
Passengers on long haul international flights using airlines that have code sharing
agreements and belong to an alliance, have the benefit of access to a wide network
and connectivity to many destinations. However, the benefit of strategic alliance does
not significantly influence the choice of full service airlines in Malaysia. This research
indicates that passengers who chose low cost carriers place emphasis on price of the
air fare. This study also reconfirms the popular perception that passengers choose
low cost carriers only because of price. More than 70% of the respondents who
opted for low cost carriers were below the age of 30. This indicates that among the
younger age group, price was a major determinant of choice of the airline. More
than 50 % of the respondents who chose low cost carriers were full time students
and therefore they tend also to be more budget conscious. Other than price, strategic
alliance did have a significant influence on purchase intention of low cost carriers.
Although low price is synonymous with low cost carriers, consumers are on the
lookout for value added features. The research shows that low cost airlines having
strategic alliances did influence choice of carriers.
The results of this research indicate that there are differences in the factors that
influence the choice of carriers in Malaysia. It appears that although price of airfare
and airline services both onboard the aircraft and on ground are important determinants
of choice of carriers in Malaysia, there appears to be a gap in what consumers expect
from airlines and what the passengers receive. It appears that Malaysian Airline travellers
are seeking the best deals and want value for money. Basically they want the fares
offered by low cost carriers but want the services provided by full service airlines.
Travellers in Malaysia have now come to expect low fares as the norm but are reluctant
to pay the price of air fares required for the full service airlines.
Managerial Implications
The results of this study will assist managers in highlighting the difference between
low fares and service. Airline operators should be more prudent in providing the
services that passengers seek. For most passengers in the economy class, airport lounges,
wider seat pitch, gourmet meals etc. does not mean much to this segment of the
market. Passengers should realise that low cost carriers provide only limited service
and are not paying for service that they do not consume. If low cost carriers want to
maintain and increase their market share of passengers, they must enhance the level
of service. The services that are important to passengers are punctuality in arrival
times, efficient check in, courteous staff, cabin crew who are attentive to their needs
and efficient baggage handling. In order to fulfil passenger expectations, low cost
carriers must improve their system and increase their productivity. The employees
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Tuck Sai Boey, Erdogan H. Ekiz & Yusniza Kamarulzaman192
need to be retrained for a more efficient system that emphasises an increase in
productivity without a corresponding increase in cost.
For full service airlines, there is the need to enhance their existing level of service.
In order to reduce cost, they should reduce or eliminate the service which passengers
do not value. In order for full service airlines to be more price competitive, they
should have more promotions to enhance their value from a consumer point of
view. These promotions could be seasonal or day or time specific so that these
promotions do not erode the revenue obtained from the full fare paying passengers
who want flexibility.
Marketing managers should refocus on their target market and differentiate their
product from that of either a full service airline or low cost carrier. Full service
airlines should not compete on the same routes as low cost carriers, but on long haul
routes where they have an inherent advantage in that they are better equipped to
serve, and on such routes, service is important. On a long haul route with journey
times as long as 12 hours or more (for example Kuala Lumpur to London)
complimentary meals and in flight services are of paramount importance compared
to a short haul route. On long haul routes, the revenue is higher therefore the profit
margin is larger and full service airlines are in a better position to provide a better
service.
The results of the present study have a number of practical implications for
airline managers who are seeking to identify customer satisfaction and customer loyalty.
According to these results, recommendations can be given to the full service airlines
as well as LCCs. In order to attract more passengers, full service airlines should
highlight their safety records and the high level of service quality they provide. Managers
and marketers of LCCs should underline the affordable price and strategic alliances
they have. Moreover, they should create (if they do not have so far), maintain and
publicise their loyalty programs to attract more customers.
Findings of this study should be considered in the light of the following limitations.
First, although the use of student respondents in empirical research is common and a
well-supported phenomenon (Nadiri et al., 2008; Ekiz & Au, 2011), future research
should collect data from the actual airline passengers right before or after their flights.
Doing so will increase the generalisability of the findings to a greater extent. Additional
studies are recommended to fill this gap. Including airlines from other countries of
the South East Asia would provide for comparisons and hence add further insights.
Finally, this study only investigated price, safety, loyalty, promotion, strategic alliances
and service quality as possible factors in choice of carrier (which are well-supported
by the airline industry); however, adding other possible factors may provide a wider
perspective and understanding of the issue at hand.
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Factors Determining Choice of Full Service Airlines & Low Cost Carriers: The Case of Malaysia 193
References
Air Asia Annual Report (2009), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Atalik, O. (2007). Customer complaints about airline service: a preliminary study of Turkish
frequent flyers. Management Research News, 30(6): 409–419.
Baisya, R. K. &Sarkar, R. (2004). Customer satisfaction in the service sector: a case study of the
airline industry. Journal of Advances in Management Research, 1(2), 73 – 79.
Churchill, G. (1979). A paradigm for developing better measures of marketing constructs. Journal
of Marketing Research, 16(1), 64–73.
Cronin, J.J. & Taylor, S.A. (1992). Measuring service quality: a re-examination and extension.Journal
of Marketing, 56(3), 55–68.
De Pelsmacker. P.D., Driesen. L. & Rayp, G. (2006). Do consumers care about ethics? Willingness
to pay for fair-trade coffee. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 39(2), 363–385.
Driver, J. (1999). Developments in airline marketing practice. Journal of Marketing Practice: Applied
Marketing Science, 5 (5), 134–150.
Driver, J. C. (2001). Airline marketing in regulatory context. Marketing Intelligence and Planning,
19(2),125–135.
Ekiz, E.H. & Au, N. (2011). Comparing Chinese and American attitudes towards complaining.
International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 23(3), 327–343.
Fishbein, M. & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to theory and
research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Fishbein, M. & Ajzen, I. (1981). Attitudes and voting behavior: An application of the theory of reasoned
action. Progress in Applied Social Psychology. London: Wiley.
Flannery, J. A. (2001). Safety culture and its measurement in aviation. Retrieved 1 May 2011 from
http://www.asasi.org/papers/other/safety_culture_measurement_aviation.pdf
Hair J. F. Jr., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L. & Black, W. C. (1995). Multivariate data analysis with
readings (4thed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc.
Heskett, J. L., Sasser, W. E. & Schlesinger, L. A. (1997). The service profit chain: How leading companies
link profit and growth to loyalty, satisfaction and value. New York: The Free Press.
Hu, M. Y. & Toh, R. S. (1988). Frequent-flier programs: Problems and pitfalls. Business Horizons,
31(4), 52–57.
Hussain, K. & Ekiz, H. E. (2008). Perceptions of service quality in North Cyprus national
airline: a path analysis approach. [Online] Estudios y Perspectivas en Turismo, Retrieved 22
July 2008 from http://www. estudiosenturismo.com.ar/ PDF/v16n3a05-IN.pdf
Knorr, A.(1997). Do ‘blacklists’ enhance aviation safety? Intereconomics, 32(1), 14–22.
Kotler, P. (2003). Marketing management (11th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.
Long, M.M & Schiffman, L.G. (2000). Consumption values and relationships: segmenting the
market for frequency programs. Journal of Consumer Marketing,17(3): 214 – 232.
Martin, I. M. & Eroglu, S. (1993). Measuring a multi-dimensional construct: Country image.
Journal of Business Research, 28(3), 191–210.
Nadiri, H., Hussain, K., Ekiz, H. E. & Erdogan, S. (2008). An investigation on the factors
influencing passengers loyalty in the north Cyprus national airline. The TQM Journal, 20(3),
265–280.
APJIHT Vol. 1 No. 2 September 2012
Tuck Sai Boey, Erdogan H. Ekiz & Yusniza Kamarulzaman194
Nunnally, J. C. & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory(3rded.) New York: McGraw- Hill
Book Company.
O’Connell, J. F. & Williams, G. (2005). Passengers’ perception of low cost airlines and full service
carriers: A case study involving Ryanair, Aer Lingus, and Air Asia.Journal of Air Transport
Management, 11(4), 259–272.
Oyewole, P., Sa