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The case study as a type of qualitative research

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Abstract

This article presents the case study as a type of qualitative research. Its aim is to give a detailed description of a case study – its definition, some classifications, and several advantages and disadvantages – in order to provide a better understanding of this widely used type of qualitative approach. In comparison to other types of qualitative research, case studies have been little understood both from a methodological point of view, where disagreements exist about whether case studies should be considered a research method or a research type, and from a content point of view, where there are ambiguities regarding what should be considered a case or research subject. A great emphasis is placed on the disadvantages of case studies, where we try to refute some of the criticisms concerning case studies, particularly in comparison to quantitative research approaches.
28 JOURNALOFCONTEMPORARYEDUCATIONALSTUDIES1/2013 A.B.Starman
Adrijana Biba Starman
Thecasestudyasatype
ofqualitativeresearch
Abstract: Thisarticlepresentsthecasestudyasatypeofqualitativeresearch.Itsaimistogivea
detaileddescriptionofacasestudy–itsdefinition,someclassifications,andseveraladvantagesand
disadvantages– in order toprovidea better understandingofthiswidely used type of qualitative
approach.Incomparisontoothertypesofqualitativeresearch,casestudieshavebeenlittle understood
bothfromamethodologicalpointofview,wheredisagreementsexistaboutwhethercasestudiesshould
beconsideredaresearchmethodoraresearchtype,and froma contentpointofview,wherethere
areambiguitiesregardingwhatshouldbeconsideredacaseorresearchsubject.Agreatemphasisis
placedonthedisadvantagesofcasestudies,wherewetrytorefutesomeofthecriticismsconcerning
casestudies,particularlyincomparisontoquantitativeresearchapproaches.
Keywords: casestudy,qualitativeresearch,qualitativemethods
UDC:37.012
Scientificarticle
Adrijana Biba Starman, Master of library science, Bergantova 13, SI-1215 Medvode, Slovenia;
e-mail for correspondence: biba.starman@ff.uni-lj.si
JOURNALOFCONTEMPORARYEDUCATIONALSTUDIES1/2013,28–43
Thecasestudyasatypeofqualitativeresearch 29
Introduction
Casestudieswereoneofthefirsttypesofresearchtobeusedinthefieldof
qualitativemethodology.1Today,theyaccountforalargeproportionoftheresearch
presentedinbooksandarticlesinpsychology,history,education,andmedicine,
tolistjustafewofthefundamentalsciences.Muchofwhatweknowtodayabout
theempiricalworldhasbeenproducedbycasestudyresearch,andmanyofthe
mosttreasuredclassicsineachdisciplinearecasestudies2(Flyvbjerg2011,p.302).
Casestudieshavebeen largely used in thesocialsciencesand havebeen
foundtobeespeciallyvaluableinpractice-orientedfields (such aseducation,
management,publicadministration,andsocialwork).Butdespitethislonghis-
toryandwidespreaduse,casestudyresearchhasreceivedlittleattentionamong
thevariousmethodologiesinsocialscienceresearch.Accordingtotheauthorsof
theEncyclopedia of Case Study Research(Millsetal.2010),onlyafewtextsdeal
directlywithcasestudiesasa central subject and no encyclopaedic reference
providesathoroughoverviewofthedesignandmethodsincasestudyresearch
asaguidanceforstudents,researchers,andprofessionalswhoaretryingtoin-
corporatecasestudiesintoarigorousresearchprojectorprogram(ibid.,p.xxxi).
D.A.de Vaus(in Thomas 2011,p. 511)stated, “Most research methodstexts
eitherignorecasestudiesorconfuseitwithothertypesofsocialresearch.”From
this,wecanconcludethatinspiteoftheir widespreaduseandpopularity,case
studiesare characterized by ambiguities and inconsistencies in understanding
theirdefinition,subjectsofinvestigation,andmethodologicalchoice(Verschuren
2003,p. 121).Casestudiesare thereforemisunderstoodas a type, aswellas a
method,ofqualitativeresearch(Gerring2004,p.341).
1Casestudies,inthefieldofpsychology,forexample,datebacktothemiddleofthe19thcentury.
Insocialwork,theyhavebeeninusesince1920,referredtoascaseworks(Millsetal.,2010,p.109);
basedonthegroundbreakingworkofS.B.MerriaminCase Study Research in Education(Merriam
1988),there has beensignificantprogressinthe field of qualitativeresearchin general, and thus
advanceshavealsobeenmadeinthestandardizationofcasestudiesinthefieldofeducation.
2ThemostfamouscasestudiesinpsychologyarethoseofPiaget,Freud,Money,andotherfamous
psychologists(Casestudyin psychology…n.d.). Theuseof casestudiesin thefieldof education is
describedintheJournal of Case Studies in Education.
30 JOURNALOFCONTEMPORARYEDUCATIONALSTUDIES1/2013 A.B.Starman
Are case studies a qualitative research type or a qualitative research
method?
Beforedelving furtherinto this investigation,it isimportanttomakea
distinctioninhowcasestudiesareviewed;someauthorsseethemasaqualita-
tiveresearchtype(Baxterand Jack2008;Flyvbjerg2006,2011;Sagadin2004;
Simons2009;Stake2005;Sturman1997;Verschuren2003),whileothersperceive
themtobe a qualitativeresearch method(George and Bennett 2005; Gerring
2004).Inthisarticle,wewilldemonstratethatcasestudiesaremorethanjusta
methodologicalchoice;therefore,wechoosetodefinecasestudiesasaqualitative
researchtype.
Althoughcasestudieshaveoftenbeen consideredtobe part ofqualitative
researchandmethodology,theymayalsobequantitativeorcontainacombination
ofqualitativeandquantitativeapproaches.Qualitativeresearchischaracterized
byan interpretativeparadigm, which emphasizessubjectiveexperiencesand
themeaningstheyhavefor an individual. Therefore, the subjectiveviewsofa
researcheronaparticularsituationplayavitalpartinthestudyresults.Another
characteristicofqualitativeresearchisitsidiographicapproach3(Vogrinc2008,
p.14),whichemphasizesanindividual’sperspectiveontheinvestigativesituation,
process,relations,etc.(ibid.,p.19).Theinterpretativeparadigm,phenomenological
approach,andconstructivism4asaparadigmaticbasisofqualitativeresearchare
closelylinkedtothedefinitionandcharacteristicsofcasestudies.Acasestudyis
thereforemorequalitativethanquantitativeinnature,butnotexclusively,forit
canbequalitative,quantitative,oracombinationofbothapproaches(withboth
representedequallyorone approach prevailingandthe othersupplementing).
Qualitativeand quantitativeresultsshouldcomplementeachothertocreatea
meaningfulwhole according totheobjectandpurposeof the investigation(Sa-
gadin2004,p.89).
Weshouldalsoclarifysomeotherterms,suchas“comparativemethods,”“case
studymethods,”and“qualitativemethods.”Comparativemethods(comparinga
smallamountofcasesandexploringfacts,relations,orprocessesinordertofind
differencesor similarities) differfromcase studies in thatacase study covers
investigationwithinindividual cases, while the comparativemethoddoesnot.
Qualitativemethodsarecloselylinkedtocasestudies.Acasestudyisconsidered
bysomeresearcherstobeapartofqualitativeresearch–atypeand,sometimes,
amethodorscientific approach. In this article,casestudiesareplaced within
thequalitativefieldandviewedasaqualitativeresearchtype,althoughthefact
thattheycancontainsomequantitativeelements,especiallyregardingresearch
questionsandgoals,isalsotakenintoaccount.
3Theexaminationofindividualcases.
4Theinterpretiveparadigm,thephenomenologicalapproach,andconstructivismareparticularly
interestedinindividualexperiencesofreality.Objectiverealityandtruth,accordingtoconstructivists
andphenomenologists,doesnotexist,butis ratheralwaysaconstruct.Itisthereforetheideathat
peoplehaveof reality thatis importantforresearchers, notthe realityitself(Vogrinc2008, p.27).
Thecasestudyasatypeofqualitativeresearch 31
Inthispaper,wewillfirstprovidevariousdefinitionsofcasestudies,ranging
fromvery generaltomorespecific,andwilldescribethemain advantagesand
differentclassificationsofcasestudies.Lateron,wewillfocusonadetailedde-
scriptionofcasestudies’disadvantagesandcriticismsinordertoachieveabetter
understandingofthistypeofqualitativeresearchandtocreateaclearerpicture
ofwhat casestudyis, whenitisapplicableto research,andwhata researcher
shouldpayattentiontowhenconductingasurveyusingacasestudy.
Definitions and classifications of a case study
Gerring(2004)notesthattheeffortsofmanyauthorstoclarifytheconceptof
acasestudyhaveoftenleadtoadefinitionaljumblebecauseeverytimesomeone
triesto clarify theconfusionusingdefinitions,itonlymakesitmoreconfusing
(ibid.,p.342).Flyvbjerg(2011)thereforebelievesthatifadefinitionofacasestudy
isneeded,itisbetterthatitismoregeneralanddoesnotcontainaplethoraof
meticulousdescriptions(ibid.,p.302).However,wecannotsaythatthedefinition
ofacasestudyis unnecessarybecauseitisthedefinition that places the case
studywithinitsownspaceandgivesititsowncharacteristicsincomparisonto
othertypesofqualitativeresearch.Severalresearchers haveprovidedgeneral
definitionsofcasestudies.
AccordingtoSturman(1997),“[a]casestudyisageneraltermfortheexplo-
rationofanindividual, group or phenomenon” (ibid.,p.61).Therefore, a case
studyisacomprehensivedescriptionofanindividualcaseanditsanalysis;i.e.,
thecharacterizationofthecaseand the events,aswellasadescriptionofthe
discoveryprocessofthesefeaturesthat is the process ofresearchitself(Mesec
1998,p.45).Mesecoffersadefinitionofacasestudywithinthefieldofsocialwork,
butitcouldalsobeappliedtothefieldofeducation:Acasestudy“isadescrip-
tionandanalysisofanindividualmatterorcase[…]withthepurposetoidentify
variables,structures,formsandordersofinteractionbetweentheparticipantsin
thesituation(theoreticalpurpose),or,inordertoassesstheperformanceofwork
orprogressindevelopment(practicalpurpose)”(ibid.,p.383).Headdsthatone
casestudycouldservebothpurposesatthesametime(ibid.).
Formoredetaileddefinitionsofacasestudy,Sagadin(1991)statesthata“case
studyisusedwhenweanalyseanddescribe,forexampleeachpersonindividually
(hisorheractivity,specialneeds,lifesituation,lifehistory,etc.),agroupofpeople
(aschooldepartment,agroupofstudentswithspecialneeds,teachingstaff,etc.),
individualinstitutionsoraproblem(orseveralproblems),process,phenomenon
oreventinaparticularinstitution,etc.indetail.Ifweremaininsuchanalyses
onthedescriptivelevel,thenacasestudyisconsideredasaformofdescriptive
method,butifweclimbtothecausallevel,casestudyproceedstowardscausal-
experimentalmethod”(ibid.,p.31).Further,casestudieshighlightadevelopmental
factor,whichmeansthatthecasesaregeneratedandevolveovertime,oftenasa
seriesofspecificandinterrelatedeventsthatoccurin“thatparticulartimeand
thatparticular place.” Holistically speaking, this constitutes the case. Finally,
32 JOURNALOFCONTEMPORARYEDUCATIONALSTUDIES1/2013 A.B.Starman
casestudiesfocusontheenvironment;i.e.,thecontext.Outliningthebordersof
individualunits withinthesurveyestablisheswhatcountsasacaseandwhat
becomesitscontext5(ibid.,p.301).
Simons(2009)createdthe followingdefinition of a case studybased ona
criticalreviewthatsoughtcommonalitiesofvariouscasestudydefinitions:“Case
studyisanin-depthexplorationfrommultipleperspectivesofthecomplexityand
uniqueness of aparticular project, policy,institution, programor system ina
‘reallife’”(ibid.,p.21).Shealsoemphasizedthatacasestudyshouldnotbeseen
asamethodinandofitself.Rather,itisadesignframethatmayincorporatea
numberofmethods.Stakeagrees;hestatedthatacasestudyisnotamethodo-
logicalchoice,butratherachoiceofwhatistobestudied–bywhatevermethods
wechoosetostudythe case.Insodoing,wecanstudyitanalytically,holistically,
hermeneutically,culturally,andbymixedmethods,butweconcentrate,atleast
forthetimebeing,onthecase(Stake2005,p.443).Choiceofmethod,then,does
notdefineacasestudy.Itistheanalyticaleclecticismthatisessential6(Thomas
2011,p.512).Flyvbjerg(2011)sharesasimilaropinion,sayingthatifwedecide
touseacasestudyinourresearch,thisdoesnotmeantheselectionofamethod,
butratheraselectionofwhatwillbeexplored(ibid.,p.301).Anindividualcase
canbestudiedfrom differentperspectives–bothqualitativeandquantitative.7
Ifweanalysethesedefinitionsintermsofdifferencesandsimilarities,we
wouldreachaconclusioninagreementwithSimons(2009);thatis,theyallshare
commitmenttotheexaminationofcomplexityinavarietyofreal-lifesituations
andtheydonotincludevariousmethodsofdata acquisition, fortheir focus is
elsewhere.Asforthedifferencesamongthedefinitions,wecanattributethemto
thedifferentepistemologicalbasesthatvariousresearchersleanupon(Thomas
2011,p.512),suchasthepurpose(Mesec1998),level(Sagadin2004),timeframe
(Flyvbjerg2011),orcontext(ibid.;Thomas2011)oftheresearch.
Whendiscussingadefinitionofacasestudy,manyresearchersfocusonthe
individualcase(ormultiplecases)athandratherthanoncasestudiesasatype
ofresearch.AccordingtoVerschuren(2001,p.137),thisisexactlythereasonfor
themanydefinitionsofcasestudiesfromamethodologicalpointofview,since,in
hisopinion,disagreementsappearamongdefinitionswithatendencytoclassify
casestudiesasastudyofone(ormore)casesinsteadofviewingcasestudiesas
aresearchapproach.
Various classifications: Case study types and categories
Casestudydefinitionsareusuallyrathergeneralanddonotcontainvarious
classificationsortypesofcasestudies,asitisalmostimpossibletocoveralltypes
ofstudiesinonedefinition.Furthermore,authorsofferavarietyofcomplementary
ordistinguishingclassificationsaccordingtoclassificationtype.Sagadin(2004)
hasalreadymadeatransparentandcomprehensivecontributionregardingthe
5Alsocalledthe object,moreincontinuation.
6Forexample,takingoverandmergingdifferentsystems,views,findings.
7Seep.2.
Thecasestudyasatypeofqualitativeresearch 33
variousclassificationsofcasestudies8thatwill be supplementedinthispaper
withsomeadditionalclassifications.
Classificationaccordingtothetimedimension
Inacasestudy,oneormorecasescanbeinvestigated.Whenexaminingone
case,werefertoasingularcasestudy,andamultipleorpluralcasestudyisused
todescribeastudyexaminingseveralcases.Inmultiplecasestudies,eachcase
isstudiedas if it is a singularstudyandisthencomparedto othercases.The
analysisofeachfollowingcaseisbuiltontheknowledgeobtainedintheanalysis
ofpreviouscases (Mesec 1998,p.384).Forsingular and multiple casestudies,
Thomassuggestsanadditionalclassification,accordingtothetypeoftimedimen-
sion.Thetypesofsingularcasestudies,regardingtimedimension,areasfollows
(Thomas2011,p.517):
Retrospectivecasestudies:Thesimplesttypeofstudy;itinvolvesthecollec-
tionof data relating to apastphenomenonofanykind.Theresearcheris
lookingbackonaphenomenon,situation,person,oreventandstudyingit
initshistoricalintegrity.
Snapshotstudies:Thecaseisbeingexaminedinoneparticularperiodoftime,
suchasacurrentevent,adayinthelifeofaperson,adiary,etc.Whether
amonth,aweek,aday,orevenaperiodasshortasanhour,theanalysisis
aidedbythetemporaljuxtapositionofevents.Asthesnapshotdevelops,the
picturepresentsitselfasaGestaltoveratighttimeframe.
Diachronicstudies:Change overtimeand are similar to longitudinal
studies.
Examplesofmultiplecasestudiesareasfollows(ibid.):
Nestedstudies:Involvethecomparisonofelementswithinonecase(nested
elements).Withnestedstudies,thebreakdowniswithin theprincipalunitof
analysis.Anestedstudyisdistinctfromastraightforwardmultiplestudyin
thatitgainsitsintegrity–itswholeness–fromthewidercase.Forexample,
aresearchermightobservethreewardswithinonehospital.Theonlysig-
nificanceaboutthemistheirphysicalhousingatthehospital.Suchacase
wouldnotbeconsideredtobenested,astheelementsarenestedonlyina
sensethattheyformanintegralpartofabroaderpicture.Inthiscase,that
meansthewardsareobservedinordertoprovideabroaderpictureof,for
example,howtheyaffectthepatients’well-being,whatthehospital’sagenda
islike,andtherelationshipsandattitudesamongthewards,patients,staff,
etc.
8Forthe conceptualand methodologicalcriteria,see Bogdanand Biklen(1982)and Stenhouse
(1985);forthepurpose,seeStake(1994);forthethesegmentation/integrity,seeCreswell(inSagadin
2004).
34 JOURNALOFCONTEMPORARYEDUCATIONALSTUDIES1/2013 A.B.Starman
Parallelstudies:The cases are all happening andbeingstudiedconcur-
rently.
Sequentialstudies:Thecaseshappenconsecutively,andthereisanassump-
tionthatwhathashappenedatonetimepointorinaninterveningperiod
willinsomewayaffectthenextincident.
Classificationaccordingtothetheoryformation
GeorgeandBennett(2005)presentsixtypesofcasestudiesclassifiedaccording
towhethertheycontributetotheorybuilding(ibid.,pp.75–76):
Atheoretical/configurative idiographic casestudies: Illustrativecasestudies
thatdonotaccumulateorcontributedirectlytotheory.
Disciplinedconfigurative case studies:Useestablishedtheories to explain
thecase.
Heuristiccase studies:Identifynew,unexpectedpaths;forsuchstudies,
marginal,deviant,oroutliercasesmaybeparticularlyuseful.
Theory-testingcasestudies:Studiesthatassessthevalidityandscopecondi-
tionsofsingleorcompetingtheories.
Plausibility probes:Preliminarystudiesusedtodeterminewhetherfurther
examinationiswarranted.
– Building Block”studies:Studiesofparticulartypesorsubtypesofapheno-
menon,that,whenputtogether,contributetoamorecomprehensivetheory.
Inthisarticle,weonlylistafewclassificationsinordertopresentvarious
typesofcasestudiesaccordingtowhatwewanttoexplore,forwhatpurpose,what
wewanttoachieve,andhow.Someclassificationsaremutuallycomplementary.
Themoreclassificationswearefamiliarwith,thebetterandeasierwecancatego-
rizeourowncasestudy.However,atsomepoint,wehavetodrawaline,because
beingtoofocusedondetailwhenclassifyingacasestudycouldconcealthegeneral
importanceofthestudy.Therefore,classificationscanbehelpfulwhenplacingour
casestudywithinacontext,withinwhichwewillexploreacertaintopic.
Keydifferenceswithinthesedefinitionsrefertothecriteriafromwhichthe
variousclassificationsweredrawn.Whilesomeauthorsdividecasestudiesaccording
tothenumberofcasesthatwillbestudied,towhichdegreeanindividualcasewill
beanalysed,orwhetheritwillbecoveredholistically,othersrefertothecriteria
accordingtothepurpose,timedimension,ortheory/nontheorybuilding.
Afterlookingatthevariousdefinitionsofcasestudies,wedrawtheconclu-
sionsthatthedifferentclassificationsarederivedfromdifferenttheoreticalposi-
tions.Choosingaparticulartypeorkindofacasestudydependsontheresearch
purpose.Forexample,dowewanttodescribeaparticularcaseandthusremain
atthedescriptivelevelor do we wanttoexploreitonthecausallevelas well?
Dowewanttocompareseveralcases? Whatcountsasa“case”in a case study
andhowcanitbeproperlyselected?Dowewanttocheckanexistinghypothesis
ordowewanttodiscovernewones?Doweperhapsevenwanttodevelopanew
Thecasestudyasatypeofqualitativeresearch 35
theory?In the followingsection,wewillpresent a more detailed discussion of
theseplatforms.
The case (subject), research field (object), and case selection
Tobeabletodebateacasestudy,ithastobedefinedwithinananalytical
frameworkorobjectintheconstitutionofthestudy(Thomas2011,p.512),oras
GeorgeandBennettputit(2005,p.69),theinvestigatorshouldclearlyidentify
theresearchfield;thatis,the“class”or“subclass”ofeventswithinwhichasingle
caseorseveralcasesareinstancestobestudied.Thesubjectofthestudyisthus
aninstanceofsomephenomenon,andthephenomenoncomprisestheanalytical
frame;thatis,theobject(ibid.).
Casestudiesasaresearchtypemightappearabitvague.Theirloosenessand
emphasisonthecase(subject)maybewhyresearchers,students,etc.(especially
thosewhoareinexperienced),neglecttheimportanceofdefininganobjectintheir
exploration.Identifyingonlyasubjectleadstoashortageofabroaderdescription
andinterpretationandinsteadonlyoffersasimplifieddescriptionofaresearch
piece.Therefore,theobjectconsistsofananalyticalframeworkwithinwhichthe
case(subject)isunderstoodandillustrated.Itisnotnecessary,however,forthe
objecttobedefinedatthebeginningofthestudy;thisoftenoccurslaterinthe
explorationprocess(Thomas2011,p.515).
Acasestudyisabout determining what theinvestigatedcase maybe;it
isnotaboutdefining populations andselectingappropriate samples(Sagadin
1991,p.34).Acasestudyisusuallyastudyofasinglecaseora smallnumber
ofcases.Theideaofrepresentativesamplingandstatisticalgeneralizationstoa
widerpopulationshouldbe rejected,andanalyticalinductionshouldbechosen
instead.Someauthorsbelievethatthecaseinacasestudycountsasaresearch
unit,whileothersdisagree.Theuseoftheterm“unit”cancauseconfusion.Some
authorsbelievethatitrelatestothecaseorresearchsubject(e.g.,Wieviorkain
Thomas2011,p.513;Mesec1998),whileothersuseittodescribetheobjectwith
theunderstandingthattheunit(object)andthecaseinfluenceeachothermutu-
ally(VanWynsbergheandKhaninThomas2011,p.513).Inthisarticle,theterm
unitisassociatedwiththecase(subject).
Mesecsuggestsselectingsuchcaseforaresearchunit(anindividual,family
orothergroup,organization,orcommunity)whereapracticalproblemthatwe
areinterestedinexists.Wemayalsoexamineseveralindividualcasesthatare
selectedinsuch a waythattheiranalysisprovidesuswith the most diverse
informationthatweareablecollect. Weshould selectinterestingcases(e.g.,
contrasting,extreme,exceptionalcases)insteadoftypical,averagecases(Mesec
1998,p.55).Thesubject(the case) isnotselectedbased upon arepresentative
sample,but rather isselectedbecause it is interesting, unusual, striking,and
maycausechangesinthecharacteristicsandspecificitiesoftheobject(Thomas
2011,p.514).SimilartoMesec,Thomasalsosuggestschoosinganatypicalcase,
wherethesubjectandobjectinteractinadynamicrelationship.
36 JOURNALOFCONTEMPORARYEDUCATIONALSTUDIES1/2013 A.B.Starman
Ontheotherhand,Yinrecommendsselectingarepresentativeortypicalcase
(Yin2009,p.48)becauseinsodoing,wemayfindnewhypothesesanddeeperlayers
thatprevioustheoryhasmissed.Eachcasehasitsadvantagesanddisadvantages,
buttheselectionofcasesandshouldmostlydependupontheresearchproblem.
Caseselectionhasalsotargetedbysomecasestudycritics.Theircriticism
mainlyfocuseson possiblesubjectivecaseselection, theso-calledselectionbias
(i.e.,theimpactofaresearcher’spriorknowledgeaboutthecaseandhispossible
favouritismtowardcertainhypotheses)thatcanimpactthecaseselection(George
andBennett2005,p.24).However,theselectionofacasebasedonpriorknowledge
leadstoabetter research plan.Casesselectedonthebasisofpriorknowledge
aremostlikelycrucialforenablingthedevelopmentofastrongtheoreticalbase
fortheresearch,whichmakestheprocedureoftheorytestingmorerigorous.In
addition,thereareseveralmethodologicalprovisionstoprotectastudyfromthe
influence ofresearcherbias,suchas diligence and consistency inthetracking
process(ibid.). This includesanaccurateandcomprehensivedescriptionof the
datacollectionprocedures and documentation ofeverypieceofinformationin
ordertoachievereliabilityofacasestudy(ibid.,p.10).
Case study advantages
Casestudiesaregenerallystrongpreciselywherequantitativestudiesare
weaker(ibid.,p.19).GeorgeandBennetthaveidentifiedfouradvantagesofcase
studiesincomparisontoquantitativemethods9:Theirpotentialtoachievehigh
conceptualvalidity,strongproceduresforfosteringnewhypotheses,usefulness
forcloselyexaminingthehypothesizedroleofcausalmechanismsinthecontext
ofindividualcases,andtheircapacityforaddressingcausalcomplexity(ibid.).
Conceptual validity
Conceptualvalidity refers to theidentification and measurement ofthe
indicatorsthatbestpresentthetheoreticalconceptsthataresearcherwantsto
measure.Manyofthevariablesthat socialscientistsare interestedin,suchas
democracy,power,etc.,aredifficult to measure, so the researcher has to carry
outa“contextualizedcomparison,”whichautomaticallysearchesforanalytically
equivalentphenomenaeveniftheyareexpressedindifferenttermsandcontexts.
Thisrequiresadetailedconsiderationofcontextualfactors,whichisextremely
difficulttodoinquantitativeresearchbutisverycommonincasestudies.Whereas
quantitativeresearchrunstheriskof“conceptualstretching”bythrowingtogether
dissimilarcasestogetalargersample,casestudiesallowforconceptualrefine-
mentswithahighervalidityleveloverfewernumberofcases(ibid.,p.19).
9Theauthorsdefinecasestudyasamethodofqualitativeresearch;thisiswhytheycompareit
toquantitativemethods.
Thecasestudyasatypeofqualitativeresearch 37
Deriving new hypotheses
Casestudiesareverysuitableforservingtheheuristicpurposeofinductively
identifyingadditional variablesandnewhypotheses.Quantitativestudieslack
proceduresforinductivelygenerating new hypotheses.Moreover,case studies
cananalysequalitativelycomplexeventsandtakeintoaccountnumerousvari-
ablesprecisely because theydonotrequiremanycasesoralimitednumberof
variables.Casestudyresearchersarenotlimitedtoreadilyquantifiedvariables
orpre-existing,well-defineddatasets(ibid.,p.45).
Quantitativeresearchcanbe usedtoidentifydeviantcasesthatmaylead
tonewhypothesesbut, in andofthemselves,lackanyclearmeansofactually
identifyingnewhypotheses.Withoutadditionalexamination,suchasopen-ended
interviews,itisnotpossibletofindinductivemeansofidentifyingomittedvari-
ables(ibid.,p.21).
Exploring causal mechanisms10
Casestudiesexaminetheoperationofcausalmechanismsinindividualcases
indetail.Withinasinglecase,theylookatalargenumberofinterveningvariables
andinductivelyobserve anyunexpectedaspect of the operation of aparticular
causalmechanismor help identify what conditionsarepresentin a case that
activatethe causalmechanism,while quantitativestudiesintheircorrelations
lacksuchcausality(ibid., p.21).However,onemustkeepinmindthatitisnot
entirelytruethatquantitativeresearchdoesnotincludeanycausality.Weare
referringtoquantitativeresearch’sinabilitytotakeintoaccountcontextualfactors
otherthanthosethatarecodifiedwithinthe variablesbeingmeasured;inthis
situation,manyadditional variablesthatmight alsobecontextuallyimportant
aremissed.
Modelling and assessing complex causal relations
Casestudiesareableto accommodate complexcausalrelations,such as
equifinality,11complexinteractioneffects,andpathdependency.12Thisadvantage
isrelativeratherthanabsolute. Case studiescanallowforequifinalitybypro-
ducinggeneralizationsthatarenarrowerandmorecontingent.Notwithstanding
thisadvantage(moreabout generalization in continuation), otherswho prefer
quantitativemethodsappreciatetheoriesthataremoregeneralevenifthismeans
thattheyaremorevagueandmorepronetocounterexamples(ibid.,p.22).
10Causalmechanism:“YhappenedbecauseofA,inspiteofB,”whereasAmeansasetofparticipa-
tivecausesandBmeansapotentiallyemptyspaceofoppositecauses(Acannotbeempty;otherwise,
itwouldnotbeabletoexplainY).Forexample,thecardroveofftheroadduetoinappropriatespeed
andsandon theroad despitegoodroadvisibilityandthedriver’salertness(Salmon inGeorgeand
Bennett2005,p.145).
11Equifinalitymeansthatthesameendresultcanbeobtainedindifferentways(Instituteofthe
SlovenianLanguage…n.d.)
12Historicalheritageessentiallydefinesthedevelopmentalpossibilitiesoffutureevolution(e.g.,
ofeachnation)(Vehovar2005,p.309).
38 JOURNALOFCONTEMPORARYEDUCATIONALSTUDIES1/2013 A.B.Starman
Theuseofcasestudieshassomeadditionaladvantagesaswell.Theconnect-
ednesstoeverydaylifeandcasestudies’abundanceofindividualelements and
detailsareimportantforresearchersfromtwoviewpoints.First,acasestudyis
importantfordevelopingdifferentviewsofreality,includingtheawarenessthat
humanbehaviourcannotbeunderstoodmerelyasanactthatisdrivenbyarule
oratheory.Second,casestudiescancontributetotheprofessionaldevelopmentof
aresearcher,ascasestudiescanprovideconcrete,context-dependentexperience
thatincreasestheirresearchskills(Flyvbjerg2006,p.223).
Paradox, misunderstandings, and criticism
Intheintroduction,wenotedthatcasestudiesarewidelyusedbutunder-
represented.Basedonthesefindings,Gerringhasidentifiedaparadoxinwhich
hecorrectlystatesthatacasestudyexistsinastrange,curiousmethodological
limbo,which,hebelieves,isduetoalackofunderstandingofthismethod(Gerring
2004,p. 341).Flyvbjerghasthereforesought toresolvethis paradoxand,inso
doing,toachieveawideracceptanceandapplicationofresearchusingcasestudies.
Hehasidentifiedfivemisunderstandingsaboutcasestudiesthatunderminethe
credibilityandapplicationofthisresearchtype.Thesemisunderstandingsrefer
primarilytothetheory,reliability,andvalidity(Flyvbjerg2006;2011):
General,theoretical(context-independent)knowledgeismorevaluablethan1.
concrete,practical(context-dependent)knowledge.
Itis impossibletogeneralize onthebasisof an individualcase;therefore,2.
thecasestudycannotcontributetoscientificdevelopment.
Thecasestudyismostusefulforgeneratinghypotheses(thatis,inthefirst3.
stageofatotalresearchprocess),whereasothermethodsaremoresuitable
forhypothesestestingandtheorybuilding.
Casestudiescontainabiastowardverification;thatis,atendencytoconfirm4.
theresearcher’spreconceivednotions.
Itisoftendifficulttosummarizeanddevelopgeneralpropositionsandtheo-5.
riesonthebasisofspecificcasestudies.
Wewillnowattempttoresolveandclarifythesemisunderstandings.
General, theoretical knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical case
knowledge.
Socialsciencesdonothavemuchtoofferexceptconcretecasesandcontext-
dependentknowledgebecauseresearchershavenotsucceededinproducinggeneral,
context-independenttheories.Casestudiesareespeciallywell-suitedtoproducing
thisexacttypeofknowledge.Thefirstargumentcanthereforeberevisedasthis
statement(Flyvbjerg2006;2011):“Concretecaseknowledgeismorevaluablefor
socialsciencesthanthevainsearchforpredictivetheoriesanduniversals.”
Thecasestudyasatypeofqualitativeresearch 39
Generalization upon the basis of an individual case is not possible; therefore,
case studies cannot contribute to scientific development.
Thisisatypical assumptionaboutcasestudiesamong proponents of the
naturalscienceidealwithinthe socialsciences,yetevenresearcherswithouta
strongassociationwiththisidealmaysharethisviewpoint.Giddens,forexample,
statesthatthetraditional small-scale research community ofanthropology
fieldwork,inandofitself,isnotgeneralizingstudies,butcaneasilybecomesoif
carriedoutinsomenumberssothattheirtypicaljudgementscanjustifiablybe
made(GiddensinFlyvberg2006,p.225).
Incasestudies,inferenceisbasedonanalytical induction (analytic gene-
ralization)andnotonstatisticalinduction(enumeration).Instatisticalinduction,
oneisnotinterestedinstructuralorfunctionalconnectivitycharacteristicswithin
individualunits,butonlytheirpresenceorabsenceandquantitativesignificance,
frequency,differences,andcorrelations.However,inanalyticinduction,weare
examiningaparticularcase–therelationshipsamongindividualcharacteristics,
processes,oreventsandhowtheyareconnectedtoeachother(Mesec1998,p.50).
Mesecthereforearguesthatiftheconnectionexistseveninjustonesinglecase,
itmaybetheoreticallyimportant(ibid.).
Holistics,13inparticular,believethatgeneralizationmaybepossibleevenon
thebasisofasinglecasestudy.Diesing,forexample,statesthatscienceencounters
regularity(i.e., the search forgeneralprinciplesandrules)andcreativity(i.e.,
lookingfornew,originalcases).Iftheprimaryfocusisonregularity,thecreativity
willappear,andifthefocusisoncreativity,thenprincipleseventuallyshowup.
Casestudiesincludeboththeparticularandtheuniversalwithoutbeingmutually
exclusiveandmovebetweentheparticularanduniversalingradedsteps(Diesing
inSturman1997,p.63).
Stakeholdsasimilarposition;hestatesthataprocessofnaturalisticgenerali-
zationarrivesfromthetacitknowledgeofhowthingsare,whytheyare,howpeople
feelaboutthem,andhowthesethingsarelikelytobelateronorinotherplaces
thispersonisfamiliarwith.Generalizationisthereforepossiblebyrecognizingthe
similaritiesoftheobjectsandissuesindifferentcontextsandbyunderstanding
thechanges astheyhappen (Stake1980inSturman1997,p.69).However,for
thiskindofgeneralizationtobepossible,itisessentialtoensurethatthesalient
featuresofthecasearedocumentedsothatnewsituationscanbeilluminatedby
averythoroughunderstandingofaknowncase(Sturman1997,p.63).
AcasestudyisidealforgeneralizingfindingsusingthetypeoftestthatKarl
Popper(inFlyvbjerg2006,p.228;Flyvbjerg 2011,p.305)called “falsification”;
insocialscience,thistestformspartofcriticalreflexivity.Popperbelievesthat
everytruescientifictheoryallowsrefutation(StanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy
2009).Falsificationthereforestatesthatahypothesisisconsideredtobescientific
whenits defenderisableto determine theconditionsunderwhichthehypoth-
13Proponentsoftheholisticapproachintheepistemologyofscienceemphasizethestudyofcom-
plexityintermsofthewhole.Inholism,thewholeismoreimportantthanthesumofitsindividual
parts.Holismis the opposite of individualism,butthey often occur in pairs–in macro and micro
perspectivesofobservingsocialreality(Mali2006,p.131).
40 JOURNALOFCONTEMPORARYEDUCATIONALSTUDIES1/2013 A.B.Starman
esiscouldberefuted.14Falsificationisoneofthemostrigorousteststowhicha
scientificpropositioncanbesubjected–ifjustoneobservationdoesnotfitwiththe
proposition,itisconsideredtonotbevalidandmustthereforebeeitherrevisedor
rejected(Flyvbjerg2011,p.305).Deviantcasesandthefalsificationstheyentail
aremainsourcesoftheorydevelopmentbecausetheypointtothedevelopment
ofnewconcepts,variables,andcausalmechanismsthatisnecessaryinorderto
accountforthedeviantcaseandothercaseslikeit(ibid.).
Flyvbjergcorrectsthesecondmisunderstandingasfollows:“Onecanoften
generalizeonthebasisof a single case, andthecasestudymaybecentralto
scientificdevelopmentviageneralization assupplementor alternativetoother
methods”(ibid.,p.305).
Case studies are useful for generating hypotheses (i.e., at the beginning of the
research process), while other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing
and theory building.
Thesourceofthisargumentlaysinthepreviousmisunderstandingthatit
isimpossibletogeneralizefromcasestudies.Generalizationisassociated with
hypothesistestingandisthenextstepofcaseselection.ButGeorgeandBennett
areconvincedthat casestudyisespeciallywell-suitedfortheorydevelopment
becauseittacklesthefollowingtasks in the research process evenbetterthan
othermethods(foranexample,seeGeorgeandBennett2005,pp.6–9):
– Processtracingthatlinkscausesandoutcomes,
– detailedexplorationofhypothesizedcausalmechanisms,
– developmentandtestingofhistoricalexplanations,
– understandingthesensitivityofconceptstocontext,and
– formationofnewhypothesesandnewquestionstostudysparkedbydeviant
cases.
The case study contains a bias toward verification; that is, a tendency to
confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions.
Inthesectionaboutcaseselection,wehavealreadydiscussedsomeofthe
concernsregardingaresearcher’sbias.Doubtsandprejudicetowardverification
inscientificinvestigationisgeneral,buttheallegeddeficiencyofthecasestudy
andothertypesofqualitativeresearchisthattheyostensiblyallowmoreroomfor
theresearcher’ssubjectiveandarbitraryjudgmentthanquantitativeinvestigation
(Flyvbjerg2011,p. 309; George and Bennett 2005; Mesec 1998;Thomas2011).
Sturmanbelievesthat a casestudycanachieveits own form of precision
(Sturman1997,p.65)or,asWilsoncallsit,a“disciplinedsubjectivity”(Wilsonin
ibid.).Theprincipleofverifiabilityinacasestudy(andinqualitativeresearchin
general)isrealizedbydescribingtheentireresearchprocessindetail,especially
14InPopper’sfamousexampleof“allswansarewhite,”heproposedthatjustonenotionofasingle
blackswan(deviation)wouldfalsifythispropositionandinthiswaywillhavegeneralsignificanceand
willstimulatefurtherinvestigationsandtheorybuilding.Thecasestudyiswell-suitedforidentifying
“blackswans”becauseofitsin-depthapproach(Flyvbjerg2011,p.305).
Thecasestudyasatypeofqualitativeresearch 41
theanalysisprocessinwhichconceptsareshapedandtheregularityandpatterns
ofbehaviour,interaction,andexperiencearedetermined(Mesec1998,p.45).To
achievethecredibilityinacasestudy,Sturmansuggeststhefollowingstrategies
(Sturman1997,p.65):
– Proceduresfordatacollectionshouldbeexplained,
– datacollectedshouldbedisplayedandreadyforreanalysis,
– negativeinstancesshouldbereported,
– biasesshouldbeacknowledged,
– fieldworkanalysesneedtobedocumented,
– therelationshipbetweenassertionandevidenceshouldbeclarified,
– primaryevidenceshouldbe distinguished from secondaryevidenceand
descriptionandinterpretationshouldalsobedistinguished,
– diariesor logsshouldbeused totrackwhatwasactuallydoneduringdif-
ferentstagesofthestudy,and
– methodsshouldbedevisedtocheckthequalityofdata.
Ingeneral,itisknownthatmoresimilarresultsandconclusionsarepossible
whenrepeatingacertainstudy,whichleadstoincreasedreliabilityofthestudy.
Iftheexperimentisrepeatedseveraltimesandalwayshasthesameresults,then
itsreliabilityis100%.Thisisthesameformeasuring,testing,etc.Casestudies
cannotbe repeatedbecauseduringrepetition,thecaseisalreadydifferent. So
theabovedefinitionofreliabilityissomewhatmitigatedwhenitcomestoacase
study.Therefore,acasestudyismorereliable–asmuchasweareabletoshow
thatwecouldcometothesameconclusions–ifweareabletorepeatthesurvey
underanunchangedstateofcircumstances.Thisrequiresaccurateanddetailed
descriptionof data acquisition procedures as wellasdocumentingeverysingle
pieceofinformation(Mesec1998,p.148).
Mesecpointsoutthatthefindingsandresultsofacasestudyshouldbethe
first,notthelast,chapterinaparticularresearcharea.Casestudiesshouldthen
befollowedbyothersubsequentcasestudiesinordertoreinforcetheaccuracyof
thefirststudy'sfindings.Thisshouldbedonewithrevisionoftheobservations
andfindingsand,mostimportantly,byspreadingthenetworkofnewlydiscovered
connectionsamongcases.Casestudiesarecertainlymorethanjustanintroduc-
tiontoquantitativeresearch.Ifwedonotwanttocount,wedonothavetodoso
inordertolearnsomething(ibid.,p.380).
Conclusion
Quiteafewauthorshavealteredtheirviewsaboutcasestudiesasatypeof
qualitativeresearchtype(see,forexample,Campbell1975andEysenck1976in
Flyvbjerg2006).Inconsiderationaboutchanginghisview,Eysenckwrotefollowing:
“Sometimeswesimplyhavetokeepoureyesopenandlookcarefullyatindividual
cases– notinthehopeof provinganything,but ratherinthehopeoflearning
42 JOURNALOFCONTEMPORARYEDUCATIONALSTUDIES1/2013 A.B.Starman
something”(Eysenck1976inFlyvbjerg2006,p.224).Becauseofalackof“hard”
theory(theorythatcontainsexplanationsandpredictions)insocialsciences,itis
difficulttoattainstrongandcommonlyvalidrules.Butthisdoesnotmeanthat
socialscienceresearchhasnocontributiontoscienceatall–quitetheopposite,
infact.Thereisconstantprogression towardnewdiscoveriesandcognitions!A
casestudycanbehelpfulwhenweareeagertoanswerthequestionsof“how”and
“why,”whenwecannotinfluencethebehaviourofthoseinvolvedinastudy,and
whenwewanttocovercontextualconditionsbecausewebelievetheyarerelevant
tothephenomenonunderstudyorwhentheboundariesbetweenthephenomenon
andcontextarenotclear(YininBaxter&Jack2008,p.545).
Butwemustalsorecognize that acasestudyis more thanjustatype of
qualitativeresearch.Itisaticketthatallowsustoenteraresearchfieldinwhich
wediscovertheunknownwithinwell-knownborderswhilecontinuallymonitoring
ourownperformance;scalability;andourown,aswellasgeneral,existingknow-
ledge.Wehopethisarticlesupportsandfosterstheviewofcasestudiesasatype
ofqualitativeresearch.
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Yin,R.K.(2009).Case study research: design and methods (4thed.). ThousandOaks,CA:
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... Methodologically, case studies can be qualitative, and were one of the first qualitative methodologies used [24], quantitative, or both [25]. They are typically used in the social sciences and for practice orientated areas [24]. ...
... Methodologically, case studies can be qualitative, and were one of the first qualitative methodologies used [24], quantitative, or both [25]. They are typically used in the social sciences and for practice orientated areas [24]. Case studies are a naturalistic design [26]. ...
... They can be utilised to develop interventions and evaluate programmes [29]. They are used to understand mechanisms and links [24,26]. They can be exploratory (the what), explanatory (cause and effect relationships) or descriptive (describe phenomenon in its context) [26,28,30]. ...
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... In-depth interviews were carried out with 12 case participants, which involved a small sample size. A small study size and an appropriate number of participants are preferable to learning about their opinions and experience in the field of study (Rebolj, 2013). The data collection process took eight weeks, with each interview session lasting 20 to 30 minutes. ...
... This research reveals the field results, multiple assumptions as supporters, and some findings as further improvements, as well as findings that may be used and improved, during the examination of the students' interviews and questionnaires (Starman, 2013). This e-learning scenario (Suharyanto & Mailangkay, 2016; Terry Anderson, n.d.) combines online digital video projects and algebraic content as the learning aims. ...
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... Gevallestudies ondersoek, volgens Yin (2008), gewoonlik 'n nuwe veld en kan dien as voorloper vir toekomstige navorsing. Dit ondersoek ook gewoonlik 'n eietydse verskynsel binne 'n werklikewêreldkonteks (Starman 2013). Die gebruik van emoji's wêreldwyd en plaaslik het eers oor die afgelope twee dekades werklik toegeneem, en navorsing oor veral die linguistiese funksies van emoji's in die (Suid-) Afrikaanse konteks is daarom relatief nuut. ...
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A collective book that talks about some of the principles of the scientific researcher in the humanities and social sciences, in which I wrote a chapter on scientific research tools.
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This article examines five common misunderstandings about case-study research: (a) theoretical knowledge is more valuable than practical knowledge; (b) one cannot generalize from a single case, therefore, the single-case study cannot contribute to scientific development; (c) the case study is most useful for generating hypotheses, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building; (d) the case study contains a bias toward verification; and (e) it is often difficult to summarize specific case studies. This article explains and corrects these misunderstandings one by one and concludes with the Kuhnian insight that a scientific discipline without a large number of thoroughly executed case studies is a discipline without systematic production of exemplars, and a discipline without exemplars is an ineffective one. Social science may be strengthened by the execution of a greater number of good case studies.
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Case Study Research in Practice explores the theory and practice of case study research. Helen Simons draws on her extensive experience of teaching and conducting case study to provide a comprehensive and practical account of how to design, conduct and communicate case study research. It addresses questions often raised by students and common misconceptions about case research. In four sections the book covers - Rationale, concept and design of case study research - Methods, ethics and reflexivity in case study - Interpreting, analyzing and reporting the case - Generalizing and theorizing in case study research Rich with 'tales from the field' and summary memos as an aide-memoire to future action, the book provides fresh insights and challenges for researchers to guide their practice of case study research. This is an ideal text for those studying and conducting case study research in education, health and social care, and related social science disciplines.
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From a general methodological point of view the status of the case study as a type of research is not quite clear. There are some ambiguities as to the object and the way we look at it, the research methods that are used, and the results to be obtained. One piece of background of its unclear status is that the case study is mostly defined as the study of one single case, rather than as a way of doing the research. Another one is that, in the eyes of many quantitative social science researchers, the results of a case study are of poor quality. This article aims to clarify some misconceptions and ambiguities of the case study as it is used in modern social science disciplines, and to define it as a research strategy of its own, clearly distinguished from and complementary to the quantitative or large scale survey type of research, the experiment, and (other) qualitative research strategies.
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The organization of the following chapters reflects, in general, the steps of a research investigation. Part One contains four chapters on the nature of qualitative case study research, types and uses of case studies, selecting the case to be investigated, and the place of theory and literature in case study research. Part Two consists of three chapters on collecting qualitative data from interviews, observations, and documents. The four chapters in Part Three deal with analyzing the data collected, handling the concerns of reliability, validity, and ethics, and writing the case report. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)