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488
The Almond in
Morocco
Ahmed Mahhou1 and
Frank G. Dennis, Jr.2
Additional index words. production
methods, marketing, research, cultivar
selection, germplasm preservation
Summary. Morocco ranks fifth among
the nations of the world in almond
(Prunus dulcis L.) production, and
contains many zones where climatic
conditions are ideal for this species.
Seedling trees are responsible for
more than half the total production,
although grafted trees are usually
much more productive per hectare. A
large seedling population represents
an important gene pool, both for a
breeding program and for selection of
superior genotypes adapted to Moroc-
can conditions.
W
orld almond production is
concentrated in three re-
gions: a) Asia, b) the Medi-
terranean basin, and c) California, with
limited amounts in Australia, South
Africa, Chile, and Argentina. In Asia
and North Africa, almond-growing
practices have changed little during re-
cent centuries. Many orchards consist
of seedlings; when grown in mixed
cultures with other crops under mini-
mal care, yields are low.
California’s 166,000 ha of bear-
ing trees account for -70% of the
world’s almond production. Sixty per-
cent to 70% of California’s production
is exported to >40 countries. Spain is
the second-most important producing
country, with 15% to 20% of the world’s
total production grown on ≈567,000
ha. Other countries contributing to
the world total include Italy (5%),
Greece (5%), Morocco (2%), and
Portugal ( 1% ) .
The almond originated in the
mountainous regions of Iran, Af-
ghanistan, and the former Soviet Union
(Grasselly and Crossa-Raynaud, 1980).
Almond is primarily limited in its geo-
graphical adaptation by its susceptibil-
ity to spring frost. This hazard arises
directly from early flowering and leaf-
ing. Where frost is not a problem, ma-
jor yield limitations are rain and cool
temperature during bloom, which in-
terfere with cross-pollination and
promote fungal diseases of leaves and
flowers. Conditions favorable for al-
mond culture include 100 to 400 h of
chilling at temperatures below 7.2C
(Tabuenca, 1972), limited danger of
spring frost injury, and a warm, dry
climate to avoid fungal infection. The
trees can perform fairly well even with
moderate care. They exhibit greater
resistance to drought than other stone
fruits, and are able to grow in calcar-
eous soils. Fruits have no fleshy peri-
carp requiring special handling, and
the edible seeds can be stored dry
without refrigeration for a time. These
characteristics make almond a good
crop for owners of small farms in de-
veloping countries.
We present here an overview of
almond production and research in
Morocco-the fifth-largest producer
ofalmonds (9,000-12,000 t ofshelled
almonds per year) (Direction de le
Planification et des Affaires Econom-
iques, 1987), after the United States
(264,000 t), Spain (73,000 t), Greece
(17,000 t), and Italy (16,000 t)
(Grasselly and Souty, 1988).
Acreage and production
Morocco has a mild, Mediterra-
nean climate with areas well-suited to
almond growing (see Fig. 1 for areas
mentioned). In terms of surface area
occupied by tree fruits in 1987-88, al-
monds (95,000 ha) were second only
to olives (337,000 ha) (Division de
l’Horticulture, 1987-88). Additional
plantings by governmental agencies
increased total acreage to 104,000 ha
in 1988-89 (Division de l’Horticul-
ture, 1988-89). Almonds are grown
under two types of culture that can be
described broadly as a) traditional and
b) semi-intensive (Lousert et al., 1989).
Traditional culture. Almonds are
grown under conditions where one or
more environmental requirements are
limiting. These include water during
the growing season, soil depth, and
nutrients, primarily N. Trees (mostly
open-pollinated seedlings) are planted
on slopes and hillsides, along streams,
or interplanted with field crops, and
Fig. 1. Map of Morocco, with cities and villages mentioned in the text.
are given little or no care (Fig. 2A).
This sector covers more than 70,000
ha and represents 70% to 80% of the
almond plantings in Morocco (8 mil-
lion trees). The trees are planted at an
average density of 80 trees/ha. The
Service of Forestry and Water (Service
des Eaux et Forêts) has planted 5 mil-
lion trees, mostly ‘Marcona’, on con-
tours as part of its soil conservation
mission Defense et Restauration des
Sols (DRS) (Laghezali, 1985). These
trees are neither pruned nor sprayed,
but are harvested by local farmers. The
almonds are used by the family or sold
locally.
This has further limited the care that
seedling populations receive. Lack of
care, togetherwith severe drought con-
ditions during the early 1980s, con-
tinues to threaten the continued ex-
istence of many of these trees.
Despite their low productivity,
seedling trees represent a potential
source ofgermplasm, both for selection
of new cultivars and for use as parents
in breeding programs (see below).
Many microclimates exist, and result
in considerable variation among seed-
ling populations. Many of the local
plantings have evolved through natu-
ral and human selection and represent
distinct ecotypes or landraces. Much
of the population has moved from
rural to urban areas, and many people
work in Europe for much of the year.
Sixty-five percent of the almond
crop is produced on small farms in the
traditional sector. Yields are low under
this cultural system and trees show a
strong tendency toward alternate bear-
ing. The causes of low yield include: a)
marginal and poor soils; b) low rainfall,
resulting in moisture stress and reduced
flower bud initiation; c) spring frosts;
d) rain and cool temperatures during
bloom, which restrict cross-pollination
and favor fungal diseases; e) lack or
absence of pollinizers; f) limited care
and management; and g) lack of vigor.
Low yields despite heavy blooms sug-
gest that pollination is one of the most
limiting factors for the performance of
almond in this system. Most almond
cultivars are self-incompatible. In ad-
dition, they require pollen transfer by
insects, primarily honeybees, for cross-
pollination. Some growers have top-
grafted named cultivars on the scaffold
limbs of seedlings. In the area near Al
Semi-intensive culture. In this sys-
tem, trees are planted at 150 to 300/
ha (Loussert et al., 1989) on a total of
34,000 ha. Most trees are grafted and
the cultivars are chosen based on their
performance, overlapping bloom, and
compatibility for cross-pollination.
Most of these trees are located in “com-
mercial” zones where irrigation is pos-
sible (Fig. 2B). Few of these orchards
are actually irrigated, however, for other
rosaceous fruits (apples, pears, peaches,
prunes) have priority for water. The
most-important cultivars are ‘Marcona’
and ‘Fournat de Brezenaud’ (Loussert
et al., 1989). Other cultivars include
‘Desmayo Largueta’, ‘Ne(c) Plus Ul-
tra’, ‘Abiod’, and ‘Ai’. None of these
cultivars is of Moroccan origin. Be-
cause of the danger of frost injury, se-
veral of the new, late-blooming French
cultivars, including ‘Ferragnès’ and
‘Ferraduel’, are of considerable inter-
est. Aside from a small number of
peach-almond hybrids, seedlings of
‘Marcona’ are generally used as
rootstocks. Almond seedlings are out-
standing for their deep rooting ability
and tolerance to drought and calcare-
ous soils. Growers often plant seeds on
site, then graft scions of known culti-
vars on the seedlings. This allows the
taproot to continue developing, thus
providing greater drought resistance
than is the case with trees that are
transplanted from a nursery.
Area planted in the commercial
sector declined from 50,300 ha in
1969 to 34,600 ha in 1985 (Direction
de la Planification et des Affaires Eco-
nomiques, 1985). Among the reasons
for this decline are: a) a shift to other
deciduous tree fruits, including apple,
peach, pear, plum, apricot (total in-
crease of 31,800 ha during the same
period), and olives (increase of 67,000
ha); b) a series of dry years from 1980
to 1984; c) attack by insects, particu-
larly a bark beetle [Scolytus (Rugulo-
scolytus) amygdali], and capnode
(Capnodis tenebrionis L.) that attacks
the roots (Loussert et al., 1989); and
d) low returns in comparison with
competitive crops, especially wheat.
(The price of wheat is subsidized and
its production involves no “lag pe-
riod” ofseveral years prior to cropping. )
However, the decline in acreage was
offset by an increase in mean yield
Hoceima, on the Mediterranean, 46%
of an estimated 17,500 trees were
grafted in 1989 (Service de la Mise en
Valeur Agricole, n.d.).
Fig. 2. Traditional seedling almond tree near Al-Hoceima (A) and semi-intensivegrafted trees
near Meknès (B).
from 190 to 300 kg of shelled almonds
per hectare (Loussert et al., 1989).
Closer planting, introduction of more-
productive cultivars, and better cultur-
al practices were responsible for this
increase (Loussert et al., 1989). Nev-
ertheless, yields remain low relative to
those of California. Yields of 2200 to
3300 kg of shelled almonds/ha can be
obtained in well-managed, irrigated
California orchards under the intensive
culture system of management, and
yields as high as 4480 kg·ha-1 have been
reported (Rough et al., 1989). With-
out irrigation, the yield in Morocco
varied from 30 (Al Hoceima) to 3700
(Errachidia) kg·ha-1 in shell (about 10
to 1200 shelled) in 1988-89 (Division
del’Horticulture, 1988-89). The high-
est yields are obtained in irrigated
zones, e.g., the area of Beni-Mellal
(Loussert et al., 1989).
Marketing
Most of the crop is sold locally.
Only a few hundred tonnes of sweet
almonds (used for direct consump-
tion) are exported, mainly to Europe,
and importation into Morocco is pro-
hibited. A total of 1226 t of bitter
almonds (used for almond extract)
were exported in 1988-89 (Division
de l’Horticulture, 1988-89). The farm
price for shelled sweet almonds is about
U.S. $0.60 to U.S. $1.20/lb ($1.25 to
$2.50/kg). Price in shell is about
$0.20/lb, and shelled bitter almonds
bring $1.40 to $2.00/b. Almonds are
Several INRA research stations,
including those at Ain Taoujdate (near
Meknes), at Marrakech, and at Er-
rachidia, conduct cultivar testing and/
or evaluation of local almond geno-
types. Laghezali and Oufkir (1989)
evaluated a total of 60 European,
American, and local cultivars planted
at Ain Taoujdate for fruit and seed
characteristics, tree form, bloom and
harvest dates, and tolerance to diseases.
No data have been published on yield,
however.
The abundance of almond seed-
lings and their wide distribution pro-
vide good possibilities for selecting su-
perior genotypes. Because the species
is highly self-sterile and heterozygous;
wide genetic variability is evident within
the population. However, relatively
little research has been devoted to se-
lection of clones. Barbeau and El Bou-
ami (1979, 1980) of INRA, Marrakech,
very popular in Morocco, being used
in main dishes. as hors d’oeuvres, and
in baked goods and almond pastes.
Some of the best-quality almonds are
candied to form the popular “dragées.”
Research
Horticultural research, teaching,
and extension are developed after the
French rather than the United States
model, with separate institutions. There
are three organizations that are involv-
ed with horticultural research, exten-
sion, and teaching.
The Institut National de la Re-
cherche Agronomique (INRA) has pri-
mary responsibility for research in all
areas of agriculture. Extension is con-
ducted by the Direction de Vulgarisa-
tion et de la Reforme Agraire (DVRA),
Ministère de l’Agriculture. DVRA is
represented at the local level by the
Directions Provinciales d’Agriculture
(DPA) and the Offices Régionaux de
Mise en Valeur Agricole (ORMVA) in
irrigated zones.
University-level education in
horticulture is carried out by the Institut
Agronomique et Vétéinaire Hassan II
(I.A.V.), the main campus of which is
located at Rabat. Horticultural pro-
grams are presently divided among
three locations: Rabat, Agadir, and
Meknès. The university is also involved
in research in connection with under-
graduate and MS theses and PhD pro-
grams, most of which are carried out in
conjunction with foreign universities,
particularly the United States, through
the USAID/Minnesota Project.
Fig. 3.
Representative examples indicating the range in stage of development of trees in the
collection at Marrakech on 22 Feb. 1990. Trees were propagated by grafting selected seedlings on
<Marcona> rootstocks.
marked 200 seedlings for evaluation in
Ouarzazate and Errachidia provinces
in southern Morocco in the mid- 1970s
and recorded eight characteristics of
economic value for 3 consecutive years.
Fifty-three seedlings with useful char-
acteristics for breeding purposes were
propagated for further evaluation at
both Errachidia and Marrakech (Fig.
3). Seedlings of ‘Marcona’ were used
as a rootstock, and two commercial
cultivars (‘Ferragnès’ and ‘Tardy Non-
pareil’) and a self-fertile Italian cultivar
(‘Tuono’), were included for compari-
son. Over a 4-year period, five of the
clones yielded more than 5 kg of al-
monds, in shell, per tree annually at
Marrakech, and 19 produced more
than 3 kg, whereas ‘Ferragnès’,
‘Tuono’, and ‘Tardy Non-Pareil’ pro-
duced only 1.5, 1.0, and 0 kg, respec-
tively (Mouhri, 1986). (Possible cli-
matic × cultivar interactions are sug-
gested by the observation that ‘Tuono’
has produced well when planted in a
Solid block at Ain Taoujdate.) Laghezali
(1985) evaluated 16 clones selected in
seedling orchards in northern (Al
Hoceima) and southern (Tafraoute)
Morocco. These were classified accord-
ing to eight characteristics, including
both tree and nut properties. Chahbar
(unpublished data) made a similar study
in the Al Hoceima area over a 2-year
period. However, in neither case were
clones propagated for further evalua-
tion. A small collection of genotypes
from the area near Taroudant exists at
the INR4 station at Oulad Berhill, 60
miles south of Agadir. However, no
data are available as to performance of
these genotypes at this time (Hamon,
personal communication).
Neumann (unpublished data),
workingwith the German technical as-
sistance program (GTZ) at Al Ho-
ceima, collected several clones for pos-
sible use as rootstocks. These clones
are included in a budwood block at
Ain Taoujdate, but no data are known
to exist as to their effects upon scion
performance.
Benazoun (1984) of the I.A.V.,
Agadir, conducted an extensive study
of the life cycle of the almond bark
beetle in intercropped orchards in the
area near Beni-Mellal and Tafiaoute.
Although some natural predators were
found, none was effective in control-
ling the insect. A single spray of delta-
methrin [(S)- α -cyano-3-phenoxyben-
zyl(1R,3R)-3-(2,2-dibromovinyl-2,2-
dimethyl-cyclopropanecarboxylate)]
was partially effective, however, when
applied during spring emergence of
adults (Benazoun and Schvester,
1989). Farmers in this area are reluc-
tant to spray trees during the growing
season for fear of mechanical damage
to the crops grown between them (A.
Benazoun, personal communication).
Capnode (Capnodis tenebrionis
L.) became a serious threat to all stone
fruits during the drought years of the
early 1980s. The larvae of this beetle
attack the roots and crowns of trees
that have been weakened by drought
or disease. Young trees that have not
been well-cared for are particularly sus-
ceptible. Hmimina (1989) and Hmi-
mina et al. (1988) have described the
life cycle of this insect. Once eggs have
been laid, control is very difficult, as
the larvae are subterranean. HCH
(mixed isomers of 1,2,3,4,5,6-hexa-
chlorocyclohexane) applied to the soil
during the oviposition period was the
only treatment found to be effective.
Although HCH has now been banned,
ethyl chloropyrophosphate is being
evaluated (Loussert et al, 1989).
Research priorities
Despite a high demand for al-
monds on the domestic market, the
profit margin is often narrow, and
greater efficiency is essential. A major
factor limiting yield is water. Irrigation
alone would greatly increase produc-
tion, were it available.
As noted above, biennial bearing
is a problem. This may be associated
with certain cultivars, or with weather
conditions during bloom, and may be
intensified by moisture stress from lack
of fall rains. Some research is needed to
establish the reasons for this tendency
and to determine how to correct it. In
France, heavy fruiting limits flower
initiation in certain cultivars (e.g.,
‘Rachele’) but not in others (e.g.,
‘Ferragnès’, ‘Nonpareil’) (Grasselly and
Crossa-Raynaud, 1980).
Production efficiency could also
be improved by selecting superior
clones from the large seedling popula-
tion. Establishment of a germplasm
bank would preserve clones that may
have valuable scion and/or rootstock
characteristics, such as drought toler-
ance, but lack the full range ofqualities
necessary for commercial production.
These should be propagated and eval-
uated at several locations because of
the great difference in chilling hours,
precipitation, and soil types that occur
among almond-growing areas. Late
bloom to avoid frosts is of high prior-
ity. Self-fertility should also be evalu-
ated, as none of the cultivars currently
grown commercially is self-fertile. This
seedling population might also pro-
vide superior rootstocks. A breeding
program may be initiated at the Ecole
Na-tionale d’Agriculture (ENA) at
Meknès. Seedling selections could pro-
vide some useful germplasm for this
program.
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