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Online social support as a buffer against online and offline peer and sexual victimization among U.S. LGBT and non-LGBT youth
Abstract
In today's technology-infused world, we need to better understand relationships youth form with friends online, how they compare to relationships formed in-person, and whether these online relationships confer protective benefits. This is particularly important from the perspective of peer victimization, given that social support in-person appears to reduce the odds of victimization in-person. To address this literature gap, data from a sample of 5,542 U.S. adolescents, collected online between August 2010 and January 2011, were analyzed. The main variables of interest were: online and in-person peer victimization (including generalized and bullying forms) and online and in-person sexual victimization (including generalized and sexual harassment forms). Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) youth were more likely than non-LGBT youth to have online friends and to appraise these friends as better than their in-person friends at providing emotional support. Peer victimization and unwanted sexual experiences were more commonly reported by LGBT than non-LGBT youth. Perceived quality of social support, either online or in-person, did little to attenuate the relative odds of victimization for LGBT youth. For all youth, in-person social support was associated with reduced odds of bully victimization (online and in-person) and sexual harassment (in-person), but was unrelated to the other outcomes of interest. Online social support did not reduce the odds of any type of victimization assessed. Together, these findings suggest that online friends can be an important source of social support, particularly for LGBT youth. Nonetheless, in-person social support appears to be more protective against victimization, suggesting that one is not a replacement for the other.
... The purpose of the current study is to raise questions regarding the current differences in bullying victimization in relation to age and gender, including transgender and gender nonconforming individuals, and how screen time usage affects the strength of this relationship. Given the increased rates of bullying victimization among transgender and gender nonconforming individuals (Eisenberg et al., 2017;Reisner et al., 2015;Ybarra et al., 2015), and that transgender individuals who experienced in-school gender-based victimization were found to be four times more likely to attempt suicide (Goldblum et al., 2012), the inclusion of gender diverse individuals in school bullying research is crucial. ...
... Given the unique experiences of gender diverse students in school, it is reasonable to assume they may be differentially affected by bullying victimization. A few studies conducted within the past decade provide evidence toward this end, showing that, compared to their cisgender peers, gender diverse youth experience higher rates of general bullying victimization (Eisenberg et al., 2017;Reisner et al., 2015;Ybarra et al., 2015) and specifically, gender-based bullying victimization (Goldblum et al., 2012). To advance a more equitable approach to understanding and ameliorating bullying victimization in schools, it is crucial to include gender diverse students in data analysis. ...
... It should be noted that for transgender or gender nonconforming youth, there may be unique prosocial benefits related to screen usage. Online spaces can create a sense of community among gender diverse youth and allies, where emotional and experiential affirmations, social validation, and informational support can be found (Selkie et al., 2020;Ybarra et al., 2015). Additionally, group discussion related to topics like violence, discrimination, advocacy, and health can be accessed online in a way that may not be possible in person due to visibility (Krueger & Young, 2015). ...
We used a large state-wide sample of adolescent students in 8th, 10th, and 12th grades (N = 58,689) to examine the predictive value of screen time on bullying victimization, as well as its interaction with age by gender, including transgender and gender nonconforming identities. Participants were majority boys/men (52.3%), heterosexual (88.1%), and White (73.7%). Findings generally supported previous literature related to cisgender differences, but highlighted differences for transgender and gender nonconforming youth. While screen time and technology use, as well as development and maturation, appear to be important predictors of bullying victimization for cisgender students identifying as boys/men and girls/women, they did not predict bullying victimization for transgender or gender nonconforming youth. Results suggest we cannot assume previous bullying research on binary cisgender students will generalize to transgender and gender nonconforming youth. Practical implications for advancing bullying and victimization research with gender diverse students are outlined.
... Young people have access to an almost infinite amount of information of dubious quality. One of the reasons for this is the proliferation of smart devices that allow us to enter the online world from anywhere, at any time [1]; [26]; [34]; [35]; [37]. Technological developments at the beginning of the 21st century have brought about many changes in the socialization of adolescent children; [28]; [37]. ...
... Many studies on social media and mental health in young people have concluded that there is a link between social media use and various mental health problems [17]; [18]; [19]; [29]. There is also agreement that social media has an impact on people's lifestyles and research is an ongoing, never-ending process to identify the nature of the impact in all societies and countries [19]; [20]; [21]; [34]; [37]. Social media is the fastest and cheapest way to access the world, so it is crucial for people of all ages. ...
... Social media has the potential to provide a platform where the socialization of young "people" can take place more easily [26]. Previous studies highlight that many young individuals today cannot communicate face-to-face and find it more difficult to create personal bonds [19]; [28]; [32]; [34]. This is of course different from previous generations, but social media can help young people to interact, it is of course not a substitute for face-to-face communication, but it gives young persons an additional opportunity. ...
Social media has become part of our day and its effects are being studied in younger age groups, but there is minimal literature on older young adults. Our research sought to answer the question of the impact of social media use on the interpersonal communication of young college students. Our survey was completed online by 55 first- and second-year sports students, and our results show that effects can be detected in this age group.
... Conversely, online communities can provide TGD individuals with access to social support and connection with their peers that they might not otherwise have, reducing social isolation [27,28]. Online TGD spaces can facilitate a sense of community for TGD individuals who might otherwise be isolated from the wider TGD community, and these spaces are often the first point of contact for TGD individuals beginning to challenge or explore their gender identity [12,27,28]. ...
... Conversely, online communities can provide TGD individuals with access to social support and connection with their peers that they might not otherwise have, reducing social isolation [27,28]. Online TGD spaces can facilitate a sense of community for TGD individuals who might otherwise be isolated from the wider TGD community, and these spaces are often the first point of contact for TGD individuals beginning to challenge or explore their gender identity [12,27,28]. Many TGD individuals rely on online friendships and communities as their primary form of social support [12,28]. ...
... Online TGD spaces can facilitate a sense of community for TGD individuals who might otherwise be isolated from the wider TGD community, and these spaces are often the first point of contact for TGD individuals beginning to challenge or explore their gender identity [12,27,28]. Many TGD individuals rely on online friendships and communities as their primary form of social support [12,28]. For TGD individuals, social support is a vitally important source of resilience and a protective factor against the effects of victimization [12,25,28]. ...
Cyberbullying can present a serious risk for adolescents and young adults, with severe effects on victims including adverse mental health outcomes and increased risk of suicide. Transgender and gender diverse (TGD) individuals are significantly more likely to experience cyberbullying. However, little is presently known about the lived cyberbullying experiences of TGD adults despite the prevalence of cyberbullying experienced by the TGD community. TGD participants (n = 66, M = 24 years) were recruited through snowball sampling and completed an online questionnaire as part of a larger study, which included qualitative questions regarding cyberbullying. Participants reported that cyberbullying was experienced predominantly on social media sites and was largely anonymous. The content was often physically and sexually threatening and heavily transphobic. Additionally, some cyberbullying experienced by TGD individuals was perpetrated by other TGD individuals and focused on the identity policing and gatekeeping of TGD spaces. Participants reported cyberbullying evoked negative emotions, and they often responded by either arguing with or blocking the perpetrators, thereby demonstrating resilience. Some participants sought social support in response to cyberbullying, which acted as a protective factor. Findings reveal specific harms associated with cyberbullying as experienced by TGD individuals and highlight the need for further research and targeted support.
... The orientation-specific variation was also found in the previous results in Chapter 3. Among the current literature, we only found two studies pertaining to friend's support, in which online friendship were found to be used often by sexual minority youth to complement to "perceived limitations in offline resources and relationships" 127 and sexual minority youth were more likely than heterosexual youth to think "these friends as better than their in-person friends at providing emotional support" 128 . In the past decade, since adolescents have got to spend much more time online, they are more exposed to support and help from Internet. ...
... One study in 2013 indicated that sexual minority youth used the internet to compensate for perceived limitations in offline resources and relationships 127 . Another study reported that homosexual youth were more likely than heterosexual youth to have online friends and to appraise these friends as better than their inperson friends at providing emotional support 128 . In the new Internet age, the time that adolescents spend online will be much longer than in the past. ...
Le suicide est la deuxième cause de décès à l'adolescence aux États-Unis et dans les pays européens dont la France, l'un des principaux risques de décès par suicide étant la présence d'antécédent(s) de tentative de suicide (TS). Les facteurs de risque connus de TS sont nombreux à l'adolescence en population générale. Les adolescents ayant une attirance homosexuelle et/ou bisexuelle (LGB) pourraient présenter davantage de stress, de stigmatisation et de pression que leurs pairs hétérosexuels. Cependant, les facteurs de risque et de protection possibles ont été peu explorés dans la littérature. Une meilleure connaissance de ces facteurs pourrait permettre de proposer des interventions adaptées. L'enquête française « Portraits d'adolescents », réalisée en 2013, apporte des données sur de nombreuses variables dont l'attirance sexuelle et la TS. Parmi les 14 265 adolescents, 637 (4,5%) se décrivent comme LGB. Parmi eux, 30,7 % rapportent avoir fait une TS (vs 10,6 % des adolescents hétérosexuels). Différents types de méthodes statistiques (test du Chi 2, modèle de régression logistique, modèle de machine learning decision tree) ont été réalisés pour comparer les groupes LGB et hétérosexuels et identifier les facteurs de risque ou de protection de TS. Nos différents modèles statistiques sont parvenus à des conclusions similaires. A la fois chez les adolescents LGB et hétérosexuels, la consommation de substances (alcool, tabac, cocaïne, ecstasy, amphétamine) apparait comme le facteur de risque le plus évident et le soutien parental comme le facteur de protection le plus important. Cependant, le soutien d'un ami rencontré sur Internet semble un facteur significatif de protection de TS seulement chez les jeunes homosexuels, alors qu'il s'agit du soutien d'un ami réel chez les jeunes hétérosexuels. Ainsi, il apparait essentiel de formuler des recommandations pour développer des outils pertinents incluant les pairs, les parents et les professionnels, dont le soutien joue un rôle essentiel. Des mesures de prévention doivent être élaborées et mises en oeuvre chez les jeunes des minorités sexuelles. Des interventions anti-stigmatisation au niveau sociétal sont nécessaires afin de réduire le risque de victimisation et sensibiliser l'entourage. Mots clefs : tentative de suicide, adolescent, minorité sexuelle, facteur de risque et protection, prévention-2-Abstract: Suicide remains the second leading cause of death in adolescence in the United States and European countries including France, one main risk of death by suicide is history of attempted suicide (SA). The known risk factors for SA are numerous in adolescence. Adolescents with homosexual or bisexual attraction (LGB) could experience more stress, stigma and pressure than their heterosexual peers. However, the possible risk and protective factors have not been fully explored in the literature. A better knowledge of these factors in LGB youth could help to propose appropriate prevention. The French survey "Portraits d'adolescents" (2013) includes many important variables including sexual attraction and SA. Among the 14,265 adolescents, 637 (4.5%) described themselves as LGB. 30.7% attempted suicide (vs. 10.6% of heterosexual adolescents). Different types of statistical methods (Chi-square test, logistic regression model, Machine Learning decision tree model) were carried out to compare LGB and heterosexual groups and to identify risk and protective factors for SA. Different statistical models have reached consistent conclusions. In both LGB and heterosexual youth, substance consumption (alcohol, tobacco, cocaine, ecstasy, amphetamine) is the highest risk factor and parental support is the most important protective factor for SA. However, internet friend support was reported as a protective factor only in homosexual youth, whereas support of real-life friend was an important factor only in heterosexual youth. Thus, it is essential to build recommendations in order to develop relevant tools including peers, parents and professionals, whose support plays a crucial role. Effective preventive measures among sexual minority youth need to be developed and implemented. Societal-level anti-stigma interventions are needed to reduce the risk of victimization and awareness should be raised among family and friends.
... Sexual and gender identity could play a role with respect to clients' openness to OC. Research suggests that female college students have more positive attitudes about OC (Tsan & Day, 2007) and are more willing to seek online mental health support compared to male students (Mckinley & Ruppel, 2014;Montagni, Donisi, et al., 2016;Montagni, Parizot, et al., 2016;Toscos et al., 2018), or no differences in the overall attitudes toward online counseling between different genders (Ballesteros & Hilliard, 2016). Sexual/gender minority adolescents and young adults show positive attitudes and experiences regarding web-based resources and support (McInroy et al., 2019;Ybarra et al., 2015). For example, McInroy et al. (2019) found that LGBTQ + youth aged 14-29 partook in online LGBTQ + communities more than real-world communities, which allowed them to feel supported and safe and be more active. ...
... For example, McInroy et al. (2019) found that LGBTQ + youth aged 14-29 partook in online LGBTQ + communities more than real-world communities, which allowed them to feel supported and safe and be more active. Ybarra et al. (2015), in a cross-sectional study with 5, 907 LGBT youth (aged 13-18), found that LGBT youth prefer online friends to in-person friends, suggesting online support provides increased emotional wellbeing. In this context, it is important to note that the COVID-19 pandemic and its following social distancing measures have disproportionately affected the health and wellbeing of LGBTQ + individuals (Banerjee & Nair, 2020;Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 2020;Chatterjee et al., 2020), leading to higher rates of depression, anxiety, stress, and loneliness (e.g., Drabble & Eliason, 2021;Peterson et al., 2020). ...
Intimate partner violence (IPV) is prevalent and has devastating consequences for college students. Online counseling (OC) may be a way to decrease barriers to help. This study seeks to determine openness to OC compared to face-to-face counseling (F2F) by examining: (1) How openness to OC varies depending on college students’ personal and IPV characteristics and (2) How these characteristics vary compared to college non-IPV survivors. Two linear regressions were conducted using a sample from a cross sectional survey. First with the entire sample of college students (N = 1,518) to examine characteristics of those more open to OC and second with only those that identified as experiencing IPV (n = 1,211). The results demonstrated that IPV survivors are less open to OC than to F2F counseling (b = -.23, p < .01). For the model with all college students, those who were significantly more open to OC were female (b = -.39, p < .001), identified as LGBT (b = .23, p < .05), or Asian/Pacific Islander (API) (b = .26, p < .05), and had a physical health issue (b = -.19, p < .05). For the model that only analyzed IPV survivors, the same characteristics were shown to be significantly related to openness to OC. More research is needed to explore why IPV survivors are less open to OC compared to F2F counseling. Exploring why characteristics of female, LGBT, and physical health issues lead to openness to OC could help understand what barriers need to be addressed for wider use.
... Bullying can range from verbal harassment to physical violence or sexual abuse. Victimization at schools and other social settings is common [12,13]. Data from the 2019 Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance indicate that SGD high school students had greater odds of violence victimization than heterosexual students across all surveyed indicators [14]. ...
... Limited data suggest that online friends can be an important source of social support, particularly for victimized SGD youth, although in-person social support appears to be more protective [13]. A recent meta-analysis provides evidence to support Gay-Straight Alliances in high schools as a means of protecting SGD youth from school-based victimization [20]. ...
Position paper on care of LGBTQ youth from the Society for Adolescent Health and Medicine
... Indeed, sparse research indicates LGTBQ + youth may spend more time online than their non-LGBTQ + peers (Craig & McInroy, 2014;Cho, 2018;GLSEN, 2013). Youth whose sexual and/or gender identities are unsupported in their offline contexts may spend increased time online seeking out supportive individuals and communities, finding resources that may not otherwise be available to them, and engaging in other beneficial developmental and coping behaviors (Craig & McInroy, 2014;Higa et al., 2014;Ybarra et al., 2015). LGBTQ + youths' online participation has been found to positively impact their mental health and well-being, buffering the cognitive, emotional, and physiological impacts of prejudice and discrimination (Craig et al., 2015;Amnesty International, 2019). ...
While scholarship has identified LGBTQ + youths’ increased risk of overt online victimization, specific forms and particular effects of covert prejudice and discrimination have not been examined. This study explored psychophysiological reactions to, and impacts of, digital microaggressions on LGBTQ + youth (aged 14–24) utilizing cross-sectional qualitative data (n = 1179). The Transactional Model of Stress and Coping was employed to inform study design and analyses. Microaggressions were depicted in a digital vignette and reactions were collected via open-ended survey responses. Analyses indicate that LGBTQ + youth frequently experience digital microaggressions. These experiences result in three main response types: (1) cognitive responses and coping behaviors; (2) emotional responses and coping strategies; and (3) physiological responses and coping strategies. Participants’ psychological and physiological responses to digital microaggressions included a variety of internalizing and externalizing appraisals and impacts, including identity-specific effects. Results provide knowledge on LGBTQ + youths’ experiences of hostile online climates, with the potential to enhance research and practice.
... These positive effects on LGBQ Facebook users' well-being are attributable to the network's affordances, which enable users to promote group identity and in-group ties particularly crucial for minority group members (Fox & Moreland, 2015) and receive online support from like-minded peers (Ceglarek & Ward, 2016;Ybarra et al., 2015). Furthermore, it was found that LGB people had benefited from Facebook use even by only surrounding themselves with LGBTQ-related peers and content, as opposed to actively seeking for support (Marciano & Antebi-Gruszka, 2022). ...
... Furthermore, over the last two decades, various studies have demonstrated that social network sites (SNS) are an especially potent means for accessing social capital and support (Domahidi, 2018). Studies of online support groups have further shown various benefits of supportive online interactions for individuals experiencing physical and mental health concerns (e.g., Worrall et al., 2018) or other issues (e.g., Ybarra et al., 2015). In CMC in general, a user's perceived social support has been positively associated with well-being (Domahidi, 2018;Liu et al., 2019). ...
Recent research started to apply concepts of well-being to the context of computer mediated communication (e.g., social media, instant messaging). While much research investigates negative perceptions of mediated social interactions (e.g., “problematic” or “addictive” social media use), a multi-dimensional measure that taps into users? positive perceptions is sorely lacking. The present research therefore develops the first comprehensive measure of digital flourishing, defined as positive perceptions of mediated social interactions. Building on a qualitative pre-study that aided the construction of the Digital Flourishing Scale (DFS), Study 1 (N = 474) employed exploratory factor analysis to reveal five subdimensions of digital flourishing. The preregistered Study 2 (N = 438) confirmed these five dimensions, yielding five reliable items per subscale and initial construct validity with three psychological needs from self-determination theory (SDT; competence, autonomy, relatedness) which were used as an underlying well-being framework for the development of the DFS. The preregistered Study 3 generated further construct validity by directly relating DFS to well-being. The scale is relevant for researchers and practitioners alike to better understand how users perceive their mediated interactions to impact mental health and well-being.
... However, this null hypothesis is rejected for the other two sub-scales of OSS, as the results indicated that Social Companionship Online Social Support and Informational Online Social Support were significantly higher among the LGBTQIA+ sample. This finding could be explained by a study conducted in 2015, in which the results indicated that the LGBTQIA+ youth were more likely than their cis-het counterparts to have online friends, and to evaluate these friends as better than their in-person friends at providing emotional support [33]. ...
... With respect to older adults, most of the current research regarding social relationships and psychological well-being is focused on general populations of seniors, of which LGB individuals may or may not be a part (e.g., Aartsen & Jylhä, 2011;Bandari et al., 2019;Cacioppo & Cacioppo, 2014;Chen & Feeley, 2013;de Jong Gierveld, 1998;Fiori et al., 2007;Malcolm et al., 2019;Pinquart & Sorensen, 2001;Stall et al., 2019). Regarding LGB individuals, much of the extant literature has centred on other important aspects of LGB experiences, such as online behaviours in youth and young adults (e.g., Baams et al., 2011;Ybarra et al., 2014), or has studied LGBT individuals as an umbrella group (Galupo et al., 2016). This has meant that the intersections of gender, sexual orientation, and age have been largely overlooked, leaving LGB older adults, and particularly older lesbians, out of many of the current conversations within this field (Wilkens, 2015). ...
A growing body of research has identified the relationship between loneliness and numerous adverse health outcomes in adults over the age of 55. Lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) older adults have been flagged as an especially high-risk group, and while social networks have been shown to protect against loneliness in LGBT youth, this has yet to be investigated in older adults. A growing arena for social connection in older adults is the Internet, with over 45% of seniors reporting regular use of social media sites; however, disagreement persists regarding the influence of these sites on mental health, particularly in LGB older adults. This study examined associations between social integration and psychological well-being among lesbian older adults and a demographically similar sample of heterosexual women. Additionally, the study explored the mediating roles of mental health status (loneliness, depression, anxiety) and social media (use and attitudes) on this relationship, as well as the influence of the COVID-19 pandemic on social communication. Lesbian (n = 201) and heterosexual women (n = 245) between the ages of 55 and 85 completed online questionnaires assessing social integration, psychological well-being, mental health status, social media, and changes in communication patterns during COVID-19. In each sample, social integration was significantly correlated with psychological well-being; however, lesbian and heterosexual older women did not significantly differ in levels of social integration or well-being, and neither sexual orientation nor age moderated this relationship. Loneliness, depression, and anxiety were found to significantly mediate the relationship between social integration and psychological well-being, particularly regarding the more objective dimensions of social integration. Conversely, social media use and attitudes were not found to be significant mediators, and no notable changes in communication patterns during the COVID-19 pandemic were found. These results suggest that social integration is importantly linked to psychological well-being in both lesbian and heterosexual older adult women, and that this relationship is indirectly affected by mental health status. While the limited representativeness of the study sample may restrict the generalizability of these findings, they generally strengthen support for considering social factors when addressing the mental health needs of lesbian older adults.
... It is also plausible that the kind of support that an organization like RFSL offers provides a protective factor. Ybarra et al. (2015) claims that LGBT youths are more likely to have friends online and value them more than friends in real life than heterosexual youths. ...
... 3 Although developmental differences may limit the generalizability of these findings to younger populations, there is evidence that children and adolescents can find beneficial communities online in the right settings. 6,7 A feasible and safe strategy to allow patients to access electronic devices is critical to capitalize on the potentially protective benefits of virtual social support. Electronic device access also enables virtual treatment modalities, mitigating the therapeutic limitations of isolation precautions. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has been identified as a mental health crisis for children and adolescents in America.1 Social isolation and loneliness during the pandemic present a significant challenge. A rapid systematic review published in this journal found that social isolation correlates with depression and anxiety and may heighten the risk of disorder onset.2 Specifically in an infectious disease context, research on the H1N1 influenza pandemic showed that children in North America required to quarantine were 5 to 30 times more likely to meet criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder than children not under these restrictions.2.
... As teenagers spend more time interacting with digital technology, there is an urgent need to understand the ramifications of this usage and employ new technologies to benefit rather than harm adolescents' mental health and well-being. We should instead emphasise that digital technology is neither beneficial nor evil in and of itself in light of the current public debate [24]. Social connection is one of the most well-known advantages of social media, with 81% of students reporting that it increases their sense of connectedness to their peers. ...
Adolescents now cannot imagine their lives without social media. Practitioners want to be able to assess risk, and social media may be a new factor to take into account. The impression of the link between social networks and intellectual health holds a strong emphasis on adolescent and professional perspectives, although there is little research that underlies these beliefs. Sexting, privacy concerns, cyberbullying, and negative impacts on education and mental health are dangers connected with social media use in this population. However, ethical social media use can increase opportunities for connection and communication, boosting one's self-esteem, promoting one's health, and getting access to crucial medical information. Despite rising evidence of the harmful impacts of social media on adolescent mental health, there is still a paucity of empirical research on how teenagers understand social media, notably as a body of wisdom, or how they can use the larger modern media discourses to voice an opinion. The youth use smartphones and other media in high numbers, which leads to chronic sleep deprivation, having a detrimental impact on cognitive ability, school performance, and socio-emotional functioning. Smartphone and social media use among teenagers are associated with an increase in mental distress, self-harming behaviours, and suicidality, according to evidence from numerous cross-sectional, longitudinal, and empirical studies. Clinicians can collaborate with young people and their families to mitigate the potential risks associated with social media and smartphone use by employing open, nonjudgmental, and developmentally appropriate strategies, such as education and practical problem-solving.
... These research findings have been attributed to a range of factors, including differences in the way that LGBTQIA+ communities use online spaces compared with heterosexual communities which may increase their risk of experiencing online harms. Specifically, it has been suggested that some online platforms are used as safe spaces by LGBTQIA+ communities for social support and to connect with others (GLSEN, CiPHR & CCRC 2013;Ybarra et al. 2015), which may increase opportunities for these harms to occur. Alternatively, it has been suggested that LGBTQIA+ communities are targeted by other online users because of their perceived vulnerability and their sexuality (Gámez-Guadix & Incera 2021). ...
This study presents the findings from a large survey of people living in Australia (n=9,987) who had used mobile dating apps and/or dating websites in the previous five years. Across the entire sample, 12.4 percent of respondents reported receiving requests to facilitate the sexual exploitation of their own children or children they had access to. Requests included asking for sexual information about children or for sexual images or videos of children, asking to meet children in person or asking for children to perform sex acts over webcam. The paper highlights the need for additional safety features to be embedded in mobile dating apps and dating websites to protect vulnerable users and to prevent the sexual exploitation of children.
... Sexual minority adolescents who perceive their parents and friends to be supportive of their sexual identities report better psychosocial health outcomes and decreased emotional symptomology than sexual minority adolescents who perceive their parents and peers as unsupportive (Chambi-Martínez et al., 2022;Ryan et al., 2010;Travers et al., 2012;Wilson et al., 2012). Social support from friendships among sexual minority youth, including those formed or maintained online (Ybarra et al., 2015), was found to be protective against the effects of peer victimization (Shilo & Savaya, 2011). ...
Purpose: Research suggests social support may protect sexual minorities from the harmful effects of victimization that undermine mental and sexual health wellness; however, this relationship has been underexplored among a diverse youth population. We examined the association between lifetime homonegative victimization, perceived stress in the last month, and resilience factors among a diverse sample of adolescent sexual minority males. Methods: Data were collected between June 2018 and April 2020 as part of the MyPEEPS Mobile study, a multi-site randomized controlled trial evaluating the effectiveness of a mobile behavioral HIV prevention intervention for adolescents living in the U.S. We analyzed baseline survey data from 542 sexual minority males, aged 13–18 years. We used bivariate analyses to examine relationships among variables and multivariable linear regression models to determine if resilience factors attenuated the association between homonegative victimization and perceived stress. Results: Perceived stress was positively associated with younger age, internalized homophobia, experiencing verbal victimization, threats of being outed, and threats of physical violence. Relying on online friends for support and having good family relations both attenuated the relationship between verbal victimization and perceived stress. However, neither of these resilience factors significantly weakened the associations between perceived stress, threats of physical violence, and being outed. Conclusion: Resilience factors, including peer and family support, may play an attenuating role in the relationship between homonegative victimization and perceived stress among adolescent sexual minority males.
ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03167606
... We did not find any associations between social reappraisal support and mental health symptoms in university students meeting our threshold for significance. Social support, in general, has previously been associated with better mental health in response to stress, although it has not been clear whether such support can be as effective through remote interactions as in-person interactions (Cole et al., 2017;Padfield, 2021;Ybarra et al., 2015). Previous reports have indicated increases in mental health symptoms in undergraduate students during the pandemic (Chirikov et al., 2020), consistent with findings we report on the current sample in the Supplementary Material. ...
Given how much time humans spend in social contexts, interest has been growing in socially mediated forms of affect regulation. Historically, though, research on affect regulation has focused on individual forms of regulation, such as cognitive reappraisal. To address this gap, we investigated social affect regulation in university students through an online survey, with a particular focus on social reappraisal. Specifically, we tested whether the frequency with which students communicate with their social contacts is related to how much social reappraisal support they receive from those contacts, and whether social reappraisal support is associated with mental health. Our final sample consisted of 152 undergraduates from across North America who reported on a total of 1,124 social contacts. We consistently found that communication frequency was positively associated with perceived social reappraisal support across several modalities of communication (e.g., text-based, video-based, in-person). However, we observed no associations between levels of social reappraisal support and measures of mental health. This research was part of a preregistered project on social affect regulation in university students in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic (https://osf.io/q7bvw/). Thus, we present findings in relation to this context. These findings underscore that social forms of affect regulation play a significant role in university students’ lives, emphasizing the value of further research into their mechanisms and effects.
... Higher scores in the MSPSS were interpreted as having higher perceived social support. This scale has been used in several studies since 1988 and has since provided evidence of its psychometric soundness across a diverse sample of participants, including youth, LGBTQ, and Asian individuals (Bruwer et al., 2008;Hall et al., 2019;Osman et al., 2014;Salimi & Bozorgpour, 2012;Tonsing et al., 2012;Ybarra et al., 2015;Wongpakaran, 2011). Specifically, a recent validation study conducted by Hall and colleagues (2019) with Filipino participants obtained a Cronbach alpha of 0.89. ...
Outness is determined by disclosing one’s sexual orientation and gender identity to people we socially engage in everyday life. For lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) youth, coming out may have several consequences due to stigma and discrimination toward sexual minorities. Perceived social support, a generalized sense of acceptance, has been associated with greater psychological well-being and sexual identity disclosure. The present study used a sequential explanatory mixed design to investigate perceived social support and its role in the outness of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths in the Philippines. Phase 1 consisted of 239 self-identified LGB Filipinos ages 18 to 24 who completed the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support and the Outness Inventory. Quantitative results showed a positive relationship between perceived social support and outness, with perceived family support being a significant predictor. Phase 2 involved 11 participants who were randomly selected from the study sample. The substantial interpretations of the qualitative interview supported and validated that perceived social support from family is a determining factor in the participants’ disclosure of sexual orientation. Further analysis revealed that perceived social support from one’s family could be a sequential process influencing the LGB youths’ coming-out decisions. Three key themes emerged in the participants’ experiences of perceived family support that served as the main stages in their coming out process: (1) Initial Reactions, (2) Readiness to Accept the Idea, and (3) Openness and Involvement. Generally, higher overall social support, especially from family members, leads to a higher degree of outness among Filipino LGB youths.
... Transgender and genderdiverse adolescents, due to their low numbers, may never meet in person with another who they know is TGD. While online contact with peers is not as protective as in-person friends (Ybarra et al., 2015), it can be helpful to teens who have no other opportunities for contact with peers. There are many online resources; for example, The Trevor Project (https://www.thetrevorproject.org/) ...
Background
At a time when suicides are increasing throughout the United States, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and two spirit (LGBTQ2S) adolescents are at especially high risk for suicidal ideation, attempts, and completed suicide.
Objectives
To 1) provide an overview and clinical perspective on LGBTQ2S suicidal ideation, attempts, and completed suicide; 2) discuss how the literature maps on to theories of suicide, and also points the way to clinical recommendations; and 3) give recommendations for clinical care based on this evidence.
Method
This article uses a narrative review style to discuss the current concerns around LGBTQ2S adolescent suicide. The Social Ecological Model, the Interpersonal Psychological Theory of Suicide, and Minority Stress Theory are used describe the manner in which risks are acquired.
Results
Emerging research demonstrates risks and protective factors in the lives of LGBTQ2S adolescents. The social context of LGBTQ2S adolescents puts them at risk for internalizing the experiences of discrimination evident in our society, In addition, there are other risk factors frequently associated with their LGBTQ2S status, such as substance misuse, homelessness, and lack of social support . Adolescents of color are especially vulnerable as they experience multiple marginalizations, often living in under resourced communities with poor access to health care. Support to families can be provided in the form of psychoeducation based on research findings. Social support is crucial and can be effectively provided in schools. Access to mental health care needs to be increased and barriers reduced.
Conclusion
There is a need for more research, especially prospective study designs and research that centers adolescents of color and homeless adolescents. While there may be barriers to addressing the current rate of suicidality in this population, clinicians who work with adolescents can use a range of therapies to support their LGBTQ2S adolescent patients and their families, decreasing risk of suicidality.
... Variation in cyber-victimization measurement, as well as rapid evolution of virtual victimization contexts, makes it difficult to assess rates of cyber-victimization among SGMY. Despite the difficulty associated with measuring cyber-victimization, research suggests that SGMY consistently report higher levels of this type of victimization compared to heterosexual and cisgender peers (Abreu & Kenny, 2017;Cénat et al., 2015;Escobar-Viera et al., 2018;Ybarra et al., 2015). Understanding cyber-victimization may be particularly important for SGMY because, in addition to experiencing this type of victimization at higher rates, SGMY who experience cyber-victimization may have worse outcomes than their heterosexual and cisgender peers with regards to suicidality (Cénat et al., 2015), depression (Garaigordobil et al., 2020) , and eating disorders (Pistella et al., 2019). ...
Adolescents, in general, are spending more time in online environments, and understanding how youth navigate these contexts may be particularly important for addressing and improving outcomes among sexual and gender minority youth. Taking a developmental perspective, this review discusses online environments as contexts of both risk and resilience for youth in gender and sexual minority communities. In particular, we review literature highlighting how online environments provide a context for many salient aspects of adolescent development, including the promotion of identity development and the exploration of intimate, romantic and sexual behavior. The potential for online environments to serve as contexts for discrimination and victimization for gender and sexual minority youth are also discussed. Specific recommendations for parents, teachers and sexual and gender minority youth themselves are made for creating and promoting positive wellbeing in online spaces.
... Internalized homophobia in the form of homophobic victimization has a negative impact on LGBT mental health. Homophobic victimization can lead to depression, anxiety, panic, mood swings, drug abuse, comorbidity with two or more psychological disorders, self-harm or violence against others and even plans and suicide attempts (Chard et al., 2015;Finneran & Stephenson, 2013;Stoloff et al., 2013;Ybarra et al., 2015). Homophobic victimization can take various forms such as physical action, ostracism, giving offensive nicknames and also acts of homophobic intimidation through digital platforms in the form of hate speech and cyberbullying (Elipe et al., 2018;Pace et al., 2020). ...
Sexual violence against lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people is a public health problem that needs attention. It relates to the impact of physical, psychological, and social health including the risk of increasing cases of HIV/AIDS. The objective of this literature review is to identify the description of sexual violence against LGBT people. Search results on PubMed, ScienceDirect, and ProQuest found 527 articles associated with sexual violence against LGBT people. Seven articles met the inclusion criteria and were employed for this literature review. There were 5 themes which were discovered related to sexual violence against LGBT, encompassing the type and number of cases of sexual violence against LGBT; risk factors for sexual violence against LGBT people; perpetrators of sexual violence against LGBT; and the impact of sexual violence on LGBT people. In conclusion, cases of sexual violence against LGBT people tend to be higher than heterosexual groups. Sexual violence against LGBT is a complex problem and has an impact on the physical and mental health of victims. Thus, the implementation, utilization and success of programs related to the prevention and handling of sexual violence against LGBT groups need to be evaluated so that the program runs optimally.
... While LGBTQ+ youth encounter additional minority stress, such as victimization, compared to their heterosexual, cisgender peers, its contextual impact on LGBTQ+ identity development is relatively unexplored. Moreover, although we know that LGBTQ+ youth rely on social support to buffer against adverse experiences [31], it remains unclear how social support and outness function as moderators in buffering LGBTQ+ youth's identity development. Furthermore, studies to date have not used a mixed methods approach to understand the LGBTQ+ youth experience of bullying. ...
Research rarely explores LGBTQ+ youth bullying in the context of culture-specific outcomes (e.g., LGBTQ+ identity development) and what can mitigate the impact of peer stressors. This study used a concurrent mixed methods design to explore how experiences of peer victimization predicted LGBTQ+ youth’s identity development (i.e., stigma sensitivity, concealment motivation, and difficult process) and whether social support and outness served as protective, moderating factors. The mixed methods approach provides a culture-specific context via qualitative inquiry to inform whether the quantitative findings align with how youth qualitatively discuss their experience of peer victimization, negative outcomes, and social support. Our sample consisted of 349 LGBTQ+ youth 14–17 years old who completed a survey (quantitative sample) and a subset of 39 LGBTQ+ youth who completed a semi-structured interview (qualitative sample). Our quantitative findings indicated that greater overall peer victimization was positively related to LGBIS-revised subscales of stigma sensitivity, concealment motivation, and difficult process, where both outness and social support moderated such relations. Qualitatively, victimized youth also reported stigma sensitivity and concealment motivation while also endorsing how being out and having a support system played a role in their experience of being victimized. These qualitative findings align with our quantitative findings that classmate support mitigated the effects of peer victimization on the difficulty of coming out. Implications for practitioners and researchers are provided.
... Because studies have shown that perceived family support when "coming out" as gay or lesbian to parents or close family members significantly influences life outcomes, including identity formation, for gay men and lesbian women (Carastathis et al. 2017;D'Augelli et al. 1998;Feinstein et al. 2014), a more exhaustive measure of family support that involves questions related to perceived family support, such as family cohesion, communication, and conflict resolution would be beneficial in future studies. It would also be useful for additional research to examine how other types of support, such as peer support and support from the community and/or religious groups may relate to DHV among gay men and lesbian women (Chen and Hung 2021;McConnell, Birkett, and Mustanski 2016a;Ybarra et al. 2015). Second, our measures of DHV experiences are also limited. ...
Many gay and lesbian individuals struggle with family support throughout their life course. In addition, due to their differences in social power and violations of heteronormativity, gay men and lesbian women have unique experiences with family distress. Such difficulties can be related to an increased risk for sexual identity-based discrimination, harassment, and violence (DHV) among gay and lesbian individuals, yet few studies have examined these relationships. The current study utilizes data stratified by US Census categories (age, gender, race/ethnicity, and census region) collected from online panelists (N = 2159; n = 750 hetero cis men, n = 749 hetero cis women, gay cis men = 330, lesbian cis women = 330) to explore Norm-Centered Stigma Theory (NCST) and the relationships between gay/lesbian identity and sexual identity-based DHV. Specifically, social power axes (gender identities), family support, and interactions among these are investigated as they moderate the relationships between violations of heteronormativity (gay/lesbian identity) and stigmatizing experiences associated with such norm violations (sexual identity-based DHV). Results indicate that gay/lesbian identity increases the likelihood of experiencing sexual identity-based DHV; however, family support among lesbian women and gay men decreases the odds of experiencing sexual identity-based DHV. Overall, results lend support to the use of NCST in intersectional explorations to better understand gay and lesbian experiences.
... In addition, we found that online friend support was a protective factor only in homosexuals whereas real-life friend support was a protective factor in heterosexuals. Among the current literature, we only found two studies pertaining to friends support, in which online friendship were found to be used often by LGBT youth in complement to "perceived limitations in o ine resources and relationships" 30 and LGB youth were more likely than non-LGBT youth to think "these friends as better than their in-person friends at providing emotional support" 31 . In the past decade, since adolescents have got to spend much more time online, they are more exposed to support and help from Internet. ...
BACKGROUND: Sexual minority adolescents have greater risk for suicide attempt than heterosexual youth. However, research on risk and protective factors is lacking in sexual minority youth. In this study, we aimed to identify novel risk and protective factors for suicide attempt using machine learning decision tree method.
METHODS: The French cross-sectional study “Portraits adolescents” included 14 265 school-age adolescents. Decision tree algorithm was used to predict SA and to compare the different risk and protective factors between sexual minority youth and heterosexual peers.
RESULTS: Twenty predictive factors were identified among the 70 survey fields output from the predictive modeling for SA. Substance consumptions were among the top risk factors for SA. Parental support was an important protective factor among all adolescents regardless of sexual orientation. Interestingly, through the decision tree, real-life friend support was found protective in heterosexual youth, online friend support was a protective factor in homosexual adolescents.
CONCLUSIONS: Using the decision tree-based algorithm, we not only verified those important protective factors that were demonstrated in existing studies, but also discovered novel protective and attributive factors, such as real-life and online friend support. We urge that social networks should be optimize to provide safety and support for the sexual minority adolescents.
... 4. Provide training to healthcare providers, particularly psychiatrists on healthcare disparities that the LGBTQ+ community face, as well as concerns specific to LGBTQ+ youth that may arise in the course of their clinical work. 5. Extend non-discrimination policies to encompass sexual orientation, gender expression, and gender identity. 6. Include LGBTQ+ youth in the decision-making process to ensure that these initiatives can adequately respond to their unique challenges when formulating programs and services aimed at helping this community 7. Include information related to the risk of suicide among LGBTQ+ youth when devising trainings in suicide prevention Thomeer et al., 2018;Doyle, 2018;Carastathis et al., 2017;Puckett et al., 2015;Ryan et al., 2020;;Shilo & Savaya, 2012;Bonvicini, 2017;Salkind et al., 2019, Suicide Prevention Resource Center, 2020, Radix & Maingi, 2018Wood et al., 2016;Snapp, Watson, et al., 2015;Haas et al., 2011;Hafeez et al., 2017;McCann & Brown, 2018;Newcomb et al., 2019;Gamarel et al., 2014;Yang, 2019;Sekoni et al., 2017;Watson et al., 2020;Ybarra et al., 2015;Wagaman, 2016;Stone et al., 2015;McConnell et al., 2016;McConnell et al., 2015;Wilkerson & Schick, 2017;Wagaman, 2016. with alcohol use, depression, psychological distress, and suicidality (Johns et al., 2019;Russell & Fish, 2016). ...
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and questioning (LGBTQ+) youth experience a myriad of mental health disparities as well as a heightened risk of suicide compared to their non-LGBTQ+ counterparts. They are also more likely to experience a multitude of stressful experiences such as bullying, discrimination, rejection from family, prejudice, and even violence from peers, all of which contribute to suicidal proclivities. Therefore, it is important to comprehend triggers of the disparities faced by LGBTQ+ youth in mental health, hazardous sexual behaviours, and substance use and determine ways of solving them via a calibrated approach combining prevention strategies, appropriate policies, and community programs. In particular, this review focuses on actionable steps that can be taken within schools, families, communities, and healthcare settings, to bolster protective factors supporting LGBTQ+ youth in coping with these challenges. It particularly envisions prevention strategies and interventions that focus on creating spaces for LGBTQ+ youth, increasing a sense of support and acceptance within schools, families, and healthcare settings, and reducing experiences of victimization and stigmatization on the basis of gender identity and sexual orientation.
... Thus, there is an evolving form of empowerment and unique sense of resiliency found amongst these youth to support navigating life individually, and as a member of the broader LGBTQ+ community (Asakura, 2019) when compared to older cohorts. However, it must be noted that newer generations of LGBT+ youth and young adults still face many long-term challenges faced by others within their community for generations, such as school based discrimination and victimization (Kosciw et al., 2019), online and offline bullying (Ybarra, Mitchell, Palmer, et al., 2015), navigating the coming out process, homelessness (Morton, Dworsky, Matjasko, et al., 2018), as well as myriad health and mental health related issues (Wilson and Cariola, 2020). ...
... LGBT youth (28)(29)(30). However, little attention was paid to the social support of the organ donor's families. ...
Background: Donor families experienced a difficult time during and after the process of organ donation. There is a necessity to understand the support they received and what they need to help them get through a painful time. This study aimed to investigate the social support level and social support needs of the donor families in China. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 102 donor families using a questionnaire to investigate their demographics and social support level. To further understand their social support needs, in-depth interviews were conducted among 9 donor families. Results: Findings of the study showed that (1) Most of the family members (74, 72.6%) lacked social support, and only a small number of families (28, 27.5%) received sufficient social support (2). The coping style had an impact on the overall social support level (P = 0.014) (3). There was a lack of emotional support, information support and material support toward the donor's family members. Both emotional support and material support are significantly needed. Conclusions: The overall social support level remained insufficient and the utilization degree of social support was low. Organ donor families are in desperate need of material and emotional support. The level of social support is largely influenced by the donor familie's coping style. Compared with a negative coping style, donor families who adopted a positive coping style acquire more social support.
Internet use has been suggested to have a crucial effect on older adults’ quality of life; however, few studies have investigated the underlying mechanisms in the relationship between internet use and life satisfaction among older adults. Employing multiple linear regression models and mediation analysis with 2019 Chinese Social Survey (CSS) data, this study analyzed the associations between the internet use and life satisfaction of Chinese older adults. Additionally, it explored the mediating role of social interaction, including online and offline social interactions. The results showed that internet use was positively associated with older adults’ life satisfaction, and offline social interaction significantly mediated internet use. Our findings indicate that internet use could improve older adults’ quality of life by promoting offline social interaction. Therefore, the government, communities, and families should create conditions for older adults to integrate into online society and participate in offline social interaction.
Research on LGBTQ + youth often portrays them as either as victims whose lives are defined by violence and discrimination, or as inspirational success stories whose ability to thrive is attributable to external interventions and policies. Drawing on theories of situated agency, minority stress, and queer monstrosity, this participatory qualitative interview project with LGBTQ + young adults illustrates instead how LGBTQ + youth actively shape their coming-of-age experiences and develop unique strategies to survive and thrive in the spaces they occupy. Rather than wholly traumatic or ecstatic, most participants reported mixed experiences with varying support from the people and spaces they encountered. Youth had to regularly engage in the labor of evaluating and responding to this mixed support and mistreatment in everyday situations and relationships. Based on these evaluations participants reported self-regulating their sexual and gender identities and behaviors, shifting tactics between spaces, seeking out and creating queer spaces, embracing their own difference, and engaging in direct resistance. Implications for research and practice suggest that refusing to center deficit-based narratives and recognizing the full range of young people’s queer expressions will produce a more accurate picture of LGBTQ + coming of age and the supports that allow more youth to thrive.
Social media practices are situated within the contexts that people are located in, including family and peer relationships. LGBTQIA+ young people carefully curate social media spaces to find similar others in careful ways. However, less is understood about how existing connections to families of origin (re)shape social media practices. Drawing on interview and focus group data with 65 LGBTQIA+ young people, we examine family considerations in social media practices and curation strategies. Findings reveal that considerations about familial relations play an important role in how young people use social media for maintaining and fostering ties with family members. Young LGBTQIA+ people narrativise their social media practices as intensely affective experiences, where issues of care, concern, and love for family, (re)shapes their social media use. We argue that queer young people’s social media practices can be conceptualised as family practices and consider the implications this has for making sense of social media for queer young people.
Sexual and gender minority (SGM) rural adolescents are at risk for higher levels of social isolation, a well-known risk factor for depression and other negative health outcomes. We qualitatively examined how rural SGM youth seek emotional and informational support, which are protective factors for social isolation on social media (SM) regarding their SGM identity, and determined which SM platforms and tools are most effective in providing support. We conducted semistructured online interviews with rural SGM teens who screened positive for social isolation in spring 2020 and used a thematic analysis approach to analyze the data. Sixteen youths participated in interviews. Themes included seeking emotional support through SM groups and communities, seeking emotional support in designated online SGM spaces, using SM feeds for informational support, and disclosing SGM identity differentially across platforms. SM-based interventions could be leveraged to provide emotional and informational support for rural SGM youth across specific SM platforms and consider whether they are providing emotional or information support. Interventions focused on informational support may best be used on content-based platforms. Those designed to combat social isolation and connect marginalized SGM youths to similar others might benefit from community and forum-based platforms.
With the proliferation of social technologies in today's digital world, adolescents need to adapt to ever-shifting social, cultural, and technological environments. We describe the impact of these technologies on the development of adolescents and the mental health processes relevant to these technologies. We not only explore mental disorders and risky behaviors (e.g., depression, anxiety, fear of missing out, self-harm, etc.) but also the positive dimensions of social media on mental health, including social connectedness, resilience, and access to supportive online relationships. We connect these psychological processes to core elements and affordances of social media, to describe patterns of usage across different platforms. We conclude with future research challenges and recommendations for interventions utilizing these findings such as advice for pediatricians guiding their patient families to collaborations with user-centered computing industry experts which can further co-create technological solutions centering on the needs of adolescent wellbeing.
Online mental health communities (OMHCs) have emerged in recent years as an effective and accessible way to obtain peer support, filling crucial gaps of traditional mental health resources. However, the mechanisms for users to find relationships that fulfill their needs and capabilities in these communities are highly underdeveloped. Using a mixed-methods approach of user interviews and behavioral log analysis on 7Cups.com, we explore central challenges in finding adequate peer relationships in online support platforms and how algorithmic matching can alleviate many of these issues. We measure the impact of using qualities like gender and age in purposeful matching to improve member experiences, with especially salient results for users belonging to vulnerable populations. Lastly, we note key considerations for designing matching systems in the online mental health context, such as the necessity for better moderation to avoid potential harassment behaviors exacerbated by algorithmic matching. Our findings yield key insights into current user experiences in OMHCs as well as design implications for building matching systems in the future for OMHCs.
In this chapter, we focus on lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer or questioning (LGBTQ) students in primary and secondary education. Diverse identities of gender and sexuality are realised primarily during adolescence, however sex education features sparsely in the curriculum of primary and secondary schools and is prominently influenced by heteronormative and cisgender ideologies. As such, LGBTQ students are at high risk of experiencing social exclusion and being exposed to discriminatory attitudes and victimisation within the school environment and the broader community. The increasing popularity of social networking sites among adolescents and the growing representation of sexual and gender diversity in popular culture over the past decade have enabled novel avenues of relationships and sex education (RSE) for LGBTQ young people. Through a critical review of the literature, we highlight the benefits and challenges of RSE through formal (school) and informal contexts (social media) for LGBTQ students. We identify gaps in the relevant literature and explore suggestions for further research in LGBTQ-inclusive RSE. We conclude the chapter by discussing the practical implications of the extant literature for LGBTQ-inclusive relationship and sex education for policymakers and educators.
Despite the pervasive use of social technology among minoritized youth, digital media research has been primarily based on White samples of older adolescents and emerging adults. It is critical to understand how overlooked populations including racial-ethnic, sexual and gender, and other minorities use digital media for purposes associated with their marginalized backgrounds. As social media adopters are becoming younger, we must explore how the pervasiveness of constant exposure and use affects marginalized identity development in early adolescence. This chapter provides an overview of how understudied subgroups of adolescents, namely racial/ethnic minorities, LGBTQ+, economically disadvantaged, and neurodiverse individuals, are influenced by online representations affecting their identity development, and inherent opportunities for risk and resilience. Social media research needs a) to begin at earlier developmental stages to capture critical identity development online and offline; b) more nuanced research beyond digital access to examine online connections for healthy identity exploration of marginalized adolescents.
A staggering number of adolescents in the United States report victimization within peer contexts (e.g., physical, verbal, or cyber forms of bullying) and dating relationships (e.g., physical, or psychological abuse from dating partners). However, little research has examined grade-level differences in forms of victimization by gender, inclusive of transgender and gender expansive adolescents. Eighth to twelfth graders (N = 4,464; n = 1,116 per gender identity) from a statewide survey were compared by gender identity and grade on self-reported rates of verbal, physical, and cyber peer victimization, as well as physical and psychological dating violence victimization. A log-binomial regression model was conducted to assess the prevalence ratio of peer and dating violence victimization by grade, and by comparing transgender and gender expansive youth to male and female youth. Across grade levels, transgender and gender expansive youth reported higher levels of victimization compared to male and female youth in those grades. Our results demonstrate that gender minority youth report rates of victimization across adolescence that differ from their male and female peers. This research is critical for moving beyond the gender binary to have more gender responsive and developmental approaches to violence prevention efforts.
Purpose: This study evaluated the characteristics associated with sexual orientation disclosure among HIV-negative Black sexual minority men (BSMM) in the greater Atlanta, Georgia area. Survey data were collected from 475 HIV-negative BSMM from 2017 to 2019 as part of a larger behavioral intervention study focused on stigma, prejudice, and HIV-testing uptake. Methods: Participants reported their levels of sexual orientation disclosure globally, to their community, and to their family. Data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance and multinomial logistic regression to determine whether demographic, minority stress, substance use, and mental health were associated with sexual orientation disclosure globally, to community members, and to family members. Results: Findings revealed that participants with older age, bisexual identity, and higher levels of internalized homophobia had higher odds of global, community, and family sexual orientation nondisclosure. Furthermore, participants with higher levels of resilience had lower odds of partial sexual orientation disclosure compared with their fully disclosed counterparts. Conclusions: These findings reveal variations associated with sexual orientation disclosure across varying contexts among HIV-negative BSMM, particularly among family member disclosure.
Latinx sexual minority adolescents and young adults experience sexual orientation-based victimization at school and may internalize these heterosexist experiences. However, social support may buffer the deleterious contributions of sexual orientation-based victimization. The current study explored associations between sexual orientation-based victimization and internalized homonegativity in different social contexts (family, peer, school adult) and across development (high school versus college) among 238 Latinx sexual minority adolescents and young adults (M = 19.03, SD = 2.28). Results indicated that sexual orientation-based victimization was positively associated with internalized homonegativity among Latinx sexual minority adolescents and young adults. Such associations were moderated by family support and the school level in the family context, such that in high school, family support exacerbated the association between sexual orientation-based victimization and internalized homonegativity. Yet, in college, family support mitigated that association. Findings also indicated that peer support exacerbated the association between sexual orientation-based victimization and internalized homonegativity in high school and college. No moderation of school adult support emerged in the context of school adults. Findings support the application of the minority stress model in Latinx sexual minority adolescents and young adults and highlight the complex moderating effect of social support across social contexts and development.
The overall objective of the proposed chapter is to increase the reader's understanding of the role that social media plays in self-disclosing information about ourselves in the development of friendships and identity, as well as explore these themes in a clinical context. As such, readers will gain knowledge regarding the relations between self-disclosing on social media sites and the ensuing friendship and identity development that occurs, the extension of the research findings to clinical populations, and the questions that still remain unanswered. This information may be useful for the advancement of research, policy development, mental health programs, parenting, and education.
Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a global public health concern amongst young people. Consequently, prevention efforts in the form of participatory interventions have been implemented, mainly in face-to-face settings. However, in recent years, there has been a growing interest to deliver participatory IPV prevention interventions online, and this has been exacerbated by COVID-19 imposed limitations. There remain concerns, however, about the impact social contexts may have on transformative communication in participatory interventions online. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 18 learners (14–19 years) from Eastern Cape province, South Africa, to understand the possibilities and limitations that social contexts impose on online participatory IPV prevention interventions. Access to devices, reliable internet, and privacy in homes provided opportunities for online IPV prevention interventions, while limited privacy, safety, concentration, and familiarity with some apps online challenged young people’s interest in online IPV prevention interventions. We also found that young people’s greatest concern was around achieving trust, privacy and safety online. More evidence is needed on how trust, privacy, and safety, supportive of transformative communication, can be achieved online. Further, young people are active and strategic in their engagements online and their potential to generate creative relevant solutions to address these challenges is highlighted.
Many lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ+) people face significant physical and mental health, social, and economic disparities, disparities that have been exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. Recent qualitative and quantitative research has explored some of the specific ways that LGBTQ+ people have been developing and using resilience strategies during the pandemic, but little is currently known regarding specific pandemic-related stressors unique to LGBTQ+ individuals, social support networks and community resilience developed by LGBTQ+ individuals, and accessibility of both LGBTQ+-specific and general healthcare needs. The present study was conducted to help address these gaps in the current research literature. As part of a larger online survey on LGBTQ+ people and the impacts of COVID-19, participants (N=220) were asked a series of open-ended questions about their general and identity-specific concerns, forms of coping, and forms of social support accessed during the COVID-19 pandemic. Using Consensual Qualitative Research-Modified (CQR-M), 31 subdomains grouped under seven main domains were revealed: 1) Societal Orientation; 2) Personal Worries; 3) Personal Maintenance and Planning; 4) Concerns for Close Others; 5) Source of Connection; 6) Connection Format; and 7) LGBTQ+ Affirmative Care. The findings in the present study expand research and health provider understanding of unique forms of distress, coping, social support, and community resilience experienced and engaged in by LGBTQ+ people during the COVID-19 pandemic. These qualitative findings can help inform more targeted interventions at individual, community, and public policy levels.
School counselors are tasked with promoting the responsible use of technology in collaboration with families and educators to increase student safety. However, there are significant challenges dealing with technology use in the schools. Youth from underserved backgrounds, including LGBTQ+ youth, youth of color, and youth living in poverty, may find support and connection through technology. This chapter includes an overview on technology use among youth, cultural considerations in technology and digital media use, and collaborative interventions to promote tech safety and digital citizenship. Final case examples outline culturally responsive, student-centered interventions to promote tech safety and digital citizenships within schools.
Adolescents’ time use during COVID-19 offers insight into their lived experiences in unprecedented times. Using a person-centered approach, we describe profiles of time use and examine demographics, parent support, and friend support as predictors of time use. Among 555 U.S. adolescents, we identified three latent profiles across 14 daily activities. Education-Focused youth were more likely to be gender non-binary, Latinx, or Asian, and had higher parental education, higher parent support, and lower friend support. High Media Users were more likely to be female or gender non-binary, LGBQ-identifying, Latinx, or Asian, and had lower parent and higher friend support. Work-Focused youth were more likely to be older and spent in-person time with friends. Implications include strengthening relational supports, and reconsidering the risks and benefits of different types of time use during this historical moment.
Gender‐diverse adolescents have reported excessive experiences of sexual harassment, but studies on this are few and suffer from methodological problems. Our aim was to compare experiences of sexual harassment between adolescents belonging to different gender‐identity groups. A nationally representative cross‐sectional survey of 127,210 adolescents aged 14–20 in Finland in 2017 was used. The respondents were pupils in the eighth and ninth grades of the compulsory nine‐year comprehensive school with mean (sd) age of 14.83 (0.82) years and students in upper secondary school (age: mean (sd) 16.84 (0.83) years) and vocational school (17.29 (2.43) years). Cisgender, opposite sex‐identifying and non‐binary adolescents were compared. Self‐reports of experiences of sexual harassment, emotional symptoms and externalising behaviours (bullying perpetration, frequent alcohol use, truancy, drug use) were elicited. The data were analysed using cross‐tabulations and logistic regression. When confounders were controlled for, odds ratios were increased for gender harassment (OR 2.0), unwelcome sexual attention (OR 1.7) and sexual coercion (OR 2.0) among adolescents with non‐binary gender identity, and for gender harassment (OR 2.1) among those identifying with the opposite sex. Subjection to sexual harassment is particularly associated with non‐binary gender identity. This may reflect that others use sexual harassment as a form of control of gender‐nonconforming self‐expression.
A growing number of adolescents have diverse sexual identities, including lesbian, gay, bisexual, queer, and questioning (i.e., LGBQ). As a marginalized and minoritized group, LGBQ youth face unique challenges in peer relationships that impact their mental health and well-being. Minority stress theory (Meyer, 2003) provides a framework for understanding how marginalization and discrimination experiences, rather than sexual identity per se, contribute to health disparities among LGBQ youth. In the current chapter, we consider minority stressors that LGBQ adolescents experience in the peer context, including identity concealment, coming out, peer rejection, harassment and victimization, and friendship instability. We describe research linking these experiences of peer adversity with LGBQ adolescents’ health and well-being, including substance use, depression, and suicidality. Additionally, we highlight school connectedness and supportive friendships as potential protective factors. Finally, we summarize conclusions and implications of the research and offer suggestions for how future work might expand the scholarship on LGBQ adolescents’ peer relationships by increasing attention to diverse emerging sexual identities, intersectionality, the developmental course of sexual identity in sociopolitical context, and friendship features and processes that promote enhanced well-being among LGBQ youth.
Identity resilience, a key concept in Identity Process Theory (IPT), refers to individuals’ capacity to cope with threats to their identity. Identity resilience is based upon four identity principles: self-efficacy; self-esteem; positive distinctiveness; and, continuity. This study investigates whether identity resilience influences how much gay men internalize homonegativity. Given the insidious effects of internalized homonegativity upon psychological well-being, it is important to identify factors affecting its management. Greater identity resilience enables deployment of strategies that may reduce internalization of homonegativity. These strategies include rejecting the salience of negative social representations of gay men and emphasizing the availability of social support. While both these strategies affect how ‘out’ a gay man chooses to be, they are also linked to the experience of everyday discrimination. We predicted identity resilience would have both a direct negative association with internalized homonegativity and an indirect negative effect mediated by higher social support, lower everyday discrimination, and, less perceived negative representations of gay men and greater ‘outness’. Survey data from 333 gay men in the UK supported this model.
Fostering the development of identity resilience and its attendant coping strategies may help in managing internalization of homonegativity.
The purpose of this study was to examine the association between sexual identity-behavior concordance and discordance with meeting recommendations for 24-hour movement behaviors in adolescents. Participants were US adolescents who reported a history of sexual partners from the 2015–2019 National Youth Risk Behavior Survey (N = 19688; 49.3% female). A sexual identity-behavior variable indicated response agreement (concordance) and disagreement (discordance) between self-reported sexual identity and the sex of sexual partners. The 24-hour movement behaviors included meeting recommendations for physical activity, screen use, and school night sleep. Sex-specific and weighted multivariable logistic regression models were used to analyze associations between sexual identity-behavior concordance and discordance with meeting recommendations for 24-hour movement behaviors controlling for pertinent covariates. Discordant heterosexual males (OR = 0.47, p = 0.015), concordant gay males (OR = 0.31, p < 0.001), and bisexual males (OR = 0.39, p = 0.001) had lower odds of meeting physical activity recommendations compared to concordant heterosexual males. Bisexual males (OR = 0.44, p = 0.004) and bisexual females (OR = 0.73, p = 0.008) had lower odds of meeting screen use recommendations compared to concordant heterosexuals. Discordant heterosexual, concordant gay, and bisexual male adolescents were less likely to meet physical activity recommendations while there was a lower likelihood of meeting screen use recommendations in both male and female bisexual adolescents.
Supplemental data for this article is available online at http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19361653.2021.2010157
The psychometric properties of the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS) were investigated in 222 urban, largely African‐American adolescents (68%). High internal consistency was demonstrated, and factor analysis confirmed the three subscale structures of the MSPSS: family, friends, and significant other. Correlations with a family caring scale supported the discriminant validity of the Family subscale. These results confirm the reliability, validity, and utility of the MSPSS with an urban, largely African‐American adolescent sample. Implications of the findings are discussed.
In this article the author reviews research evidence on the prevalence of mental disorders in lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals (LGBs) and shows, using meta-analyses, that LGBs have a higher prevalence of mental disorders than heterosexuals. The author offers a conceptual framework for understanding this excess in prevalence of disorder in terms of minority stress— explaining that stigma, prejudice, and discrimination create a hostile and stressful social environment that causes mental health problems. The model describes stress processes, including the experience of prejudice events, expectations of rejection, hiding and concealing, internalized homophobia, and ameliorative coping processes. This conceptual framework is the basis for the review of research evidence, suggestions for future research directions, and exploration of public policy implications.
Sexual minority youth are known to face increased risk of poor school performance; however, little research has focused on the educational experiences of multiethnic sexual minority youth (MSMY) in particular. Using venue-based sampling approaches, this study surveyed 255 MSMY at 15 urban high schools. The majority of participants identified as female (65%), Latina (58%), and bisexual (41%), with a mean age of 16. The use of structural equation modeling techniques found that 23% of the variance of school performance was explained by the multivariate model. Examination of the model path coefficients revealed that experiences of perceived discrimination had a powerfully negative influence on the school performance of MSMY. Whereas increased family support was associated with better school performance, neither peer nor school support had similar impact. In addition, levels of support did not significantly moderate the effect of perceived discrimination on MSMY
To examine whether (1) among youth who report being bullied, differential power and repetition are useful in identifying youth who are more or less affected by the victimization experience and (2) bullying and more generalized peer aggression are distinct or overlapping constructs.
Data for the Teen Health and Technology study were collected online between August 2010 and January 2011 from 3,989 13- to 18-year-olds. Data from the Growing up with Media study (Wave 3) were collected online in 2008 from 1,157 12- to 17-year-olds.
In the Teen Health and Technology study, youth who reported neither differential power nor repetition had the lowest rates of interference with daily functioning. Youth who reported either differential power or repetition had higher rates, but the highest rates of interference with daily functioning were observed among youth who reported both differential power and repetition. In the Growing up with Media study, youth were victims of online generalized peer aggression (30%) or both online generalized peer aggression and cyberbullying (16%) but rarely cyberbullying alone (1%).
Both differential power and repetition are key in identifying youth who are bullied and at particular risk for concurrent psychosocial challenge. Each feature needs to be measured directly. Generalized peer aggression appears to be a broader form of violence compared with bullying. It needs to be recognized that youth who are victimized but do not meet the criteria of bullying have elevated rates of problems. They are an important, albeit nonbullied, group of victimized youth to be included in research.
Objectives:
Before and after accounting for peer victimization, we estimated sexual risk disparities between students who self-identified as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or questioning (LGBTQ) and students who self-identified as nontransgender heterosexual.
Methods:
Students in grades 7 through 12 in Dane County, Wisconsin, were given the Web-administered Dane County Youth Assessment. One set of analyses was based on a sample that included 11 337 students. Subsequent analyses were based on a sample from which we screened out students who may not have been responding to survey items truthfully. Various multilevel-modeling and propensity-score-matching strategies ensured robustness of the results, examined disparities at lower and higher victimization rates, and explored heterogeneity among LGBTQ-identified youths. Finally, propensity-score-matching strategies estimated LGBTQ-heterosexual disparities in 2 matched samples: a sample that reported higher victimization and one that reported lower victimization.
Results:
Across 7 sexual risk outcomes, and in middle and high school, LGBTQ-identified youths reported engaging in riskier behavior than did heterosexual-identified youths after we accounted for peer victimization. Risk differentials were present in middle and high school. The LGBTQ group was heterogeneous, with lesbian/gay- and bisexual-identified youths generally appearing most risky, and questioning-identified youths least risky. In the matched sample with lower average victimization rates, LGBTQ-identified youths perceived a greater risk of sexually transmitted infections despite not engaging in sexually risky behavior at significantly higher rates; in the matched sample with higher average victimization rates, all outcomes were significantly different.
Conclusions:
Demonstrated LGBTQ-heterosexual risk differentials in grades 7 through 8 suggest that interventions need to be implemented during middle school. These interventions should also be differentiated to address the unique risk patterns among LGBTQ subgroups. Finally, models of sexual risk disparities must expand beyond peer victimization.
Lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) youth face special challenges during adolescence including stigma, alienation, and abuse which have been linked with social costs and negative health outcomes. The Internet has been shown to ameliorate the negative impacts of homophobia by providing access to friendships and support, information, romantic partners, and a gay community. In this qualitative study, internet use of LGB and Non-LGB young people were compared. The LGB young people were more adventurous in their internet use than non LGB young people, including meeting new people online. Findings have implications for adolescent health professionals and policy makers.
Research suggests that lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) youths are at increased risk for both victimization and internalizing mental health problems, but limited research has studied their association or factors that increase resilience. The sample in this study included 425 LGBs between the ages of 16 and 24 years. The majority had disclosed their sexual orientation to family or friends (98%), and 97% had someone in their lives who was accepting of their orientation. Racial/ethnic minority and female participants in general reported lower levels of disclosure and acceptance. Most participants reported some form of sexual orientation-related victimization (94%). Victimization was associated with psychological distress, but a compensatory model indicated that in the context of this victimization both peer and family support had significant promotive effects. A test of a protective model found social support did not ameliorate negative effects of victimization. The positive effects of family support decreased with age. Peer and family support were particularly important, but they did not significantly dampen the negative effects of victimization. Findings suggest that mental health professionals working with LGB youths should address social support and that public health approaches are needed to reduce levels of victimization.
The development of a self-report measure of subjectively assessed social support, the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS), is described. Subjects included 136 female and 139 male university undergraduates. Three subscales, each addressing a different source of support, were identified and found to have strong factorial validity: (a) Family, (b) Friends, and (c) Significant Other. In addition, the research demonstrated that the MSPSS has good internal and test-retest reliability as well as moderate construct validity. As predicted, high levels of perceived social support were associated with low levels of depression and anxiety symptomatology as measured by the Hopkins Symptom Checklist. Gender differences with respect to the MSPSS are also presented. The value of the MSPSS as a research instrument is discussed, along with implications for future research.
Students who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning (LGBTQ) experience higher rates of victimization by bullying than do their heterosexual-identified peers. In this article, we investigate the extent to which this difference in rates of victimization can explain LGBTQ youths' greater rates of suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, and unexcused absences from school. Our sample consisted of 11,337 students in Grades 7 through 12 from 30 schools in Dane County, Wisconsin. Using both multilevel covariate-adjusted models and propensity-score-matching models, we found that although victimization does explain a portion of the LGBTQ-heterosexual risk disparities, substantial differences persist even when the differences in victimization are taken into account. For example, LGBTQ-identified students were 3.3 times as likely to think about suicide (p < .0001), 3.0 times as likely to attempt suicide (p = .007), and 1.4 times as likely to skip school (p = .047) as propensity-score-matched heterosexual-identified students within the same school who reported equivalent levels of peer victimization. Moreover, in our propensity-score-matched samples, we found substantial differences in suicidal ideation and suicide attempts at both higher and lower levels of victimization. This consistent pattern of findings suggests that policies aimed simply at reducing bullying may not be effective in bringing LGBTQ youth to the level of their heterosexual peers in terms of psychological and educational outcomes. Additional policies may be needed to promote safe, supportive school environments.
This article describes a social psychological framework for understanding sexual stigma, and it reports data on sexual minority individuals' stigma-related experiences. The framework distinguishes between stigma's manifestations in society's institutions (heterosexism) and among individuals. The latter include enacted sexual stigma (overt negative actions against sexual minorities, such as hate crimes), felt sexual stigma (expectations about the circumstances in which sexual stigma will be enacted), and internalized sexual stigma (personal acceptance of sexual stigma as part of one's value system and self-concept). Drawing from previous research on internalized sexual stigma among heterosexuals (i.e., sexual prejudice), the article considers possible parallels in how sexual minorities experience internalized sexual stigma (i.e., self-stigma, or negative attitudes toward the self). Data are presented from a community sample of lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults (N = 2,259) to illustrate the model's utility for generating and testing hypotheses concerning self-stigma. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Bullying and victimization are prevalent problems in the area of adolescent peer relationships. Middle school students (
N = 4,263) in one Maryland school district completed surveys covering a range of problem behaviors and psychosocial variables. Overall, 30.9% of the students reported being victimized three or more times in the past year and 7.4% reported bullying three or more times over the past year. More than one half of the bullies also reported being victimized. Those bully/victims were found to score less favorably than either bullies or victims on all the measured psychosocial and behavioral variables. Results of a discriminant function analysis demonstrated that a group of psychosocial and behavioral predictors—including problem behaviors, attitudes toward deviance, peer influences, depressive symptoms, school-related functioning, and parenting—formed a linear separation between the comparison group (never bullied or victimized), the victim group, the bully group, and the bully/victim group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The psychometric properties of the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS) were investigated in 222 urban, largely African-American adolescents (68%). High internal consistency was demonstrated, and factor analysis confirmed the three subscale structures of the MSPSS: family, friends, and significant other. Correlations with a family caring scale supported the discriminant validity of the Family subscale. These results confirm the reliability, validity, and utility of the MSPSS with an urban, largely African-American adolescent sample. Implications of the findings are discussed.
Past research documents that both adolescent gender nonconformity and the experience of school victimization are associated with high rates of negative psychosocial adjustment. Using data from the Family Acceptance Project's young adult survey, we examined associations among retrospective reports of adolescent gender nonconformity and adolescent school victimization due to perceived or actual lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT) status, along with current reports of life satisfaction and depression. The participants included 245 LGBT young adults ranging in age from 21 to 25 years. Using structural equation modeling, we found that victimization due to perceived or actual LGBT status fully mediates the association between adolescent gender nonconformity and young adult psychosocial adjustment (i.e., life satisfaction and depression). Implications are addressed, including specific strategies that schools can implement to provide safer environments for gender-nonconforming LGBT students.
Young gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (MSM) experience sexual health disparities due to a lack of support in settings that traditionally promote positive youth development. The Internet may help to fill this void, but little is known about how it is used for sexual health purposes among young MSM. This mixed-methods study reports quantitative results of a large survey of 18- to 24-year-old MSM in an HIV testing clinic (N = 329) as well as qualitative results from interviews. Level of Internet use was high in this sample and the majority of participants reported using the Internet to find HIV/AIDS information. Black and Latino youth used the Internet less frequently than White youth, and after controlling for age, education, and frequency of Internet use, Black youth were 70% less likely to use the Internet to find HIV/AIDS information. Qualitative analyses identified themes related to the role of the Internet in finding sexual health information, sexual minority identity development, and sexual risk taking behaviors. Participants reported that the Internet filled an important and unmet need for sexual health education. It allowed for connections to the gay community and support during the coming out process, but also exposure to homophobic messages. There was no evidence of increased risk behaviors with partners met online, but at the same time the potential for the use of the Internet to facilitate safer sex communication was largely untapped. Our findings generally present an optimistic picture about the role of the Internet in the development of sexual health among young MSM.
The objective of this research was to obtain national estimates of exposure to the full spectrum of the childhood violence, abuse, and crime victimizations relevant to both clinical practice and public-policy approaches to the problem.
The study was based on a cross-sectional national telephone survey that involved a target sample of 4549 children aged 0 to 17 years.
A clear majority (60.6%) of the children and youth in this nationally representative sample had experienced at least 1 direct or witnessed victimization in the previous year. Almost half (46.3%) had experienced a physical assault in the study year, 1 in 4 (24.6%) had experienced a property offense, 1 in 10 (10.2%) had experienced a form of child maltreatment, 6.1% had experienced a sexual victimization, and more than 1 in 4 (25.3%) had been a witness to violence or experienced another form of indirect victimization in the year, including 9.8% who had witnessed an intrafamily assault. One in 10 (10.2%) had experienced a victimization-related injury. More than one third (38.7%) had been exposed to 2 or more direct victimizations, 10.9% had 5 or more, and 2.4% had 10 or more during the study year.
The scope and diversity of child exposure to victimization is not well recognized. Clinicians and researchers need to inquire about a larger spectrum of victimization types to identify multiply victimized children and tailor prevention and interventions to the full range of threats that children face.
The initial study describing the development of the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS) indicated that it was a psychometrically sound instrument (Zimet, Dahlem, Zimet, & Farley, 1988). The current study attempted to extend the initial findings by demonstrating the internal reliability, factorial validity, and subscale validity of the MSPSS using three different subject groups: (a) 265 pregnant women, (b) 74 adolescents living in Europe with their families, and (c) 55 pediatric residents. The MSPSS was found to have good internal reliability across subject groups. In addition, strong factorial validity was demonstrated, confirming the three-subscale structure of the MSPSS: Family, Friends, and Significant Other. Finally, strong support was also found for the validity of the Family and Significant Other subscales.
In this article the author reviews research evidence on the prevalence of mental disorders in lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals (LGBs) and shows, using meta-analyses, that LGBs have a higher prevalence of mental disorders than heterosexuals. The author offers a conceptual framework for understanding this excess in prevalence of disorder in terms of minority stress--explaining that stigma, prejudice, and discrimination create a hostile and stressful social environment that causes mental health problems. The model describes stress processes, including the experience of prejudice events, expectations of rejection, hiding and concealing, internalized homophobia, and ameliorative coping processes. This conceptual framework is the basis for the review of research evidence, suggestions for future research directions, and exploration of public policy implications.
Previous research in offline environments suggests that there may be an overlap in bullying and sexual harassment perpetration and victimization; however to what extent this may be true for perpetration and victimization of Internet harassment and unwanted sexual solicitation is unknown.
The Growing Up with Media survey is a national cross-sectional online survey of 1,588 youth, 10-15 years old, who have used the Internet at least once in the last 6 months. Cluster analysis was conducted with four scales: Internet harassment perpetration, Internet harassment victimization, unwanted sexual solicitation perpetration, and unwanted sexual solicitation victimization.
A four-cluster solution was identified: youth with little to no involvement (n = 1326; 81.7%); perpetrator-victims of Internet harassment (n = 205; 14.3%); victims of both Internet harassment and unwanted sexual solicitation (n = 45; 3.1%); and perpetrator-victims of Internet harassment and unwanted sexual solicitation (n = 12; .9%). Involvement in Internet harassment and unwanted sexual solicitation was associated with concurrent reports of psychosocial problems including substance use; involvement in offline victimization and perpetration of relational, physical, and sexual aggression; delinquent peers; a propensity to respond to stimuli with anger; poor emotional bond with caregivers; and poor caregiver monitoring as compared with youth with little to no involvement. This was especially true for perpetrator-victims of Internet harassment and unwanted sexual solicitation. Findings were replicated using a frequency-based definition of involvement, suggesting that cluster analysis is useful in identifying subgroups of youth and can be used to guide frequency-based definitions, which are easier to implement across study samples.
The majority of youth are not frequently involved in Internet harassment or unwanted sexual solicitation either as victims or as perpetrators. Among those who are, however, psychosocial problems are apparent. Perpetrator-victims of Internet harassment and unwanted sexual solicitation have emerged as a particularly important group for adolescent health professionals to be aware of, identify, and treat or refer into services immediately.
Social support, which is the perception or experience that one is cared for, esteemed, and part of a mutually supportive social network, has beneficial effects on mental and physical health. We review the psychobiological pathways whereby these effects may occur and detail the circumstances under which socially supportive efforts may misfire. Origins of social support include genetic factors and the early environment. We examine gender and cultural differences in how social support is experienced. Under some circumstances, providing social support confers the same benefits as receiving it. A myriad number of social support interventions, including those delivered via the internet, have been evaluated and have the potential to provide emotional and informational support to people who might otherwise lack social support.
Past research documents that both adolescent gender nonconformity and the experience of school victimization are associated with high rates of negative psychosocial adjustment. Using data from the Family Acceptance Project’s young adult survey, we examined associations among retrospective reports of adolescent gender nonconformity and adolescent school victimization due to perceived or actual lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT) status, along with current reports of life satisfaction and depression. The participants included 245 LGBT young adults ranging in age from 21 to 25 years. Using structural equation modeling, we found that victimization due to perceived or actual LGBT status fully mediates the association between adolescent gender nonconformity and young adult psychosocial adjustment (i.e., life satisfaction and depression). Implications are addressed, including specific strategies that schools can implement to provide safer environments for gender-nonconforming LGBT students.
In the last few years, transgender and gender nonconforming people have become more visible in our society, which has sparked a marked increase in awareness, interest, and attention among psychologists. Questions have emerged about the extent to which psychologists are able to work competently with this population. This article presents a framework for understanding key clinical issues that psychologists who work with transgender and gender nonconforming individuals will likely encounter in their clinical work. This article does not address the knowledge and skills required to provide services related to gender transition, but rather to provide other psychological services that these clients may need, in light of the high levels of gender-related victimization and discrimination to which they are exposed. An adaptation of the Minority Stress Model (Meyer, 2003) is presented and translated to incorporate the unique experiences encountered by transgender and gender nonconforming individuals. In particular, we examine adverse experiences that are closely related to gender identity and expression, resulting expectations for future victimization or rejection, and internalized transphobia. The impact of Minority Stress Model factors on suicide attempts is presented as a detailed example. Mechanisms by which transgender and gender nonconforming persons develop resilience to the negative psychological effects of these adverse experiences are also discussed. Recommendations for clinicians are then made to assist psychologists in developing competence in working with this population. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Background
There is a need for brief instruments to screen for depression in adolescents that are valid, reliable and freely available. The aim of this study was to investigate the psychometric properties of a 10-item version of the CESD-R (CESDR-10) in two national adolescent samples.
Methods
Sample 1 consisted of N=3777 youths (mean age 15.7) and Sample 2 contained N=1150 adolescents (mean age 14.5). We performed confirmatory factor analysis, evaluated construct validity, examined differential item functioning, and assessed internal consistency reliability (α).
Results
The results suggest generally strong psychometric properties for the CESDR-10. The CFA 1-factor model showed good model fit. Construct validity was partially supported in Sample 1 and mostly supported for Sample 2 based upon the characteristics examined. The CESDR-10 showed configural and metric invariance across both samples and full measurement invariance across sex. There were no notable differences in discrimination parameters or clinically significant differential item functioning between samples or sexes.
Limitations
Criterion related validity was not assessed in this study. Further studies should evaluate the scale in comparison to a psychiatric diagnosis. In addition, this study utilized a web-based format of administration which may influence participants׳ answers. In future studies, the CESDR-10 should be administered in other settings to more thoroughly establish its generalizability.
Conclusion
In clinical and non-clinical settings alike, time pressures make the availability of brief but valid screening measures critical. Findings support future use of the CESDR-10.
This article examines (a) variation in rates of sexual harassment across mode (e.g., in-person, online) and type of harassment, (b) the impact of sexual harassment (i.e., distressing vs. non-distressing), and (c) how sexual harassment is similarly and differently experienced across sexual orientation and gender identity groups. Data were collected as part of the Teen Health and Technology online survey of 5,907 13 to 18 year-old Internet users in the United States. Past year sexual harassment was reported by 23-72% of youth, depending upon sexual orientation, with the highest rates reported by lesbian/queer girls (72%), bisexual girls (66%), and gay/queer boys (66%). When examined by gender identity, transgender youth reported the highest rates of sexual harassment - 81%. Overall, the most common modes for sexual harassment were in-person followed by online. Distress in the form of interference with school, family, and/or friends; creating a hostile environment; or being very/extremely upset was reported by about half of the sexually harassed bisexual girls and lesbian/queer girls, 65% of the gender non-conforming/other gender youth, and 63% of the transgender youth. Youth with high social support and self-esteem were less likely to report sexual harassment. Findings point to the great importance of sexual harassment prevention for all adolescents, with particular emphasis on the unique needs and experiences of youth of different sexual orientations and gender identities. Socio-emotional programs that emphasize self-esteem building could be particularly beneficial for reducing the likelihood of victimization and lessen the impact when it occurs.
The internet has met with mixed community reactions, especially when the focus is on young people's internet use. There are those who fear that the internet will introduce undesirable people and information into the home, leaving the young vulnerable and exploited. Alternatively, there are others who argue that the exclusion of young people from the internet is one of many examples of the diminishing public space that is made available to young people in this post-modern world. In this article we focus on the internet use of one ‘space deprived’ group of marginalized young people, those who are same-sex attracted. Regardless of some important changes in Australian culture and law, these young people's opportunities to openly live their sexual difference remain restricted. In this article we are interested in exploring the role of the internet as a space in which some important sexuality work can be done. What we found was that the internet was providing young people with the space to practise six different aspects of their sexual lives namely identity, friendship, coming out, intimate relationships, sex and community.
Just as with most other communication breakthroughs before it, the initial media and popular reaction to the Internet has been largely negative, if not apocalyptic. For example, it has been described as “awash in pornography”, and more recently as making people “sad and lonely.” Yet, counter to the initial and widely publi cized claim that Internet use causes depression and social isolation, the body of ev idence (even in the initial study on which the claim was based) is mainly to the con trary. More than this, however, it is argued that like the telephone and television before it, the Internet by itself is not a main effect cause of anything, and that psy chology must move beyond this notion to an informed analysis of how social iden tity, social interaction, and relationship formation may be different on the Internet than in real life. Four major differences and their implications for self and identity, social interaction, and relationships are identified: one's greater anonymity, the greatly reduced importance of physical appearance and physical distance as “gating features” to relationship development, and one's greater control over the time and pace of interactions. Existing research is reviewed along these lines and some promising directions for future research are described.
Objectives:
We examined the intersections of sexual minority, gender, and Hispanic ethnic identities and their interaction with experiences of bullying in predicting suicide attempt among New York City youths.
Methods:
We performed secondary data analysis of the 2009 New York City Youth Risk Behavior Survey, using logistic regression to examine the association of sexual identity, gender, ethnicity, and bullying with suicide attempt. We stratified results on these measures and reported adjusted odds ratios.
Results:
Compared with non-sexual minority youths, sexual minority youths had 4.39 and 1.96 times higher odds, respectively, of attempting suicide and reporting bullying. Identity variables did not interact with bullying in predicting suicide attempt individually; however, a four-way interaction term was significant. The effect of bullying on suicide attempt was strongest among non-Hispanic sexual minority male youths (odds ratio = 21.39 vs 1.65-3.38 for other groups).
Conclusions:
Sexual minority, gender, and ethnic identities interact with bullying in predicting suicide attempt among New York City youths. Interventions to limit both the prevalence and the effect of bullying among minority youths should consider an intersectional approach that considers ethnic, gender, and sexual identities.
To inform the scientific debate about bullying, including cyberbullying, measurement.
Two split-form surveys were conducted online among 6-17-year-olds (n = 1,200 each) to inform recommendations for cyberbullying measurement.
Measures that use the word "bully" result in prevalence rates similar to each other, irrespective of whether a definition is included, whereas measures not using the word "bully" are similar to each other, irrespective of whether a definition is included. A behavioral list of bullying experiences without either a definition or the word "bully" results in higher prevalence rates and likely measures experiences that are beyond the definition of "bullying." Follow-up questions querying differential power, repetition, and bullying over time were used to examine misclassification. The measure using a definition but not the word "bully" appeared to have the highest rate of false positives and, therefore, the highest rate of misclassification. Across two studies, an average of 25% reported being bullied at least monthly in person compared with an average of 10% bullied online, 7% via telephone (cell or landline), and 8% via text messaging.
Measures of bullying among English-speaking individuals in the United States should include the word "bully" when possible. The definition may be a useful tool for researchers, but results suggest that it does not necessarily yield a more rigorous measure of bullying victimization. Directly measuring aspects of bullying (i.e., differential power, repetition, over time) reduces misclassification. To prevent double counting across domains, we suggest the following distinctions: mode (e.g., online, in-person), type (e.g., verbal, relational), and environment (e.g., school, home). We conceptualize cyberbullying as bullying communicated through the online mode.
This commentary argues that it is time to make bullying less of the central concept in efforts to combat peer victimization. Bullying has been a pivotal concept in the mobilization of effort in recent years to create safe environments for children. It has highlighted a phenomenon that seems to have universal resonance and is recognized internationally (Jimerson, Swearer, & Espelage, 2010). Prevalence for bullying has been measured in many countries, overall assessed as involving about 10% of the school aged population in its chronic form (Molcho et al., 2009). It is associated with serious outcomes (Klomeck et al., 2009) and is higher among abused children (Mohapatra et al., 2010). Public policy efforts are being made in many place to combat its occurrence and its effects (Howlett, 2011; Olweus Bullying Prevention Program, 2011; Salmivalli, Karna, & Poskiparta, 2011).
Four forms of school bullying behaviors among US adolescents and their association with sociodemographic characteristics, parental support, and friends were examined.
Data were obtained from the Health Behavior in School-Aged Children (HBSC) 2005 Survey, a nationally representative sample of grades 6-10 (N = 7,182). The revised Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire was used to measure physical, verbal, and relational forms of bullying. Two items were added using the same format to measure cyber bullying. For each form, four categories were created: bully, victim, bully-victim, and not involved. Multinomial logistic regressions were applied, with sociodemographic variables, parental support, and number of friends as predictors.
Prevalence rates of having bullied others or having been bullied at school for at least once in the last 2 months were 20.8% physically, 53.6% verbally, 51.4% socially, or 13.6% electronically. Boys were more involved in physical or verbal bullying, whereas girls were more involved in relational bullying. Boys were more likely to be cyber bullies, whereas girls were more likely to be cyber victims. African-American adolescents were involved in more bullying (physical, verbal, or cyber) but less victimization (verbal or relational). Higher parental support was associated with less involvement across all forms and classifications of bullying. Having more friends was associated with more bullying and less victimization for physical, verbal, and relational forms but was not associated with cyber bullying.
Parental support may protect adolescents from all four forms of bullying. Friends associate differentially with traditional and cyber bullying. Results indicate that cyber bullying is a distinct nature from that of traditional bullying.
Sexual minorities are at increased risk for multiple mental health burdens compared with heterosexuals. The field has identified 2 distinct determinants of this risk, including group-specific minority stressors and general psychological processes that are common across sexual orientations. The goal of the present article is to develop a theoretical framework that integrates the important insights from these literatures. The framework postulates that (a) sexual minorities confront increased stress exposure resulting from stigma; (b) this stigma-related stress creates elevations in general emotion dysregulation, social/interpersonal problems, and cognitive processes conferring risk for psychopathology; and (c) these processes in turn mediate the relationship between stigma-related stress and psychopathology. It is argued that this framework can, theoretically, illuminate how stigma adversely affects mental health and, practically, inform clinical interventions. Evidence for the predictive validity of this framework is reviewed, with particular attention paid to illustrative examples from research on depression, anxiety, and alcohol-use disorders.
Bully/victim problems among six classes of 8-9 year-old and six classes of 11-12 year-old children, attending three middle schools, were investigated by means of Olweus's self-report Bullying Inventory. About 21 per cent of the children reported being bullied, and about 17 per cent reported bullying others, "sometimes" or more often. Reports of both bullying and being bullied were more prevalent among boys than among girls, and among the younger group than among the older group. The two most common forms of bullying were reported to be teasing and hitting/kicking. Fewer of the younger group than the older group reported being bullied by same-age pupils, and more of the former reported being bullied by older pupils. Most boys were bullied by other boys only, whereas girls were more likely to be bullied by children of either sex. Besides being bullied in school, children also reported that this happened on the journey to/from school and in other places such as in the street near where they live. Many children expressed negative attitudes towards bullying, although nearly a third said that they could understand why it happens. The majority of the children who reported being bullied/bullying others had not been spoken to about this by teachers or by someone at home. Victims of bullying, but not bullies, were found to be most likely to report feeling unhappy and lonely at school, and to report having fewer good friends. In Study 2, children identified as bullies, victims and not involved in this type of problem were interviewed to find out why certain children and/or themselves bully/get bullied by others, and the feelings of the children involved. The pattern of responses by the three groups differed