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“Connect the internet to your inner-net. Friend yourself. Listen to the tweet of your heartbeat.
Pay attention to the status update from your body. And respond to that urgent chat request
from your brain.” — Gopi Kallayil, Google Inc.
“Look within. Within is the fountain of all good.” — Marcus Aurelius
“We can make our minds so like still water
that beings gather about us to see their own images,
and so live for a moment with a clearer,
perhaps even with a fiercer life
because of our silence." — William Butler Yeats
“I have no doubt whatever that most people live, whether physically, intellectually, or
morally, in a very restricted circle of their potential being. They make use of a very small
portion of their possible consciousness, much like a man who, out of his whole bodily
organism, should get into the habit of using and moving only his little finger… We all have
reservoirs of life to draw upon, of which we do not dream.”
— William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience (1901)
p. 1
Acknowledgements
First and foremost, I wish to express my utmost gratitude to my academic advisor, Professor
Isaac Getz, who has both challenged me and supported me through this journey, patiently and
promptly giving feedback from the very beginning until the very end. I likely would not have
accomplished this without his input and guidance. Professor Getz has given me the freedom
to explore this topic and make my own choices, a great application of his research domain,
which I have greatly benefited from.
Next, I appreciated the support of those at ESCP Europe, notably Anna Walters, Amal Ketata
and numerous colleagues, including Thierry Amslem, Andrew Zylstra, Samer Iskandar,
Karina Jensen, Elisabeth Eglem, Chris Waller and others, as well as Martin Storme and Nils
Myszkowski at L'Université Paris Descartes for statistics assistance.
Further, thank you to my parents, Barbara and Bjørn Holm, brother Justin Tor Holm,
extended family including Gerd Evans, the Catherals, Dodds, Inglis and Hofmanns. As well,
a note of remembrance to family in spirit who passed over during my PhD, grandmother
Mary Firth, uncle John Firth and aunt Dagny Åsholt.
The support of numerous friends during this process enabled me to continually be re-
motivated towards my goals, notably, Marilyn Hirsekorn for her peaceful and positive
attitude, Charisse Baker, for creative expression, Andreea Spiridon, for truly understanding
me, Jody Neal-Segergren, Richard Lowy and Cynthia De Jong for their encouragement,
2
Junnon and Julian for their Eastern wisdom, my cheery girlfriends Valeria Baracco and Kim
Anh Nguyen, and Myriam Rascouailles, for her quick wit, Monica de Vibe, my closest
confidant, and finally, my partner Harouna Sarr, for his love and caring.
In closing, I return again to my advisor, Professor Getz, because it is him who has not only
responded to my countless queries and provided ongoing critical yet constructive feedback
but also the framework for me to pursue my PhD. Our parallel research interests provided the
foundation for me to explore this topic for which I am genuinely passionate about. Thank
you, sincerely.
3
Abstract
In contrast to the traditional mindset (TMS)—the conscious awareness, controlled mental
processes, and analytical-logical manipulation of symbols—an alternative mindset (AMS) is
viewed as the pre-conscious mental processes (i.e. associative, imaginative, intuitive) and
holistic thinking (Davis-Floyd and Arvidson, 1997; Dane and Pratt, 2007; Hodgkinson et al
2009). Since Plato, the West has considered TMS as the hallmark of intelligence and simply
of any cognition. Yet, in recent decades various research explored complementary and/or
alternative to analytical-logical cognition mental systems (eg., Damasio, 1994; Nisbett & al.,
2001; Wagner & Sternberg, 1985). The alternative mindset—an array of such systems—was
primarily explored for its individual benefits, while our research focuses on organisational
benefits.
To do this, we used a bi-weekly meditative practice to induce an AMS in organisational
actors. We hypothesized that following the shift from TMS to AMS, organisational actors
will benefit from enhanced creative production and well-being. Empirical experiments were
conducted with 144 self-selected participants within two organisations—a business and a
municipal government—in Canada (measuring levels of well-being and creativity) and one in
France—a business school administration—(measuring levels of well-being), consisting of
eight bi-weekly 20 minute sessions of guided meditation (Fredrickson et al. 2008, Oz et al.
2009, Sears & Kraus 2009; for the control group a “placebo” technique of relaxation was
used; Rausch et al., 2006).
4
For experiments measuring well-being, participants completed the Satisfaction with Life
Scale (SWLS; Diener et al., 1985) prior to each session. Next, they were led through a
meditation session, and then completed the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS;
Brown & Ryan, 2003) to assess the extent of entering an AMS. At the end of their work day,
participants again completed the SWLS. For experiments measuring creativity, prior to the
first session, participants outlined several challenges that they were currently encountering at
their work, from which one was selected for the experiment. Prior to each experimental
session, participants took a creativity test, the Adjective Check List (ACL) Creativity Scale
(Domino, 1970). Next, they were administered a meditative technique and then completed the
MAAS to assess levels of alternate mindsets. Finally, at the end of their work day, they again
completed the ACL, and reported solutions to their selected challenge. These solutions were
then assessed by a panel of three judges on two creativity criteria (novelty and usefulness)
using the piles method.
Statistical analysis, using the fixed effects model, showed significant increase in well-being
and creativity for the experimental groups compared to the control groups for all three
locations after six sessions. In addition, mindfulness—not being a dependent variable—also
increased significantly after six sessions.
In terms of limitations of this research, in order to implement meditative techniques to elicit
AMS, employees must be willing to give of their time and attention to participate in
meditation sessions. Because only a portion of employees are self-motivated to attend and
participate in meditation sessions on their own time, which introduces a self-selection sample
bias, alternative enrollment solutions must be attempted if all employees are to participate.
5
Future possibilities for research involve replicating the experiments at additional—business
and/or not-for-profit—organisations, measuring either: (1) the same individual benefits of
AMS, in order to strengthen the ecological validity of results and be able to have sufficient
numbers of participants to make demographic comparisons such as we were not able to yet
achieve. For instance, this research could explore how cultivation of AMS varies with age,
gender, job role (managerial versus front-line, various hierarchical levels) or venue (such as
in an educational or health-care institutions or non-profit organisations), or (2) additional
AMS benefits, either at the individual (such as level and duration of concentration, level of
fulfillment or work engagement), team (such as group cohesiveness, team productivity or
extent of synergy) or organisational level (such as corporate citizenship, turnover levels,
absenteeism levels or productivity), or a combination of these. Finally, given the debate in the
research of whether concentrative techniques such as transcendental meditation or
mindfulness meditation are more effective, an array of meditation techniques could be tested,
to identify that with greater and more lasting organisational benefits.
To conclude, our study shows that the induction of AMS through meditative techniques has
possible applications in counteracting the phenomenon of rising stress levels within
organisations. As the organisational benefits of AMS span from enhanced well-being and
creative production, as shown in our experiments, to potentially higher employee
engagement, improved health and greater relaxation, introducing AMS-inducing techniques
into organisations could potentially aid in minimizing stress levels and thus reducing negative
impacts of stress. Furthermore, applying AMS-inducing techniques could benefit
organisations in other ways beyond stress reduction, such as higher profitability, as a result of
AMS benefits including enhanced concentration, lower absenteeism and greater awareness
amongst participants.
6
7
Résumé
Contrairement à l’état d’esprit traditionnel (TMS)— prise de conscience, contrôle des
processus mentaux, et manipulation analytique-logique des symboles—un état d'esprit
alternatif (AMS) est considéré comme étant un processus mental pré-conscient (c’est-à-dire
associatif, imaginatif, intuitif) et une réflexion holistique (Davis-Floyd et Arvidson 1997,
Dane et Pratt 2007, Hodgkinson et al 2009). Depuis Platon, l'Occident a considéré le TMS
comme la marque de l'intelligence et tout simplement de la cognition. Pourtant, ces dernières
décennies, diverses recherches ont exploré des compléments et/ou alternatives aux systèmes
de la cognition analytique-logique (par exemple, Damasio 1994, Nisbett et al. 2001, Wagner
et Sternberg 1985). L’état d’esprit alternatif—un exemple de ces systèmes alternatifs—a été
principalement étudié pour ses bienfaits individuels, alors que notre recherche se concentre
sur ses bénéfices organisationnels.
Pour ce faire, nous avons mis en place une pratique bi-hebdomadaire de méditation pour
provoquer une transition vers l’AMS chez les acteurs organisationnels. Nous avons fait
l’hypothèse générale que suite au passage du TMS à l'AMS, les acteurs organisationnels
bénéficieront d’une production créative et d’un bien-être accrus. Les expériences empiriques
ont été réalisées avec 144 participants auto-sélectionnés au sein de deux organisations—une
entreprise et une autorité municipale—au Canada, et d’une autre—administration d’une école
de commerce—en France. Chacune des trois expériences s’est composée de huit séances bi-
hebdomadaires de 20 minutes de méditation guidée pour le groupe expérimental (Fredrickson
et al. 2008, Oz et al. 2009, Sears & Kraus 2009); une technique de relaxation a été utilisée
pour le groupe témoin (Rausch et al. 2006).
8
Pour les expériences de mesure du bien-être, les participants ont complété « l’échelle de la
satisfaction dans la vie » (SWLS; Diener et al, 1985) avant chaque session. Ensuite, ils ont
participé à une séance de méditation, puis complété « l'échelle de sensibilité à l’attention
consciente » (Mindful Attention Awareness Scale/MAAS, Brown & Ryan, 2003) pour
évaluer l'ampleur de l’entrée dans l’AMS. A la fin de leur journée de travail, les participants
ont à nouveau saisi les SWLS. Pour les expériences de mesure de la créativité, avant la
première séance, les participants ont fait part de plusieurs challenges qu'ils rencontraient dans
leur travail, et ont choisi l’un d’eux pour l'expérience. Avant chaque session expérimentale,
les participants ont eu un test de créativité, l’échelle de la créativité (Domino, 1970) de la
liste de vérification des adjectifs (ACL). Ensuite, ils ont utilisé une technique de méditation
puis rempli les MAAS pour évaluer l'ampleur de l’entrée dans l’AMS. A la fin de leur
journée de travail, ils ont à nouveau complété l'ACL, et proposé des solutions au challenge
qu’ils avaient choisi. Ces solutions ont ensuite été évaluées par un panel de trois juges sur
deux critères de créativité (nouveauté et utilité) à l'aide de la méthode de piles.
L'analyse statistique à l’aide du modèle à effets fixes a montré un accroissement significatif
du bien-être et de la créativité pour les groupes expérimentaux par rapport aux groupes
témoins pour les trois sites et ceci après six séances. En outre, la pleine conscience, n'étant
pas une variable dépendante, a également augmenté de façon significative après six séances.
Quant aux limites de cette recherche, afin de mettre en œuvre des techniques de méditation
pour susciter l’AMS, les employés doivent être disposés à donner de leur temps et attention
afin de participer à des séances de méditation. Seulement une partie des employés est motivée
9
pour assister et participer à des séances de méditation sur son propre temps, ce qui introduit
un biais d'auto-sélection, des solutions alternatives doivent être tentées si tous les employés
participent.
Les possibilités futures pour la recherche comprennent la reprise des expériences dans
d’autres organisations, à but non lucratif et/ou des entreprises, pour explorer soit (1) les
mêmes avantages individuels de l'AMS, afin de soutenir la validité écologique des résultats et
d’être en mesure d'avoir un nombre suffisant de participants pour faire des comparaisons
démographiques que nous n'étions pas en mesure de réaliser ; par exemple, cette recherche
pourrait explorer comment le développement de l'AMS varie avec l'âge, le sexe, le rôle
professionnel (managérial par rapport à la première ligne, différents niveaux hiérarchiques)
ou le site (par exemple, des établissement éducatifs ou de santé ou des organismes à but non
lucratif) ; soit (2) des bienfaits supplémentaires de l’AMS, que ce soit au niveau individuel
(tels que le niveau et la durée de concentration, le niveau de satisfaction d’implication dans
le travail), à l’échelle de l’équipe (tels que la cohésion du groupe, la productivité, ou
l’étendue des synergies) ou au niveau organisationnel (comme la citoyenneté des entreprises,
les niveaux de chiffre d'affaires, le taux d'absentéisme ou la productivité), ou une
combinaison de ces éléments. Enfin, compte tenu du débat dans la recherche sur l’efficacité
de techniques concentratives comme la méditation transcendantale ou la méditation de pleine
conscience, une gamme de techniques de méditation pourrait être testée afin de le vérifier,
avec des avantages organisationnels plus larges et durables.
En guise de conclusion, notre étude montre que l'introduction de l'AMS par le biais des
techniques de méditation aurait d’éventuelles applications dans la lutte contre le stress dans
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les entreprises. Comme les avantages organisationnels de l'AMS vont de la créativité et du
bien-être accrus, comme démontré dans nos expériences, à l'engagement potentiellement plus
élevé des collaborateurs, une santé meilleure et une grande détente, l'introduction des
techniques de méditations dans les organisations pourrait aider à réduire le mal être ou le
désengagement et la manque d’initiative et de créativité. L’éradication totale de ces
phénomènes négatifs nécessite bien-sûr une transformation des entreprises, mais en attendant,
les employés peuvent souffrir moins et être plus créatifs.
11
Table of contents
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................................... 1
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................................... 3
Résumé ........................................................................................................................................................... 7
Table of contents .......................................................................................................................................... 11
Lists of figures .............................................................................................................................................. 15
List of tables ................................................................................................................................................. 16
List of annexes .............................................................................................................................................. 17
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 19
2. Literature review ................................................................................................................................. 25
2.1 Exploration of states of consciousness ....................................................................................................... 25
2.2 Spirituality in the workplace ...................................................................................................................... 26
2.3 Research sources for the exploration of alternate mindsets ....................................................................... 28
2.3.1 Positive psychological and organisational science .............................................................................. 29
2.3.2 Neurophysiology ................................................................................................................................. 32
2.4 Accessing mindfulness ................................................................................................................................ 34
2.5 Accessing flow ............................................................................................................................................ 35
2.6 Accessing a positive mindset ...................................................................................................................... 37
2.7 Accessing AMS ........................................................................................................................................... 38
2.7.2.1 Meditative movement ...................................................................................................................... 40
2.7.2.2 Open monitoring .............................................................................................................................. 42
2.7.2.3 Focused attention ............................................................................................................................. 43
2.8 Summary ..................................................................................................................................................... 45
3. Elaboration of our conceptual model ................................................................................................... 47
3.1 Purpose of research and conceptual model ............................................................................................... 47
3.2 Mindset defined .......................................................................................................................................... 50
3.3 Mindset malleability ................................................................................................................................... 50
3.4 Traditional mindsets defined and characterised ........................................................................................ 52
3.5 Alternate mindsets defined and characterised............................................................................................ 53
3.6 Neuropsychological substrates of traditional and alternate mindsets ....................................................... 55
3.7 Transition from TMS to AMS ..................................................................................................................... 58
3.8 Conditions conducive to accessing AMS .................................................................................................... 60
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3.9 AMS individual level benefits ..................................................................................................................... 62
3.10 AMS organisational level benefits ............................................................................................................ 65
3.11 Hypotheses ............................................................................................................................................... 67
3.11.1 Levels of employee well-being ......................................................................................................... 67
3.11.2 Levels of creativity ........................................................................................................................... 69
3.11.3 Cultivation of alternate mindsets ...................................................................................................... 70
4. Research methodology ......................................................................................................................... 73
4.1 Participants ................................................................................................................................................ 73
4.1.1 First experimental location: City Hall ................................................................................................. 74
4.1.2 Second experimental location: Aleph ................................................................................................. 74
4.1.3 Third experimental location: ESCP Europe ........................................................................................ 75
4.1.4 Timeline of experiments ..................................................................................................................... 76
4.1.5 Demographics ..................................................................................................................................... 77
4.2 Experimental procedure overview .............................................................................................................. 78
4.3 Intervention for well-being analysis ........................................................................................................... 80
4.3.1 Beginning of day/mid-day prior to technique ..................................................................................... 80
4.3.2 AMS induction/control technique ....................................................................................................... 81
4.3.3 Directly after induction/control technique .......................................................................................... 83
4.3.4 End of work day .................................................................................................................................. 84
4.4 Intervention for creativity analysis ............................................................................................................. 84
4.4.1 Evening prior to each experimental session ........................................................................................ 84
4.4.2 Beginning of day prior to technique .................................................................................................... 85
4.4.3 End of work day .................................................................................................................................. 86
4.5 Follow-up to experiments ........................................................................................................................... 87
5. Results .................................................................................................................................................. 89
5.1 Data treatment ........................................................................................................................................... 89
5.2 Descriptive statistics .................................................................................................................................. 90
5.3 Analysis of data by location for each dependent variable .......................................................................... 94
5.3.1 Analysis of data by location for well-being ........................................................................................ 94
5.3.2 Analysis of data by location for creativity .......................................................................................... 97
5.4 Statistical model selection for all data combined ....................................................................................... 99
5.5 Predicting well-being, creativity and mindfulness ................................................................................... 100
5.6 Identifying the necessary number of sessions to observe an effect ........................................................... 101
5.7 Predicting the increase of well-being between start-of-day and end-of-day ............................................ 103
5.8 Satisfaction with life scale interpretation ................................................................................................. 103
5.9 Comparison between groups, locations and times ................................................................................... 105
5.10 Additional components determining well-being, creativity and AMS attainment .................................. 107
5.10.1 Additional information collected at City Hall ................................................................................. 107
5.10.2 Additional information collected at Aleph ...................................................................................... 108
5.10.3 Additional information collected at ESCP Europe.......................................................................... 109
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6. Discussion of results ........................................................................................................................... 111
6.1 Support of hypotheses ............................................................................................................................... 111
6.1.1 Levels of employee well-being ......................................................................................................... 111
6.1.2 Levels of creativity ........................................................................................................................... 112
6.1.3 Cultivation of alternate mindsets ...................................................................................................... 113
6.2 Comparison of locations, times and other factors .................................................................................... 114
6.2.1 Experimental locations ...................................................................................................................... 114
6.2.2 Experimental times ........................................................................................................................... 115
6.2.3 Gender balance.................................................................................................................................. 115
6.2.4 Portion of total populations ............................................................................................................... 116
6.2.5 Connotations of meditation in France versus Canada influencing participation ............................... 117
6.3 Interpretation of changes in well-being ................................................................................................... 118
6.3.1 Well-being levels at City Hall ........................................................................................................... 118
6.3.2 Well-being levels at Aleph ................................................................................................................ 118
6.3.3 Well-being levels at ESCP Europe ................................................................................................... 119
6.3.4 Evaluation of changes in well-being at all three locations ................................................................ 120
6.4 Within-day decreases in well-being and creativity ................................................................................... 122
6.5 Interpretation of differences in attendance .............................................................................................. 123
7. Organisational implications ............................................................................................................... 125
7.1 Growing importance ................................................................................................................................ 125
7.2 Transcending occupational stress ............................................................................................................ 128
7.2.1 Stress response .................................................................................................................................. 129
7.2.2 Occupational stress epidemic ............................................................................................................ 130
7.2.3 Downward spiral ............................................................................................................................... 131
7.2.4 Virtuous cycle ................................................................................................................................... 132
7.2.5 Building reserves to alleviate workplace stress ................................................................................. 133
7.3 Inexpensive effective solution for bolstering well-being and creativity.................................................... 136
7.4 Organisational feasibility ......................................................................................................................... 141
7.4.1 Workplace environment .................................................................................................................... 142
7.4.2 Logistics, setting and timing ............................................................................................................. 143
7.4.3 Secular applications .......................................................................................................................... 143
7.4.4 Choice of time usage ......................................................................................................................... 144
7.5 Impacts of increased workplace well-being ............................................................................................. 145
7.5.1 Productivity and performance ........................................................................................................... 146
7.5.2 Pro-social behaviour and engagement .............................................................................................. 146
7.6 Impacts of increased workplace creativity ............................................................................................... 147
7.6.1 Technical innovation ......................................................................................................................... 148
7.6.2 Intrapreneurship ................................................................................................................................ 149
7.7 Impacts of increased workplace AMS ...................................................................................................... 150
7.7.1 Emotional intelligence ...................................................................................................................... 151
7.7.2 Self-awareness .................................................................................................................................. 152
7.7.3 Physiological improvements ............................................................................................................. 153
7.7.4 Concentration .................................................................................................................................... 154
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7.8 Integration with education and training ................................................................................................... 156
7.9 Interpersonal implications ....................................................................................................................... 157
7.10 Process versus outcome focus ................................................................................................................ 158
8. Limitations and further research ....................................................................................................... 161
8.1 Limitations and biases caused by methodology ....................................................................................... 161
8.1.1 Limitations and biases due to data treatment choices ....................................................................... 161
8.1.2 Measuring individual versus group and organisational level factors ................................................ 163
8.1.3 Field studies versus laboratory studies .............................................................................................. 164
8.1.4 Lack of inclusion of an end-of-day measure of AMS ....................................................................... 164
8.1.5 Control group .................................................................................................................................... 165
8.1.6 Self-selection bias ............................................................................................................................. 166
8.1.7 Motivation to participate ................................................................................................................... 167
8.1.8 Subjective rather than objective measures ........................................................................................ 168
8.1.9 Potential biases due to single-blinded experiments ........................................................................... 169
8.2 Further research avenues ......................................................................................................................... 170
8.2.1 Replications with additional or different criteria .............................................................................. 170
8.2.2 Possible changes to scheduling and components of future experiments ........................................... 171
8.2.3 AMS induction techniques ................................................................................................................ 172
8.2.4 Improved measurement of AMS and its benefits .............................................................................. 173
8.2.6 Beyond the individual level .............................................................................................................. 176
8.2.7 Secular development blending science with contemplating traditions .............................................. 177
9. Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................... 181
References ................................................................................................................................................... 185
Annex .......................................................................................................................................................... 211
15
Lists of figures
Figure
Title
Page
1
Comparison of fixed and growth mindsets
31
2
The Quadrant Model of Flow
36
3
Range of contemplative practices
38
4
Patanjali’s Eight Limbs of Yoga
48
5
Conceptual model of transition from traditional to alternate mindset
52
6
Diagram of brain with mentions of key areas affected by meditation
57
7
Seated position for experimental sessions
82
8
Mean of well-being at start of day by session, City Hall
96
9
Mean of well-being at start of day by session, Aleph
96
10
Mean of well-being at start of day by session, ESCP Europe
97
11
Average creativity by session, City Hall and Aleph
98
12
Stress levels and performance
129
13
Psychological and physical factors of the downward spiral
131
14
Comparison across nations of GDP levels with satisfaction with life
138
16
List of tables
Table
Title
Page
1
Timeline of research experiment dates for each location
76
2
Demographics of participants of the three experimental locations
77
3
Interventions for measuring well-being and creative production
78
4
Descriptive statistics of the dependent variables for each session, condition
and location
91
5
Descriptive statistics of creative production for each session, condition and
location
92
6
Descriptive statistics of mindfulness for each session, condition and location
93
7
Univariate descriptive statistics of the dependent variables
94
8
Fixed and random effects models comparisons using AIC
99
9
Estimates of the GLMs predicting morning well-being, afternoon well-being,
morning and afternoon creativity, average creativity evaluation and
mindfulness
100
10
Required number of sessions to observe a significant effect of the meditation
technique
102
11
Estimates of the GLMs predicting the increasing of well-being and the
increasing of creativity between start-of-day and end-of-day
103
12
Interpretation of Satisfaction with Life Scale start and end average values for
each experimental location: Comparison between experimental & control
groups
105
13
Participant Attendance at Last Session: Comparison between Experimental
and Control Groups
106
17
List of annexes
Annex
Heading
Page
A
Letter/Email sent out/given in person to recruit companies for research study
locations in Canada
213
B
Letter/Email sent out/given in person to recruit companies for research study
locations in France
215
C
Newsletter/Email sent to recruit participants for studies at City Hall and Aleph
(the below was one that was sent out a set at City Hall, for which Aleph staff
received a similar message with different dates)
217
D
Email sent to recruit participants for studies at ESCP Europe (this is one that
was sent for a set of morning sessions prior to start of workday)
219
E
Consent form signed by participants at City Hall and Aleph prior to
commencing the research experiment
221
F
Questionnaire for measuring well-being before session start: Satisfaction with
Life Scale (Diener 2006)
223
G
Questionnaire for measuring well-being at end of day: Satisfaction with Life
Scale (Diener 2006)
225
H
Questionnaire for measuring well-being before session start: Satisfaction with
Life Scale (Diener 2006), French version
227
I
Questionnaire for measuring well-being before session start: Satisfaction with
Life Scale (Diener 2006), French version
229
J
Questionnaire for measuring extent of AMS following session before
starting/resuming work: Mindful Awareness Attention Scale (MAAS, Brown
& Ryan, 2003)
231
18
K
Questionnaire for measuring extent of AMS following session before
starting/resuming work: Mindful Awareness Attention Scale (MAAS, Brown
& Ryan, 2003), French version
232
L
Message sent out for preparatory session for research studies measuring
creativity; and, Response to preparatory session for research studies measuring
creativity notifying of selected challenge.
235
M
End-of-day feedback report for research studies measuring creativity
239
N
Adjective Checklist (ACL, Gough & Heilbrun, 1980) on 2 pages
241
O
Creativity Scale (Domino, 1970), 59 selected adjectives of the 300 Adjective
Checklist
245
P
Post-intervention letter sent to each participant following the completion of
their involvement in a research study, English and French versions
247
19
1. Introduction
Growing numbers of workplace wellness programs are being established to aid
employees in dealing with the uncertainty and instability which are the norm in modern work
environments. By encouraging meditative moments and pauses, employees can benefit from
a ‘digital detox’, renewing their focus and energy, and bringing new inspiration. All the
while, there is substantial room for the strengthening and widening of implementation of
workplace wellness programs, which research in this domain can support by continuing to
show beneficial organisational implications.
For thousands of years, a plethora of spiritual and religious traditions have evolved in
both Eastern and Western societies. Though the diversity of these traditions is extensive, a
common core ties many of them – the notion that through meditation (Eastern focus) or
prayer (Western focus) one can return to a calm and relaxed state, reaping a sense of peace
and fulfillment. By blending the knowledge and insights of Eastern and Western traditions
and applying them within organisations, therein lies great potential for enlightening,
balancing, and transcending.
We propose that utilising contemplative practices to induce alternate mindsets, such
as mindfulness and awareness, can provide for more optimal functioning of people within
organisations, by reducing conscious control over mental processing, allowing for a more
integrative and holistic perspective. This, preconscious mental processing, has been
previously shown by many others as beneficial to creative problem solving, insights,
intuition, and other facets of life.
Alternate mindsets (AMS) are characterized in literature by the pre-conscious (i.e.
potentially available to the consciousness) awareness, uncontrolled mental processes (i.e.
associative, imaginative, intuitive) and holistic thinking (Davis-Floyd and Arvidson 1997;
Dane and Pratt, 2007; Hodgkinson et al 2009). In contrast, the traditional mindset (TMS) is
20
characterized by the conscious awareness, controlled mental processes, and analytical-logical
manipulation of symbols. Since Plato, the West has considered TMS as the hallmark of
intelligence and simply of any cognition. Yet, in the last several decades various research
showed complementary ways and alternatives to analytical-logical cognition mental systems
(eg., Damasio 1994; Nisbett et al., 2001; Wagner and Sternberg 1985). Alternate mindsets
represent an array of such systems which were partly explored for its individual benefits. Our
focus is on the AMS use and benefits in the organisational context.
Certain conditions could be more conducive to AMS arising and being sustainable,
while the contrary could keep TMS dominant. Some of these conditions will be explored here
in the context of corporate wellness programs, as AMS induction techniques or as a
supplement to formal practice.
It can be advantageous for organisations to implement programs to encourage the
development of alternate mindsets amongst their employees, as for instance, well-run
comprehensive workplace wellness programs (incorporating on-site meditation sessions and
training for self-regulation and mental balance for instance) have been shown to have a return
on investment as high as six to one.
A significant contribution of introducing AMS-related activities is lower health care
costs, for instance, Berry and colleagues (2010) state that wellness programs saved the firm
Johnson & Johnson a total of 250 million in healthcare costs within six years. Another impact
is greater productivity, as participants in wellness programs are absent less often and perform
better at work than their nonparticipant counterparts - according to Gallup Healthways
(2008), employees scoring low in life satisfaction are absent from work an average of 1.25
more days per month than those with high levels.
While treatments and medications provided by the traditional health care system -
which is perhaps more consumed with treatment of illness and disease than health promotion
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- can be costly and have potential side effects, AMS mechanisms can involve little or no cost
and no side effects. Further, AMS activities yield higher morale; employee pride, trust,
commitment and engagement increase, contributing to a robust organisation by, amongst
other factors, allowing for greater self-regulation and better managing one’s perceptions and
behaviours.
Seeing the multitude of organisational benefits, numerous companies have already
embarked on workplace wellness programs that encourage the practice of AMS-inducing
techniques. AMS training is being embraced by diverse organisations as an antidote to the
relentless pressure and information overload common in workplaces.
At the prominent international technology firm, Apple, employees are encouraged to
meditate 30 minutes a day, on-site meditation and yoga classes are offered, and a meditation
room is provided. At another, Prentice Hall Publishing, a “Quiet Room” is provided where
employees can meditate, pray or reflect. At Google, one of the original software engineers,
Tan, established “Search Inside Yourself” in 2007, a course teaching employees learn how to
breathe mindfully, listen to their coworkers, and improve their emotional intelligence; in
support of this, meditation space and courses are offered, to both improve employee mental
health and well-being and also the company’s bottom line. Next, recognising the business and
humanitarian potential of AMS, Intel employees developed a mindfulness program called
Awake Inside. At the athletic apparel firm Nike, employees have access to relaxation rooms
to rest, pray or meditate, and on-site meditation and yoga classes. Similarly, AOL Time
Warner, HBO, Yahoo! and Deutsche Bank offer on-site meditation classes and quiet rooms
for contemplative practices.
More and more, leaders and managers are embracing what may have at first been
considered a trend, by making workplace wellness intregral to the notion of their firm’s
success. To give several current examples, at Procter & Gamble various on-site health and
22
fitness programs are provided, including meditation, supported by CEO Lafley who holds
that, “You cannot out-work a problem, you have to out-meditation it.” At General Mills, an
initiative called “Mindful Leadership” blends meditation, yoga and mindfulness practices to
settle and focus the minds of employees. Further, McKinsey & Co. management and
consulting firm provides meditation and self-analysis programs for employees, and according
to a McKinsey partner, “What’s good for the spirit is good for the bottom line,” and has
developed meditation programs for other firms, such as for an Australian client, which saved
the business more than $20 million. Finally, another prominent firm, Aetna, found from
analyses that an hour a week of AMS practice decreased employee stress levels by a third,
cutting healthcare costs by around $2000 annually per employee.
Given the global economic crisis and workplace stress, which continue to endure, the
principles of meditation can uniquely and effectively address both the challenges and the
opportunities that the world now faces. In parallel with the Chinese notion of ‘wei ji’, in
which crisis signifies not only danger but also opportunity, Western and Eastern business
alike can take an approach of opening themselves to the possibilities through adapting age-
old spiritual and religious practices for modern day organisational settings. Through
meditation and similar practices that cultivate a particular mindset, organisational actors
could benefit from the same sense of calm, equanimity, compassion, connection and
perception as have a multitude of practitioners through time.
More and more, companies are realising the importance of the psychological well-
being and state of mind of their employees. Namely, Schumpeter (2010) outlined the
mounting attention that is being given to employees’ mental well-being within organisations.
Mental health programs have been implemented in many companies, from British Telecom
(BT), to Rolls-Royce and Grant Thornton. BT has benefited from a 30% reduction in sickness
absence due to mental-health problems as a result. As well, consultancies, including
23
Corporate Psychology and Mental Fitness offer services targeting the mental health within
organisations. This area deserves merit, given that more than a third of physical problems
which doctors attend to have psychological causes.
Much attention has been given to how intuition and insight can bring benefits to
managers and organisations, but often the processes in order to obtain such insights and
wisdom have been overlooked in research. We delve into the processes which bring about
alternate mindsets, first explaining what we term traditional and alternate mindsets, then
looking at the characteristics of the mechanisms that are involved to transition from
traditional to alternate mindsets, how specifically these mindsets bring about an enhanced
state, and what potential benefits and applications could be implemented within
organisations.
The purpose of this research is to define the psychological mechanism that specifies
the path from cultivation of alternate mindsets in organisational actors all the way to the
positive benefits for organisations. First, a model is built to specify this path, describing the
links that have already been validated in previous research and then, two relevant links that
haven’t yet been tested – well-being and creative production. Next, experimental procedure is
outlined, and the main results are presented and discussed in regards to validation of the
hypotheses. Further, organisational implications of alternate mindsets benefits are explored in
regards to the two dependent variables, well-being and creative production, as well as of
extent of alternate mindsets that participants attained during the research studies. Finally,
suggestions for future research in this domain are presented, along with limitations.
24
25
2. Literature review
To situate our research topic, we begin by looking at theory underlying the
exploration of various levels of consciousness.
2.1 Exploration of states of consciousness
To start with, a leading theorist, Wilbur, paved a way for alternate mindsets to be
explored, by drawing together different paradigms from Western and Eastern cultures in his
‘Integral Theory’, as well as relating consciousness levels with their theoretical bases in
ontology, epistemology, and methodology (Wilbur et al 2011). His theories have been
applied to executive leadership and organisational development, by Young (2002) and others,
on how the development of higher levels of consciousness along a ‘Spectrum of
Consciousness’, which is a parallel notion to our research exploration of the development of
alternate mindsets, can enhance effectiveness, problem solving capabilities and bring greater
self-fulfillment within organisational settings.
The concept of a continuum of mindsets, of states of consciousness, existing has been
extensively researched through time, along with the emotional states and characteristics
associated with them. It is particularly research that transcends paradigms that we draw upon
for this research, as the exploration of alternate mindsets, themselves different states of
consciousness, represent a marriage of Western and non-Western traditions and philosophies.
Bringing ancient contemplative practices into modern organisational settings requires at least
some knowledge of the philosophical foundation that is being built upon, such as Wilbur and
others provide. One key dimension of this foundation that is prominent in the literature is
spirituality in the workplace, which introduces the notion of developing desired states of
consciousness, altering one’s mindset.
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2.2 Spirituality in the workplace
While many of the techniques that workplaces are using to facilitate the cultivation of
alternate mindsets are secular, as described in the introduction in regards to corporate
wellness programs, many of these techniques are imbedded in religious philosophy and
traditions. Therefore, literature linking spirituality and religion to management and
organisational behaviour position this topic compared to related streams of research.
In discussing the incorporation of spiritually in the workplace, it is important to note
the debate between purists, who argue that this contemplative techniques including
meditation are inseparable from their origins, making AMS techniques and spirituality a
blasphemy of traditional beliefs and sacred rituals, and on the other side, those who see
framing contemplative practices as secular practices that are spiritual but not religious
(Kingston 2013).
Framing AMS practices within spirituality could allow to increased acceptance of
them within organisations by avoiding extensive debate that risks them being viewed as
something that must be kept out of the workplace. Though, arguably, it remains to be seen
whether AMS techniques will voluntarily be fully embraced within organisations, and if so,
whether they will bring the same benefits as their ancient religious counterparts and will the
concerns of the purists be satiated?
To begin, Cash and Gray (2000) outlined a holistic and inclusive framework for the
inclusion of spirituality in modern workplaces, noting the needs of employees to seek support
and meaning in their lives, including during time spent at work. While religious practices in
workplaces have been controversial and largely regulated, with a traditional mentality of
religion needing to be kept separate from work, spirituality has been welcomed to a greater
extent and recognised as a way for employees to meet their needs of seeking support and a
sense of purpose. They emphasise the growing prevalence of meditation, visualisation
27
practices and spiritual contemplation within organisations, and suggest a shift is occurring
towards an alternative business mentality that sees spirituality and its various contemplative
practices as part of life at work, not only outside of work. However, does divorcing
spirituality from its religious roots negate its underlying philosophy? Perhaps further
exploration is needed to merge workplace spirituality with contemplative traditions and
practices, such that it upholds the main tenets of its philosophy.
Development of spirituality in the workplace has continued to grow and widen, within
workplace wellness programs in the form of meditation and yoga classes, as well as other
ways. Mitroff and colleagues (2009) conducted a ten year follow-up study, what they term a
‘spiritual audit’ of corporate America, by issuing questionnaires to analyse with Attachment
Theory. From this, they found a strong link between workplace spirituality and a secure
attachment style, concluding that spiritual organisations are more secure.
Other research literature from this domain connects workplace spirituality and
meditation with productivity, encouraging the utilisation of AMS practices. On this point,
Petchsawang and Duchon (2010) reported on two studies of how encouraging the expression
of spirituality at work facilitates more productive work practices. The first study’s findings
showed higher workplace spirituality amongst people who regularly practice meditation than
those who do not. This underlines the connection between workplace spirituality and AMS
practices, and validates the need for this stream of literature to be considered for this topic.
The second study was less methodologically sound, yet found that the practice of meditation
partially mediates the relationship between workplace spirituality and work performance,
again drawing a parallel between research on AMS techniques and spirituality.
AMS techniques can emerge from within the framework of spirituality and related
disciplines to have increasing organisational applications, and become a source of
competitive advantage for firms, and a source of human flourishing within organisations.
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Management research on AMS and spirituality alike are challenging traditional models of
doing business, bringing a focus on care and compassion in place of self-interest, according
to Rynes-Weller (2013).
But is spirituality being brought into the workplace solely for competitive advantage?
Ample research has shown increased productivity, profitability and other benefits of
spirituality, including developing AMS; however, will the advantages be lasting if the
motivating intention is higher profits and not higher purpose? Perhaps a shift from
competition to collaboration and co-opetition between firms could align corporate values
with spiritual practices. In order for that to happen, it is likely that the gap between academic
research and organisational practices may need to narrow for the applications of research
findings to be practically applied, for instance through additional field studies of
implementing spirituality in the workplace.
In summary, literature on workplace spirituality has been growing at a rapid pace, and
its applications and implications are increasing. Various reflections and contemplations arise
in this process, as, for instance, there is an unclear division between religious and secular
practices. Now we proceed to literature related to exploring alternate mindsets.
2.3 Research sources for the exploration of alternate mindsets
A number of existing fields of established research provide a basis for the exploration
of alternate mindsets (AMS) and the potential organisational benefits that AMS can bring.
These include domains within psychology, organisational science and cognitive
neuroscience, which each have literature sources which provide the context for understanding
and evaluating organisational applications of these mindsets.
To provide a framework for developing our conceptual model, we outline key
research in this rapidly evolving field. To begin with, Sedlmeier and his colleagues (2012) in
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a comprehensive meta-analysis of 163 empirical studies (those selected out of 595 studies on
this topic which had acceptable methodology) on psychological effects of mindfulness
meditation and other forms of meditation, found a medium average effect size of meditative
techniques. Their meta-analysis summarised both Western and Easter theoretical approaches
on AMS techniques, thus is consistent with Wilbur’s integral approach to the exploration of
states of consciousness, and, in our case, mindsets.
Further, Sedlmeier and colleagues conclude from evaluation of these studies that the
effects of meditation are different from relaxation and cognitive restructuring, and that the
effects vary across different forms of meditation. Only partial covariance was found between
meditation and long-term impact on examined variables, contrary to the expectation of solid
evidence for long-term impacts. Several weaknesses of this field of research were noted –
that the dependent variables that have been studied do not fully cover the terrain of possible
predictions from existing theory, and a lack of precision in predictions from these theories.
They call for a deeper understanding of how and why meditation is effective, and for theories
and measurement tools to become more precise in further research.
2.3.1 Positive psychological and organisational science
Mental states compatible with AMS have been explored within the domains of
positive psychology and positive organisational science, as a way of enhancing individual
and organisational performance. We posit that the demonstrated benefits of the former are
indications of the benefits of AMS.
Positive psychology and positive organisational science literature convey individual
benefits of AMS to result from shifting to focus on strengths and potential rather than
dwelling on weaknesses and problems. These fields relay that enhanced performance and a
sense of fulfillment result from positive and growth mindsets, mental states compatible to
30
AMS. For example, Rogers (1961) explored how people can adapt, and develop, mental
states towards openness, awareness and self-acceptance—important individual benefits.
Next, Quinn (1990) showed how being in a mindset that is results-centered, internally
directed, focused on others and externally open—a state compatible with AMS— yield
leadership excellence. Similarly, Csíkszentmihályi (1990) showed that the state of flow,
compatible to AMS, provides enjoyable and valuable experiences through complete
absorption in an activity. Further, Taylor and Gollwitzer (1995) discussed the effects of
mindset on positive illusions, describing how manipulating one’s mindset (e.g., from TMS to
AMS) corresponds to improvements in how one makes decisions and implements them. In a
similar vein, Gardner (2004) offered a framework for changing one’s mindset, and its impact
for enhancing intelligence, creativity and leadership.
In addition, Dutton and associates (2005) showed how people are at their best and
most highly motivated when utilising intrapsychic and interpersonal resources, such as in
AMS. Also, Seligman and associates (2009) looked at how approaching life with an
optimistic mindset of anticipation, energy and excitement brought greater satisfaction in work
and life. Finally, Dweck (2006) discussed a growth mindset—in which there is a focus on the
process of learning, as opposed to a fixed mindset—and how it enhances performance and
achievements. A comparison between a fixed mindset, which is static and deterministic and a
growth mindset, which emphasises free will and self-development, is displayed below in
figure 1, which looks at various facets of each type of mindset in regards to cognition and
behaviour.
31
Figure 1: Comparison of fixed and growth mindsets
Overall, mindsets compatible with positive mindsets and other AMS offer diverse
benefits of increased effectiveness and sense of well-being.
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To summarize, diverse lines of positive psychology and positive organisational
science research which explored mindsets compatible with AMS—showed several areas of
potential benefits: a mindset which embraces positivity and possibility provides (1) greater
benefits and sense of personal fulfillment; and (2) enhances performance and self-
actualisation compared to a negative, fixed or other TMS mindset.
After now having explored the psychological and organisational science sources of
AMS, we turn to the neurophysiological ones.
2.3.2. Neurophysiology
In terms of neurophysiological research, two areas are particularly relevant to AMS:
(1) brain structure has plasticity and changes throughout one’s lifetime; this supports the
possibility of move from TMS to AMS, and (2) there are reliable techniques to train the brain
to access alternate mindsets.
In terms of brain plasticity, Davidson and associates (2007) looked at the changeable
structure of the brain (neuroplasticity), and discovered experience-dependent alterations in
brain function. Specifically, these researchers showed how neurogenesis (generation of
neurons) is modulated by experience, and that both negative and positive experiences have
powerful and demonstrable opposite effects on brain processes and, as a result, on one’s
mindset. Further on, Luders (2009) used magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and found that
the brain continues to change during one’s lifetime thus indicating that it is potentially
possible to move from TMS to AMS. In a similar vein, Plowman and Kleim (2010) found
that the brain is capable of profound structural and functional change throughout one’s
lifespan, allowing for the development of AMS. Overall, these lines of research indicate that
the brain’s structure and function are changeable, allowing for the possibility to shift from
TMS to AMS.
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In terms of training the brain to access and develop AMS, Brefczynski-Lewis and
associates (2007) showed how meditative techniques (using focused attention) enhanced
concentrative abilities, increased awareness and widened scope of perception, which are
characteristic of AMS. Further, Lagopoulos and associates (2009) outlined several
electroencephalogram (EEG) studies which have evidenced changes in spectral band
frequencies during meditation. Similarly, Halsband and associates (2009) showed that
plasticity changes in the brain result from meditative practices, which indicates that the brain
can enter AMS through meditative techniques. Next, Luders and associates (2009) showed
how meditation changes the physical structure of the brain. Specifically, these researchers
found that meditators have more gray matter (indicating more efficient or powerful
information processing) in regions of the brain that are important for attention, emotion
regulation, and mental flexibility.
Further, Raffone and Srinivasan (2010) investigated meditative states and traits in
relation to bringing benefits of AMS and found that meditation has implications on the
attention, consciousness, self-awareness, and empathic development of the mind. Also,
Williams (2010) outlined how meditation can lead to differences in brain structure, allowing
subjects to separate their directly experienced self from the “narrative” self, as is possible
with AMS. Support for this is provided by Zeidan and colleagues’ (2011) brain imaging
study findings that as few as four 20-minute sessions of mindfulness meditation, a prominent
AMS technique, was effective in relieving pain by reducing the brain's emotional response to
painful stimuli. Finally, Also, Siegel and colleagues (2013) proposed that, with practice,
mindful awareness allows for positive changes -- those that AMS provide -- through an
“internal attunement.” Overall, this diverse research indicates that brain can be trained—
namely, using meditative techniques—to enter AMS.
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To summarize, diverse neurophysiological research has shown that brain structure and
function develops throughout one’s lifsepan, allowing, thus, the possibility to train one’s
brain to access and deepen AMS using, for instance, meditative practices.
After now having discussed the neurophysiological research showing a possibility of
accessing AMS, we now review the concrete techniques used in research for it. We begin by
providing sources from the research literature how AMS can be accessed.
The above research allows us to propose within our model that various mechanisms
can induce in individual into AMS. We will specify this proposal in a moment but before that
we will discuss the research on organisationally feasible techniques for inducing AMS.
2.4 Accessing mindfulness
AMS have been explored within psychology and other domains in the context of
mindfulness, and comparisons can be drawn between entering a mindfulness mindset with
accessing alternate mindsets. In terms of existing definitions, Langer (1989) defines
mindfulness as having developed an ever-ready state of mind which is alert, open to new
perspectives and information. While she states that effort may be necessary to shift to a
mindful mode, the state itself seems effortless, as in cultivating AMS. Langer gives the
analogy of a mindful state as living in a transparent house, in that one is aware of the
presence of all that is there, without having to extend effort to locate a particular object or
room.
Similarly, Baer and colleagues (2006) define a state of mindfulness as non-judging of
inner experience, observing but not evaluating sensations and emotions, as well as non-
reactivity to inner experience, allowing thoughts and feelings to be noticed and let go of, such
as in AMS. Along a similar vein, Dhiman (2009) describe entering a mindful state as when
the mind becomes serene, stable and strong, traits which are present also when AMS are
35
accessed. Further, Shao and Skarlicki (2009) discuss mindfulness as a state entered into in
which one maintains sustained attention on present activities and is focused and relaxed, such
as in AMS (in contrast to a state of being mindless, where one’s attention is limited and easily
distracted and one’s mind and preoccupied by rumination about the past or other anxieties).
Next, Davidson (2010) emphasizes the influence of the contemplative traditions in the notion
of mindfulness, and specifically points to the cognitive changes and transformation that are
possible when a mindful state is achieved, such as with transition to AMS.
Onwards, Jha and associates (2010) present mindfulness as accessing a mental mode
which gives full attention to each passing experience, without judging, elaborating upon or
reacting. This mirrors Kabat-Zinn’s definition of mindfulness as consciously learning to ‘pay
attention, on purpose, in the present moment, non-judgmentally’ (2002). Overall, the
literature available of entering a mindfulness mindset, a state in which one is fully
concentrated or absorbed with each passing thought or experience, is parallel to that of
entering AMS.
Next we explore how another prominent form of AMS, flow, can be accessed, by first
defining and characterising it, and then looking at ways of bringing about a state of flow.
2.5 Accessing flow
AMS have been explored within psychology in the context of entering flow states, as
a way of enhancing individual and organisational performance, through accessing the optimal
states and intrinsic motivation that full immersion in flow provides.
The researcher who created the notion of flow, Csíkszentmihályi (1975) defined it as a
holistic sensation that is felt when one is fully involved in what they are doing, which is
similar to the overall perceptiveness and awareness of AMS. Csíkszentmihályi and
Csíkszentmihályi (1988) describe flow states as involving developing focused attention in a
36
balanced and enjoyable way that enhances one’s self-esteem and personal complexity, such
as in AMS. Next, Csikzentmihályi and LeFevre (1989) discussed how subjects accessing a
flow state feel relaxed and motivated and in a positive frame of mind, such as in AMS. In a
similar vein, Fullagar and Mills (2008) discussed entering flow as transitioning into an
intrinsically motivating state in which one is engaged in the task at hand and has a clear sense
of what has to be done, such as in moving into AMS. Onwards, Fullagar and Kelloway
(2009) showed how in cultivating a state of flow one has a positive mood and while working
at full capacity, action seems effortless, such as in the development of AMS.
Similarly, Nielsen and Cleal (2010) wrote of factors leading to flow state, what they
describe as a state of consciousness in which subject’s feel a sense of well-being and
creativity, such as in AMS. Finally, Burke (2010) stated that flow states in organisational
settings are characterized by a sense of satisfaction in which subjects are engaged and feel
positive towards their experiences, such as once AMS have been entered.
The consensus amongst researchers is that flow is “a state in which an individual is
completely immersed in an activity without reflective self-consciousness but with a deep
sense of control” (Engeser & Schiepe-Tiska, 2012:1), as pictured in the upper right portion of
the below figure, where both skill level and challenge level are maximised.
Figure 2. The Quadrant Model of Flow (Engeser & Rheinberg, 2008: 160)
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Next, we describe how positive mindsets can accessed, which are also types of
alternate mindsets.
2.6 Accessing a positive mindset
Accessing AMS has been explored within the domains of positive psychology and
organisational science, as a way of enhancing individual and organisational performance.
First, Quinn (1990) showed how accessing a state of mind that is results-centered, internally
directed, focused on others and externally open—a transition comparable to TMS to AMS—
yield leadership excellence. Similarly, Csíkszentmihályi (1990) presented the notion of
entering flow as providing enjoyable and valuable experiences through complete absorption
in an activity, as occurring when AMS are accessed. Next, Taylor and Gollwitzer (1995)
showed the effects of mindset on positive illusions, in how manipulating one’s state of mind
(e.g., from TMS to AMS) corresponds to how one makes decisions and implements them.
Further, along a similar vein, Gardner (2004) offered a framework for changing one’s
mindset, and the impacts of shifting to AMS for enhancing intelligence, creativity and
leadership. Also, Dweck (2006) discussed the enhanced performance and achievements
possible from a growth mindset (like AMS) where there is a focus on the process of learning,
rather than being in a fixed mindset (TMS). Finally, Seligman et al (2009) looked at how
approaching life with a mindset of anticipation, energy and excitement, as that of AMS,
brought greater satisfaction in work and life overall. Thus, the growing field of positive
psychology can add to the understanding and exploration of AMS, as it bridges humanistic
with more mainstream psychologies.
To summarize, research identified diverse types of individual benefits of entering
AMS, showing enhancement of a variety of individual processes which benefit organisational
actors. These identified types of benefits are: (1) improved information processing leading
38
to greater awareness and a broadened scope and depth of perception; (2) increased focus and
concentration (3) heightened intuition and wisdom that result from AMS, bringing a greater
sense of knowing than solely from cognitive processes, and (4) improved problem-solving
and sense-making, particularly in situations of incomplete information being available to
organisational actors. We are now ready to describe our conceptual model.
2.7 Accessing AMS
An array of contemplative practices to evoke AMS exist, ranging from involving
movement, such as yoga and walking meditation, to creative activities, such as music and
writing, as shown in figure 3 below.
Figure 3. Range of contemplative practices
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For the purposes of this research we focus on psychological techniques. Existing
research literature has discussed a number of organisationally feasible psychological
techniques for accessing AMS. Such techniques may be divided into two types (1) hypnotic
induction, and (2) meditation. In the context of organisations, the research literature discusses
these techniques not only for their feasibility but also for their benefits, both individual and
organisational. We’ll review these benefits for each technique. We will pursue a more general
discussion of the individual and organisational benefits of AMS as a whole in a later section
of this chapter after first exploring the transition from TMS to AMS, and then will present
our hypotheses before moving to our research methodology.
2.7.1 Hypnotic induction
Hypnotic induction is a procedure composed of a long series of preliminary
instructions and suggestions which leads to a mental state of hypnosis (American
Psychological Association). Diverse studies discussed how the hypnosis mental state is
compatible with AMS. For example, Tart (1970) showed how hypnosis brings physical
relaxation and an enhanced sense of well-being, as in AMS. Next, Hilgard (1992) indicated
that information can be processed, have consequences and be recovered through hypnosis,
without being in the focus of consciousness at the time, thus providing a wider scope of
awareness during hypnosis, as in AMS. Similarly, Peter (2009) pointed to how hypnosis can
be used to experience an alternate reality, as in AMS. Onwards, Lynn and associates (2010)
showed how hypnotic induction can be used to alter a subject’s attention, imagination and
motivation and facilitating mindfulness, as in AMS. Overall, hypnotic induction has been
shown in diverse research to be an effective technique of inducing mental states comparable
to AMS.
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Research has also shown that hypnotic induction -produced mental states comparable
to AMS provide individual and organisational benefits. For example, Johansson and Uneståhl
(2006) found that self-hypnosis resulted in reduced stress amongst test subjects. Further,
Hammond (2010) discussed various research suggesting that hypnosis reduces stress and
increases well-being. For instance, Barker and associates (2010) conducted research with
athletes showing how hypnosis enhances and maintains higher levels of their efficiency and
performance. In a similar vein, Meyerson (2010) discussed how hypnosis improves memory
plasticity (the constructive and transitory nature of memory) and influences human memory
to make desired changes. Overall, hypnotic induction of mind into alternate states comparable
to AMS yields an array of research documented benefits at both the individual and
organisational level.
2.7.2 Meditation
The second type of technique for inducing AMS addressed in the literature is
meditation, an ancient Eastern practice. This type is usually divided into three specific
techniques: (a) moving meditation, (b) open monitoring—also known as Vipassana insight or
mindfulness meditation, and (c) focused—also called concentrative—meditation.
2.7.2.1 Meditative movement
This first meditation technique is meditative movement, which uses some form of
movement such as walking or body positioning such as yoga asanas, tai chi and other forms,
and a focus on breathing, prānāyāma from the original Sanskrit, to induce AMS. For
example, ancient yogic texts refer to how syncing movement with breath brings more
heightened focus and concentration combined with a relaxed state of mind, as in AMS (Yoga
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Sutra 1.2). More recently, Shelov and associates (2009) showed how the practice of yogic
meditative movement, induced significant increases attention given to the present moment
without evaluation of arising thoughts, as in AMS. Also, Salmon and associates (2009)
showed how hatha yoga meditative movement has been applied to bring about AMS and its
related benefits. Further, Zydziak (2010) stated that meditative movement influences changes
in the physical body and mental processes in a non-aggressive and beneficial way, as in
AMS. Overall, various forms of meditative movement have been shown as effective ways of
inducing AMS among subjects.
Research has also shown that meditative-movement -induced AMS provide individual
and organisational benefits. For example, Bastille and associates (2004) showed how
meditative movement brings enhanced psychological well-being and concentrative ability.
Further, Larkey (2009) looked at how Qigong and Tai Chi, forms of meditative movement,
bring a clear and calm mindset with an array of physiological and psychological benefits.
Similarly, Birdee and associates (2009) discussed how Eastern mind-body techniques,
specifically Tai chi and Qi Gong, could be applied in the West to enhance health and
wellness. Also, Posner and Tang (2009) described how meditative movement brought about
improved attention and self-regulation. Onwards, Chapman (2010) evaluated how yoga
meditative movement encourages accurate and objective evaluation of one’s self and brings
increased awareness of one’s internal states. Finally, Shelov and associates (2009) showed
how yoga meditative movement yields more accepting and open attitudes toward
experiences, and more insightful understanding towards oneself and others. Overall, AMS
induced by meditative movement bring a variety of individual and organisational level
benefits.
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2.7.2.2 Open monitoring
The next meditation technique is open monitoring, in which the meditator seeks to
reach a deep state of relaxation and to quiet the mind. A prominent form of open monitoring
explored in the literature is Vipassana, meaning ‘to see things as they really are’ –to increase
focus, awareness and insight. Specifically, it involves becoming aware of the present
moment– by paying attention to sounds, one’s breath, sensations in one’s body, or thoughts
or feelings – and to observe without judgment and without trying to change what one notices.
For example, Kabat-Zinn (2007) defined open monitoring as moment to moment non-
judgment that is cultivated by paying attention, bringing an awareness that is non-dual, but is
discerning, as in AMS. Further on, Garland (2009) outlined open monitoring as involving the
cultivation of non-judgmental, non-reactive, meta-cognitive awareness of present-moment
experience, as in AMS. Similarly, Harrer (2009) described open monitoring as a state of open
awareness that is characterised by acceptance, non-judgment and equanimity. The
characteristic of equanimity that arises in this state is defined as having of no cravings and no
aversions, which, in line with Buddhist beliefs and practices, Marques (2010, p. 219 -221)
sees as leading to “a greater awareness of the interconnectedness and interdependence of all
things, and the purpose to do as much good to all of life as possible.” Overall, open
monitoring is a technique which the research literature has shown to induce AMS.
Research has also shown that open-monitoring-induced AMS (such as mindfulness)
provide individual and organisational benefits. For example, Zajonc (2006) discussed how
the contemplative exercises of open monitoring leads to a state which brings increased
insights. As well, Shapiro (2007) accessed how mindfulness brings significant increases in
positive affect and reduced stress. In a similar vein, Carmoday and Baer (2008) and Langer
(2009) showed how mindfulness led to improvements in psychological functioning. Next,
Goldin and associates (2009) explored how open-monitoring-induced AMS - by changing the
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way the brain responds to thoughts - can lead to an improved sense of well-being. Further,
Foley and associates (2010) showed how mindfulness yields an increased quality of life and
lower levels of distress and depression. Finally, Bruce and associates (2010) discussed how
mindfulness increases one’s ability to attune to others, helps people achieve greater self-
attunement and fosters greater well-being and better interpersonal relationships. Overall,
AMS induced through open monitoring yields a number of both individual and organisational
level benefits.
2.7.2.3 Focused attention
The third of these meditative techniques, focused attention, involves focusing one’s
full attention upon an idea or object, which brings one into an AMS. For example, Benson
and associates (2000) showed how the conscious practice of meditation brings greater
attention to, and control over, the autonomic nervous system, inducing a set of physiological
changes which bring greater ease and relaxation among subjects, as in AMS. Further, Lutz
and associates (2009) described how the mental training of meditation enhances attentional
stability, as in AMS. Overall, focused attention is a meditation technique which has been
shown in the literature to induce AMS.
Research has also shown that focused-attention -induced AMS provide individual and
organisational benefits. For example, Kabat-Zinn (1998) showed how focusing the mind in
concentrative meditation using visualisation can improve physiological processes. In a
similar vein, Davidson and associates (2007) examined how concentrative meditation allows
the cognitive system to more rapidly process new information. Finally, Baijal and associates
(2010) mapped out the increased cognitive processing generated by distinct meditative states
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of consciousness. Overall, AMS induced through focused attention yields a number of both
individual and organisational level benefits.
To related these meditative types to yogic theory, Patanjali’s eight limb yogic system,
meditative movement is the third limb, open monitoring is the fifth limb, and focused
meditation is the sixth, as displayed in the image below, Figure 4.
Figure 4. Patanjali’s Eight Limbs of Yoga
Traditionally, each of the previous limbs was done in preparation for the next, which
begin with the first two, restraints and observances. The foundation of the practice is sila -
moral conduct. Sila provides a basis for the development of samadhi - concentration of mind;
and purification of the mind is achieved through panna - the wisdom of insight. The whole
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system together is seen to become a way of living, not just techniques that are practiced in
isolation without the accompanying philosophy. According to Goleman though, it is not
necessary for these steps to be followed in order to yield the benefits of the system, and that
they are in fact intertwined (1998). Therefore, it is acceptable to, for the purposes of
organisational applications, separate a portion, that is, the limb of meditation, and still reap
the benefits of AMS.
In sum, existing research literature presents a number of organisationally feasible
psychological techniques for inducing AMS.
2.8 Summary
To summarise, we began by presenting the research on well recognized AMS which
embody traits such as a focus on the present and a positive, relaxed frame of mind. Next, we
discussed the research sources for the exploration of alternate mindsets. Sources from
positive psychological and organisational science gave insights as to the intrinsic motivation
and “upward spiral” that occur in AMS, and neurophysiological research showed the
potential of training the brain to enter, and develop, AMS.
This literature review demonstrates the abundant evidence of the existence and
importance of AMS in bringing individual and organisational benefits. Yet, according to
Csíkszentmihályi who introduced the flow mindset, despite our knowledge of the AMS
benefits there is still limited understanding of ways and mechanisms to access AMS. This is
the focus of our research, and we explore this within the context of organisational settings.
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3 Elaboration of our conceptual model
Having provided the background for this research topic, we now move to elaborating
our conceptual model for accessing AMS and their organisational benefits.
3.1 Purpose of research and conceptual model
Our model proposes that by regularly practicing a technique which has been shown by
research literature to induce a psychological transition from a traditional mindset to an
alternate mindset. By doing so, organisational actors have the potential to reap the benefits
associated with these states, such as heightened awareness, enhanced creativity and reduced
stress. As a result, organisational performance can be improved, both as a result of individual
and organisational benefits of AMS. Furthermore, over time, AMS has the potential to
become a more regular state of mind for organisational actors who practice a technique to
induce AMS.
Specifically, we propose that introducing a bi-weekly meditative practice into
organisations, a psychological mechanism which has been evidenced in research literature to
induce an alternate mindset (AMS). As a result of shifting from a traditional mindset (TMS),
which is typified by habitual levels of creative production and well-being, towards an
alternate mindset, organisational actors benefit from enhanced levels of these traits. The
conceptual model displayed in Figure 5 shows these two mindsets and their connecting
psychological mechanism, which is described in detail in the following sections:
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Figure 5: Conceptual model of transition from traditional to alternate mindset
Organisational actors have been shown to often be not functioning at their full
capacity, both psychologically and physiologically, as a result of chronic stress, and
experience lack of focus and motivation, as is typified by TMS. The conceptual model
describes the transition from the traditional mindset, a habitual way of being that typifies the
mode of consciousness of many people in modern stress-ridden organisational settings,
having habitual, non-optimal levels of well-being, creativity and other aspects, to an alternate
mindset, with optimal levels of well-being, creativity and other qualities.
A mechanism to bring about this TMS to AMS psychological transition is practiced
by each person individually to bring about a shift from a traditional mindset to an alternate
mindset.
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By formal practice, this means intentionally doing an AMS-inducing technique, often
at a regular set time and place, either stationary or moving, like walking mindfully or
performing a meditation ritual. By informal practice, this means conscious thoughts or
actions which are part of one’s normal day and can be done in an instant, or a few moments,
like taking a deep breath and re-setting one’s mind, or longer, such as during a commute to
work. A combination of formal and informal practice can complement each other towards
inducing and strengthening an alternate mindset. Further, if formal meditation practice
remains as a segment of one’s life that doesn’t become integral, the holistic aim of
contemplative practices is missed. Ideal, in following with Eastern philosophies, is to do
both, as formal practice strengthens mental will, yet real practice is everyday life.
Shifting from a traditional mindset to an alternate mindset may occur without the
application of a mechanism, from a momentary decision in the mind to choose to return to an
alternate mindset, or from an activity such as being outdoors in nature or experiencing art can
bring about. According to the research discussed earlier in this section, routine practice of
formal and/or non-formal AMS mechanisms has cumulative and lasting effects. That is, the
transition from TMS to AMS can be improved and mastered with practice.
There are two salient simplifications to note in regards to this conceptual model. First,
while the traditional mindset and alternate mindsets are presented as being one or the other, a
gradient exists for the extent to which a person is towards being fully in a traditional or
alternate mindset. Second, the conceptual model describes a transition from traditional
mindset towards alternate mindsets; however, the mechanism may only temporarily and not
permanently induce an alternate mindset. This means that participants most likely return, at
least to some extent, to a traditional mindset over time, unless formal and/or informal practice
continued to maintain an alternate mindset.
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A primary purpose of using meditation to facilitate for the TMS to AMS transition is
to mitigate the maladapted stress response, finding a way to calm the nervous system from
reacting to perceived threats even if there is no real threat. This normalises over-activated
threat mechanisms, activating dormant neural pathways or form new pathways to restore
normal functioning. Further, strengthening inner resources and resilience, via AMS
techniques, supports well-being, creativity and flourishing. After specifying the dynamics of
our conceptual model we want to deepen several of its key concepts after which we will
formulate our research hypotheses. We begin with the concept of mindset.
3.2 Mindset defined
Mindset refers to frame of mind, one’s outlook or perspective, a mental model or
mentality, alternatively, an emotional disposition. Mindset is defined as a framework, filter or
set of assumptions, generalizations, or even pictures and images we carry with us, that
influence our perceptions and understanding of reality and constructs how we take action
(Senge 2006, p. 8; Siegel & Hartzell 2003, p. 23; Zander & Zander 2002, p. 1).
After discussing the concept of mindset, we turn to the discussion of mindset
malleability.
3.3 Mindset malleability
Rather than seeing mindset as a fixed mental attitude that predetermines a person's
responses to and interpretations of situations, this research views mindset as an inclination or
habit that is changeable over time; a state which each individual can consciously choose to
maintain or alter. Thus, any given mindset is a mode which is a general tendency, a
characteristic state, and not a trait. A mindset could become more persistent and dominant,
when pursued long-term.
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The ability for mindset to change, and in reference to TMS-AMS transition, to
improve, has been explored in philosophical and research literature. Socrates wrote of brain
plasticity, that similar to athletes, the mind can be seen like a muscle, in that it is malleable.
This notion of the mind as an organ that is changeable was addressed by Rousseau, with his
view that human beings are perfectible, that our sense apparatus can be trained, in this case to
shift to AMS, to improve how experiences are perceived and handled.
The idea that mindset is malleable brings about various contemplations to consider.
For instance, can people be aware of what mindset they are in at any particular moment?
Would the mere act of pondering what mindset oneself is in alter one’s mindset? Do people
have conscious choice over their mindset or is it influenced somehow by external
circumstances?
New disciplines have emerged in response to the increased attention given to the
influence of the mind of our experiences, as well as over physiological functioning and our
environment. One of these, termed interpersonal neurobiology by Siegel (2013), describes the
growth and development of the brain in response to personal relationships. Cognitive, social,
and affective neuroscience are additional emerging disciplines that explore the brain’s ability
to change in response to what happens in the mind and body. These new disciplines give
greater understanding to the nature of TMS and AMS, and the dynamics of the TMS to AMS
transition, responding to the increasing attention given to these topics and their implications
within academia, organisations, and wider society.
After discussing the concept of mindset, we turn to the discussion of the traditional
and alternative mindsets (TMS and AMS in our model).
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3.4 Traditional mindsets defined and characterised
Prior to studying the transition from a traditional mindset to an alternate mindset, an
understanding of each of these concepts is need, in what their boundaries are and how they
relate to one another. To begin with, we define and characterise traditional mindsets, which,
like alternate mindsets exist within a range on a continuum that connects these two groupings
of mindsets. Thus, like alternate mindsets, traditional mindsets have nuances and various
terms that are included in their span of this continuum.
A traditional mindset is a normal, habitual state of mind, an ordinary waking state of
consciousness is severely sub-optimal, and is accompanied by habitual levels of well-being
and creativity. Organisational actors are in this state most of the time while at work, having a
feeling inside that there’s a lot to be done that one must simply ‘get through’. TMS is an
active though slightly anxious mode, although the anxiety can seem temporarily exciting and
pleasurable. In this mode, organisational actors are likely impatient, to some extent, with
others and themselves. TMS is a rather tense state, lacking in humour and lightheartedness,
where one is seeking to be purposeful, and does so typically in rather fixed, indoctrinated
ways, having ‘tunnel vision’. In this mindset it is relatively easy to become stressed and even
manic. Imagination is suppressed and largely ignored, and emotions are often blocked from
being processed. In TMS one can become in a sense addicted to the adrenaline caused by
persistent pressure, not realising or striving towards a more peaceful, contemplative state, and
unknowingly hampering their productivity and success.
In relation to Buddhist and Eastern philosophical roots underlying traditional
mindsets, an analogy is that a veil covers one’s seeing, known as maya, which causes
continued disturbance in the mind (Ricard 2010). In this state, the mind is attached to its
contents, and functions on auto-pilot, often without consciously processing thoughts before
acting. The traditional mindset is characterised by conditioned habits which are repeated
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without contemplation, mental stiffness - which plays out as stubbornness, short-sightedness
and narrow viewpoints - and ill will. While in a traditional mindset, organisational actors
experience greed for sensory objects and hold resentments that cause agitation – such as
allowing a grievance with a co-worker to take up undue energy and time. Those in a
traditional mindset tend to adhere blindly to rules, act compulsively and selfishly, believe in
their view being the one and only truth, a reluctance and/or lack of ability to show empathy
and consideration for others. Further, traditional mindsets are a fragmented state where one
feels distracted, unsettled and often ill at ease in the mind despite potentially favourable
external conditions.
Next, we define and characterise alternate mindsets, represent the other end compared
to traditional mindsets on the continuum of mindsets.
3.5 Alternate mindsets defined and characterised
The term alternate mindset is interchangeable with mindfulness, flow and other states
for which enhanced well-being (Shapiro et al. 2008, Baer et al. 2008, Goldin et al. 2010),
increased creative production (Khatami 1978, Csíkszentmihályi 2008, Horan 2009) and other
benefits have been shown to result from. To clarify what is being referred to with alternate
mindsets, these mindsets include the mindsets of mindfulness, flow and other states, which
themselves are concepts that often overlap in their definitions and characteristics. Although
terminology and traits of the various mindsets that AMS encompasses vary, for the purposes
of this research they are grouped together to build upon several lines of existing research,
rather than exploring its nature in contrast with other methods, such as much research on
Transcendental Meditation has done. The choice to include various states as AMS is logical
given that the philosophy and applications of these mindsets have similar origins and theories
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which are congruent with each other, and practical, as this gives a larger research base to
draw from.
While in an alternate mindset, organisational actors see with fresh vision, as if seeing
things for the first time every time, without presupposing, in a calm and discerning way. In
AMS, one is relaxed yet alert, expansive, contemplative, and open to inspiration for
alternative options to consider and choose between rather than being fixed on reaching a
target in a certain way. AMS brings an inclination to curiosity, playfulness and humour,
which widens one’s perspective and makes one open to possibilities.
In relation to the Buddhist and Eastern philosophical roots underlying alternate
mindsets, organisational actors are free from incessant distortions and operate from the
wholeness of themselves. Alternate mindsets are states of non-doing and non-striving,
however this by no means implies no action; it is more of an alignment with oneself and the
surrounding context. AMS allows for insights, as in becoming able to observe and monitor
one’s stream of thoughts from AMS mechanism, the mind grows to know itself and access
previously inaccessible abilities. In AMS, following Buddhist theory, one has accepted life’s
nature of impermanence (Pali anicea) and no longer resists changes that arise. When AMS is
maintained, the person enjoys steady energy levels, being neither too lax nor too tense. An
analogy is a string on a musical instrument being tuned to a sufficient tautness to sound at a
desired frequency.
In AMS, one maintains detached neutrality, has ever more fine discrimination, and
lucid perception. AMS, in the Buddhist context, extends to moral conduct, and entering AMS
may allow damaging behaviours to cease, meaning not to lie, steal, display poor conduct,
harm others, or earn one’s livelihood in a way that harms others. In this wisdom tradition,
people who have entered this state experience feelings of wanting and aversion with
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diminished intensity, reacting impartially and calmly to stimuli. In AMS one’s behaviour is
determined neither by past experiences nor by conditioned habits. AMS is an enjoyable state,
described as ananda in Buddhist texts, meaning happiness, and similarly, is a graceful state
of ease and well-being, sukka (Wei 1968), where one is indifferent to hindrances and
distractions. Here, the mind is fully absorbed in what one is doing, as Csíkszentmihályi
characterises the state of flow (1990).
This parallels historical concepts of AMS, from metanoia in Greek traditions, samadhi,
meaning deep meditative absorption and satori, from Zen Buddhist philosophy, seeing one’s
true nature or essence. Astronomers including Dr. Mitchell, the sixth person on the moon,
expand upon this by adding a modern description of AMS as giving an ‘overview effect’ (in
his case, experiencing the ‘big picture’ from viewing the Earth, solar system and galaxy from
space), a cognitive shift of awareness providing a transcendental experience, more visceral
than intellectual. After discussing traditional and alternative mindsets, we turn to the
discussion of the transition between them.
3.6 Neuropsychological substrates of traditional and alternate mindsets
For neuropsychology research studies, it is apparent that the brain is modifiable.
Further, meditation and AMS techniques have been evidenced to result in brain
transformations. Here, we explain the different neuropyschological substrates of traditional
and alternate mindsets.
Firstly, the neuropsychology of traditional mindsets has been analysed using brain
scans, predominantly during this past decade, and various research has shown that this type of
mindset coincides with abnormal activation of the amygdala in people having anxiety,
depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (Economist 2013).
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Regarding the neurophysiology of alternate mindsets, functional brain changes have
been mapped using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Towards understanding
brain changes that occur with AMS, Davidson et al. (2007) suggests that humans possess an
innate potential for directing attention, but that it requires the “maturation of particular neural
systems, likely involving the prefrontal cortex”. Davidson and others similarly propose a
neurophysiological mechanism underlying how AMS techniques bring cognitive and
emotional benefits. Previous research indicates that mindfulness meditation, an AMS
mechanism could have a positive effect by reducing the amygdala’s grey matter density
compared to TMS, improving one’s ability to manage stress and maintain dynamic
equilibrium (Richardson et al 2002). Another study showed integrative body-mind training,
and other AMS mechanisms, are linked with increases in the brain's signaling
connections (axonal density), as well as protective tissue surrounding the axons in AMS
(ibid). Next, Brewer and colleagues (2011) describe how meditation, a technique to induce
AMS, quiets brain regions in the default mode network, particularly the Posterior Cingulate
Cortex.
Some of the changes in brain structure that occur with AMS from meditation are
highlighted in the figure below.
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Figure 6. Diagram of brain with mentions of key areas affected by meditation
From this, we see that meditation, an AMS technique, leads to comparably reduced
activity in the frontal and parietal lobes and the thalamus as well as lower activation in the
reticular formation, while in AMS than in TMS.
Overall, alternate mindsets have been evidenced to have distinct neuropsychological
substrates than traditional mindsets, we now proceed to describe the transition between these
mindsets.
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3.7 Transition from TMS to AMS
Shifting one’s mindset from TMS to AMS may happen without an AMS inducing
mechanism however it is not necessarily maintained without effort and conscious choice. The
cognitive shift from TMS to AMS runs parallel with a core Buddhist tenet, of going beyond
the limited mind to enter a wider state of conscious awareness: “Gone from suffering to the
liberation of suffering…from forgetfulness to mindfulness…from duality into non-duality.”
This transition is described in Patanjali’s Yogic Sutras with the analogy of crossing a river
towards a place of deeper wisdom and understanding on the other shore, and the text
encourages all to venture across. Within Judaism, this transition can be seen as changing from
acting from one’s lower self, to one’s higher self, that is, one’s wise self. While in TMS one
no longer notices the familiar and is habituated to the surrounding world, where what is
perceived is quickly labeled and judged based on past experiences. In contrast, in AMS, each
event is seen with fresh eyes, as if happening for the first time, in a receptive rather than
reactive mode. One notices sensations and thoughts that arise from the six senses (the
traditional five senses and/or the mind, the sixth sense, from Theravada Buddhism), and then
dismissed. Instead of labeling and judging, the subject registers observations, neither
following nor repudiating them.
The research literature in this domain, of applying ancient Eastern AMS practices in
modern organisational settings, has several prominent streams of ideologies. The mechanics
of various approaches vary however the underlying theory is congruent. While the conceptual
model of this research compiles various AMS together and signifies a one-step transition, one
stream of research, stemming from Theravada Buddhism, takes a stratified approach. The
TMS to AMS transition is divided as progressing through nine stages, jhānic states, using
meditative techniques to progressively achieve one-pointedness of mind (Suzuki 1958). An
analogy of a staircase can be used, with each jhāna being a step up from the previous,
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moving from TMS up to AMS. As one climbs the stairway, so to speak, the practitioner
moves from having selfish impulses and desires motivated by jealousy, anger and ego to
having virtuous motivations and actions arising from equanimity, compassion and kindness
for others.
Another aspect is that the transition potentially happens repeatedly rather than just
once, as AMS is not necessarily a permanent state. Eastern philosophy suggests that the TMS
to AMS transition is eased with repetition; repeat practice of an AMS-inducing mechanism
allows the transition to gain momentum. The conceptual model does not directly address this
phenomenon; however a possible cumulative effect will be explored in the experimental
results.
To evoke a concept from Eastern philosophy, The Noble Truths of Buddhism give a
possible explanation. The mind, when left unguided, is seen to have a mind of its own, known
as ‘monkey-mind’, which keeps TMS dominant. The first noble truth of Buddhism describes
that TMS, termed dukkha, is a habitual state of ceaseless thought that causes persistent
restlessness and suffering. When the TMS to AMS transition is mastered one no longer
returns to TMS; the nature of the mind is realised, and one no longer attains comfort from the
mind’s contents. In this perpetual state of AMS, one’s desire to be released from TMS leads
to no further deliberate effort being required to maintain AMS. Then, AMS is seen to pervade
one’s being and actions, and to proceed automatically.
Full mastery of the TMS to AMS transition, a rare feat, is seen as a permanent
alteration; a state that is maintained without effort. Following from this, the practice of AMS
inducing techniques can provide cumulative and lasting changes towards self-maintaining
AMS with progressively longer intervals of AMS being held. Until full mastery is reached,
AMS is seen to be unstable and even a slight perturbation can return the practitioner to TMS.
Full mastery means being able to shift into AMS in a moment, at any time or place, in any
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circumstances and for unlimited duration. An analogy for the accruing effect and momentum
created by the TMS to AMS transition is to see AMS as heading downstream in a river,
propelled by the current, while TMS can be seen as paddling upstream.
Here, we outline how AMS access can be eased by the intrinsic motivation resulting
from the satisfaction of fundamental needs, and possible adaptations for reaping AMS
benefits.
3.8 Conditions conducive to accessing AMS
TMS to AMS transition is internal and subjective; external circumstances do not
predetermine mindset, though some factors may be more conducive to one than the other. A
primary consideration for accessing AMS is intrinsic motivation, which is provided by the
satisfaction of certain fundamental human needs. Being intrinsically motivated can be viewed
as being conducive to accessing AMS and its resulting benefits. A first area of related
research in this field concerns the nature of how to increase motivation, looking at the
advantages of intrinsic (related to state of mind) versus extrinsic sources of motivation.
Firstly, Sheldon and Kasser (2001) considered the nature of positive motivation and
complementary nature of humanistic theories and quantitative methodologies, showing how
authentic, self-concordant states, as that of AMS, which have an orientation toward intrinsic
values, bring greater goal attainment and enhanced well-being. Next, Dutton et al (2005)
showed how people are at their best, and most highly motivated, when utilising intrapsychic
and interpersonal resources, such as with AMS cultivation.
Research within positive psychology and positive organisational science underlines
the importance of intrinsic sources of motivation as a basis for accessing one’s full potential,
such as AMS develops. For example, Adler (1927), Goldstein (1939), and Maslow (1968)
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spoke of the innate need and motivation within people for self-actualization and growth,
allowing for AMS to develop. Next, Deci and Ryan (1985, 1991) proposed self-determination
theory, viewing intrinsic motivation as leading to behaviour which gives individuals access to
their full cognitive and creative resources, such as AMS provides. First, Fromm (1976) and
Rogers (1961) spoke of how focus on intrinsic goals results in higher well-being, yielding
enhanced growth and actualisation—again, allowing for AMS and its benefits to be accessed.
Onwards, Ryan (1995) emphasized how intrinsic motivation serves as a tool for meeting
peoples’ need for positive growth, as from AMS mechanisms. Further, Sheldon and Houser-
Marko (2001) showed an “upward spiral” to result from focusing on positive rather than
negative aspects, leading to an ongoing self-perpetuating process towards growth and self-
actualization. Next, Sheldon and Kasser (2001) considered the nature of positive motivation
and complementary nature of humanistic theories and quantitative methodologies, showing
how authentic, intrinsic values-oriented, self-concordant states bring higher attainment of
goals and enhanced well-being.
So that AMS benefits can be best utilised in organisations, it may be necessary for
adaptations to be made, so that the intrinsic needs of organisational actors are met. In regards
to well-being, Diener (2006) emphasises social relationships, goals, and a sense of connection
to something larger than oneself as key determinants of well-being levels. Thus, even if AMS
potentially increases organisational well-being, certain conditions must be present within
organisations so that this AMS benefit can manifest. In regards to creativity, Deci and Ryan
outline the importance of intrinsic motivators, as extrinsic motivators may be ineffective (as
discussed in regards to income levels in Section 8.3) and even counterproductive. Finally,
Getz (2009) explains how organisational forms can adapt ‘liberating leadership’ to unleash
the initiative of employees, giving them freedom to express their full potential and enjoy
enhanced well-being and creativity.
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Beyond literature on AMS states, numerous research studies show the wide array of
potentially valuable benefits of AMS. We proceed to presenting research on the individual,
and then, on organisational benefits of AMS.
3.9 AMS individual level benefits
Research has shown that being in an alternate mindset brings several types of
individual level benefits. A first type of benefits concerns improved information processing,
heightened awareness and a widened perception of reality. For example, Quinn (1990)
showed how the holistic perspective which AMS provide allows managers and leaders to
function more effectively with the paradoxes and competing demands they are presented
with, all the while remaining calm and focused. Next, Payne and associates (1993) found that
being in an alternate mindset enables a more complex data processing – through receiving a
wider span of information – and more integrated processes, rather than linear, as with TMS.
In a similar vein, Stovovich and West (2000) studied two parallel information processing
systems – cognitive (rational analytical) and experiential (similar to intuitive)—and found
that AMS balances these two processing systems allowing for a dual, improved information
processing, rather than relying solely on the cognitive processing system, as with TMS.
Further, Kabat-Zinn and Santorelli (2002) have shown that AMS – through heightened
awareness of thoughts, feelings, and bodily sense, such as established by body scan
techniques – allow for deeper perception, understanding, and way of making sense of the
world. They, and other researchers, displayed how body scan techniques improve functioning
of the insular cortex and its related neural functions, including increased self-awareness and
empathy, enhanced perception and cognitive functioning, and better regulation of the body’s
homeostasis, emotions and consciousness (Craig 2004; Lutz 2008; Singer 2008). Finally,
Sadler-Smith and Shefy (2004) show how an alternate mindset slows synthetic and
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integrative information processing, rather than linear and fragmented processing, as with
TMS. Overall, this diverse research indicates that AMS bring individual benefits in terms of
improved information processing, heightened awareness and a widened perception of reality.
A second type concerns the increased ability for managers to focus and concentrate.
For example, Kabat-Zinn (2002) showed that mindful states—a form of AMS—allow senior
managers to focus better, sustain attention for longer periods of time, and at the same time,
bring additional benefits of reduced stress, improved health and heightened creativity.
Similarly, Weick and Putman (2006) found that being alert and mindful, as in AMS, fosters
better concentration, and greater ability to sustain focus over longer durations than with TMS.
Further, van den Hurk and associates (2010) found that mindfulness meditation, leading to
AMS, resulted increased efficiency in attentional processing, notably, that the practice led to
faster response time and fewer errors made in given tasks. Next, Zeidan and associates (2010)
showed that the mindfulness quality, of AMS, significantly improved visuo-spatial
processing, working memory (allowing for better recall), and executive functioning. Finally,
Langer and associates (2010) discovered that manipulating mindset (changing from TMS to
AMS) can overcome physiological limitations, allowing subjects to have better visual
abilities, as well as improved health and longevity. Overall, this diverse research indicates
that AMS bring individual benefits in terms of increased ability for managers to focus and
concentrate.
A third type of AMS individual benefits concerns enhanced intuition and greater
wisdom. For example, Barnard (1938) found that an alternative way of knowing that AMS
provides allows for non-logical processes, known through judgment, decision, and action,
and consisting of “good sense,” intuition, inspiration, or even ‘genius’. Next, Showers and
Chakrin (1981) showed how being in an alternate mindset and allows one to appraise a
situation holistically and pull patterns together, thus allowing for greater insight and
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enhanced sense-making abilities. Further on, Davis-Floyd and Arvidson (1997) found that
AMS provide an inductive way of knowing which allows for more insights than TMS. Also,
Kabat-Zinn (2002) studied mindfulness (the mind as a sense organ allowing for extended
sensory perception) and found that in a mindful state people exhibit enhanced creativity,
sense-making capabilities, decision-making ability and show more engagement and
experience a greater sense of fulfillment. In a similar vein, Sinclair and Ashkanasy (2005)
have shown that alternate mindsets enable non-sequential, holistic thinking, comprising of
both cognitive and affective elements, and resulting in direct knowing (i.e., without formal
reasoning) which characterizes enhanced intuition and wisdom. Similarly, Rowley (2006)
found that AMS provide for greater wisdom, allowing for better knowledge management and
strategic leadership. Finally, Weick and Putnam (2006) have shown that AMS improves
mental alertness and organisational abilities, thus leading to enhanced innovation and agility
among people. Overall, this diverse research indicates that AMS bring individual benefits in
terms of increased intuition and wisdom by providing a more holistic, logical and objective
way of thinking.
Lastly, a fourth type of individual benefits concerns better judgment in problem-
solving, and sense-making. For example, Simon (1947) found that while in an AMS, people
have an increased willingness to make decisions when all the facts are not currently available,
which is beneficial for decision-making in organisational situations where only incomplete
information (which is often the case) is available. Next, Blattberg and Hoch (1990) pointed
out that AMS allows one to judge when normative analyses break down. Further on, Dane
and Pratt (2007) have shown that AMS allow for affectively charged judgments that arise
through rapid, non-conscious, and holistic associations, allowing for better decision making
than TMS provide because the decisions reflect a wider scope of perception, reflecting a
more holistic perspective. Finally, Ericson (2010) showed how AMS allows organisational
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actors to conceptualize a broader view of strategic decision making, leading to enhanced
sense-making amongst managers. Overall, this diverse research indicates that AMS bring
individual benefits in terms of better judgment and sense-making as a result of a widened
scope of perception.
To summarize, research identified diverse types of individual benefits of AMS,
showing enhancement of a variety of individual processes which benefit organisational
actors. These identified types of benefits are: (1) improved information processing leading
to greater awareness and a broadened scope and depth of perception; (2) increased focus and
concentration (3) heightened intuition and wisdom that result from AMS, bringing a greater
sense of knowing than solely from cognitive processes, and (4) improved problem-solving
and sense-making, particularly in situations of incomplete information being available to
organisational actors. We turn now to organisational benefits.
3.10 AMS organisational level benefits
Research has shown that being in AMS brings several types of organisational level
benefits. A first area of benefits concerns how teamwork is enhanced through a greater sense
of connectedness amongst organisational actors. For example, Sheldon and McGregor
(2000), and Sheldon and Osbaldiston (2000) pointed to how the intrinsic focus of AMS leads
to more cooperation and pro-social behaviour in organisational groups, as well as better
ability to solve social problems benefiting the group. Further on, Imel and associates (2008)
showed that mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) – a process inducing AMS –
provides the group benefits. Next, Yeganeh and Kolb (2009) showed how mindfulness –
which organisational actors experience while being in AMS –cultivates experiential learning,
reduces automaticity and enhances quality of life within organisations. Similarly, using the
example of musicians, Langer and associates (2009) showed how being mindful enhances the
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creative process, allowing orchestras, in this case, to make music that is more enjoyable to
perform and to hear, through the nuanced and novel approach that AMS allows. Also, Langer
and associates (2010) conducted research showing how mindfulness results in reduced
negative consequences of social comparisons, which could allow for better group relatedness
and cohesiveness. Finally, Shapiro and associates (2010) looked at how mindfulness, as that
of AMS, can bring interpersonal attunement, fostering better interpersonal relationships. In
sum, AMS leads groups to better inter-relations, and better organisational performance.
A second type of organisational level benefits concerns improved organisational
competiveness and international business strategy resulting from the global, holistic
perspective provided by AMS. For example, Kedia and Mukherji (1999) have shown that a
global outlook, as in AMS, moves an organisation’s structure, process, people, and culture
from a set of highly autonomous business units to one that becomes an integrated and
effective global network. In a similar vein, Lahiri and associates (2008) found that a global
mindset, as in AMS, allows viewing the world with a broad perspective, allows thinking
beyond geographic boundaries and hence, viewing globalization threats as growth
opportunities, valuing integration across borders, and appreciating regional and cultural
diversity. Further, Solomen and Schell (2009) explored how a global mindset’s, spanning
cultural and geographic divides, as in AMS, is crucial for building business relationships.
Onwards, Cohen (2010) points to how a global mindset, as in AMS, is a key for creating a
global business strategy and developing effective global leadership. Overall, AMS, though
their holistic perspectives, enable organisations to strengthen their global competitiveness.
In sum, research explored diverse types of organisational benefits of AMS showing
enhancement of a variety of organisational processes benefiting organisations. These types of
benefits are: (1) better connection and performance within organisational groups; and (2)
increased organisational competitiveness and growth opportunities.
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After discussing more in depth several key concepts related to our model we turn now
to presenting our hypotheses.
3.11 Hypotheses
Each of these variables' interaction with sessions for the experimental group
compared to the control group:
3.11.1 Levels of employee well-being
Given that AMS techniques have been show in the literature to enhance well-being,
we are interested to explore whether this benefit will be evidenced in organisational settings,
and how levels of well-being will evolve with repeat practice of AMS mechanisms over a
series of sessions. Thus, our first three hypotheses evaluate levels of the first dependent
variable, well-being, amongst participants, assessing its levels and evolution in various ways.
The first hypothesis looks at well-being levels at the beginning of the work day just following
each session, whereas the second looks at well-being levels at the end of the work day, to
evaluate to what extent AMS may be depleted through the work day.
This comparison could give insights as to whether formal AMS techniques need to be
supplemented with informal techniques at moments throughout the day, for instance, in order
to maintain AMS, as some research has suggested. Or, potentially participants who are
engaged at work could build AMS in other ways than the experimental sessions provide. The
first hypothesis reflects the expectation that after some number of sessions, participants’ days
will start at higher well-being levels as a result of benefits from cultivating AMS.
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Hypothesis 1: Start of day well-being will increase over the duration of the sessions
Similarly, though some with-in decreases are thought to appear in the data due to
workplace stress and other factors, we anticipate that with repeat practice of AMS
mechanisms, participants will benefit from higher well-being even as measured at the end of
their workdays.
Hypothesis 2: End-of-day well-being will increase over the duration of the sessions
The third hypothesis builds upon the first two, by looking at the difference between
measurements taken at the start of the work day compared to the end of the day. Given that
each subsequent session builds upon the previous one, we expect that over time the
cumulative effect will be positive overall. By looking at the difference between start and end
values, we eliminate baseline differences, allowing us to look at relative rather than absolute
changes in well-being.
Hypothesis 3: Difference in well-being (End-of-day minus start-of-day) will increase over
the duration of the sessions
Our next three hypotheses relate to the second dependent variable, creativity, and are
parallel in structure to those for well-being.
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3.11.2 Levels of creativity
As research literature has shown enhanced creativity to result from AMS, we wish to
explore whether this benefit will be evidenced with organisational settings. The next three
hypotheses explore levels of our second dependent variable, creativity, amongst participants.
The first of these looks at creativity levels at the beginning of participants’ work days,
measured just following each session intended to induce AMS, and we posit that this starting
value will increase with repeat practice of AMS techniques.
Hypothesis 4: Start-of-day creativity will increase over the duration of the sessions
Next, having seen from research literature that creativity is a benefit that can result
from AMS, we are interested to look at to what extent enhanced creativity from AMS
techniques can be maintained through the span of work days, and to what extent creativity
levels build over time with repeat practice of AMS techniques. To do this, we will measure
creativity at the end of each day that participants’ take part in an experimental session and
look at the evolution of these values over the span of sessions for potentially significant
increases.
Hypothesis 5: End-of-day creativity will increase over the duration of the sessions
Then, in parallel with the hypotheses for well-being, we are interested in within-day
increases in creativity for participants in experimental groups compared to control groups,
and how these levels diverge over the span of sessions.
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Hypothesis 6: Difference in creativity (End-of-day minus start-of-day) will increase over the
duration of the sessions
Further, to be sure that increases in our dependent variables are predominantly due to
cultivation of AMS rather than other factors, we include a hypothesis regarding our
expectation that, similar to substantial research evidence, the practice of meditation
techniques will develop AMS amongst participants in the experimental condition to a greater
extent than for those in the control condition.
3.11.3 Cultivation of alternate mindsets
Our final hypothesis, then, predicts that levels of mindfulness, meaning, extent of
AMS, will rise from session to session, as other research in this field has evidenced. We wish
to explore whether this impact of AMS techniques will hold in organisational settings,
knowing that participants in workplaces could be exposed to different circumstances and
pressures compared to other settings that have been previously tested.
Hypothesis 7: Level of mindfulness will increase over the duration of the sessions
While many other variables and factors could also provide valuable evidence to add to
this research domain, we selected these hypotheses as the most promising to explore. We
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choose to focus on these few selected issues that have much support from research literature,
broad potential benefits yet have not been fully explored and tested within organisational
settings.
Having presented our hypotheses and justification of each area that we seek to explore
in relation to research literature and existing gaps that our research could potentially
contribute to filling, we proceed to our research methodology.
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4 Research methodology
4.1 Participants
A letter offering the research study to be conducted on-site was sent out to various
organisations, comprising different industries and sizes, of 19 organisations in Canada (as
shown in Annex A) and 17 organisations in France (as shown in Annex B). Follow-up took
place by phone, email and/or in person, and three of these organisations accepted hosting the
research study and having their staff participate.
Employees from Vancouver City Hall, an investment and real estate development
private company in Vancouver, Canada (which we shall call Aleph for confidentiality
reasons), and ESCP Europe School of Business in Paris, France were recruited, via newsletter
for City Hall (as shown in Annex C), and by email at Aleph and ESCP (as shown in Annex
D), sent out individually to each employee, describing the purpose of the research
experiment, location and times.
Willing—self-selected—employees were invited to contact the researcher directly.
Each participant was signed up for eight bi-weekly sessions. Sessions landing on public
holidays were replaced by dates in a fifth week. Sessions were undertaken during non-
working hours, thus participants were not rewarded for taking part neither through pay, nor
by experimenters. All sessions were conducted in the local language—English in Vancouver
and French in Paris.
The mean age of the participants was 38.73 (S.D. = 10.33), and the final sample was
composed of 144 participants (83 women and 61 men). Of the total, 93 participated in
experiments measuring well-being across all three locations in Canada and France, 51
participated in experiments measuring creativity at the first two locations in Canada and all
144 were measured for levels of mindfulness at each session.
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4.1.1 First experimental location: City Hall
For City Hall, 56 of the 1800 employees chose to participate, thus 3.11% of the total
population of the organisation. The sessions took place in a multipurpose room, from 8:00-
8:20am, Mondays and Wednesdays for the experimental groups and Tuesday and Thursday
for the control groups.
For measuring well-being, two experimental groups ran on Mondays and Wednesdays
(seven participants in each group) and two control groups ran on Tuesdays and Thursdays
(seven participants in the first group and six in the second). The mean age of the participants
for the experiments measuring well-being was 37.96 (S.D. = 9.99), and the final sample was
composed of twenty-seven participants (eighteen women and nine men).
For measuring creativity, two experimental groups ran on Mondays and Wednesdays
(eight participants in the first and six in the second group) and two control groups ran on
Tuesdays and Thursdays (eight participants in the first group and seven in the second). The
mean age of the participants for the experiments measuring creativity was 40.10 (S.D. =
8.51), and the final sample was composed of twenty-nine participants (twenty women and
nine men).
4.1.2 Second experimental location: Aleph
For Aleph, 45 of the 89 staff chose to participate, thus 50.56% of the total population
of the organisation. The sessions took place in a display showroom across the street from
their downtown Vancouver headquarters on the same weekdays and times as in City Hall.
For measuring well-being, two experimental groups ran on Mondays and Wednesdays
(six participants in the first group and five in the second) and two control groups ran on
Tuesdays and Thursdays (six participants in each group). The mean age of the participants for
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the experiments measuring well-being was 32.23 (S.D. = 6.96), and the final sample was
composed of twenty-three participants (eleven women and twelve men).
For measuring creativity, two experimental groups ran on Mondays and Wednesdays
(six participants in the first group and five in the second group) and two control groups ran on
Tuesdays and Thursdays (six participants in the first group and five in the second). The mean
age of the participants for the experiments measuring creativity was 32.18 (S.D. = 8.60), and
the final sample was composed of twenty-two participants (eleven each of both women and
men).
4.1.3 Third experimental location: ESCP Europe
For ESCP Europe School of Business, Paris campus, 43 of the 440 staff chose to
participate, thus 9.77% of the total population of the organisation. Eight bi-weekly sessions
took place in an Executive Education classroom on Tuesdays through Fridays from 8:30-
8:50am, and subsequently eight bi-weekly sessions of meditation at 12:00-12:20pm on the
same weekdays the following month. These sessions’ materials were translated into French
and verified through back translation in advance (documents provided in Annex). Sessions
were conducted in French by ESCP Europe Master of Management students who are native
French speakers.
For measuring well-being with morning sessions, two experimental groups ran on
Mondays and Wednesdays (nine participants in the first group and six in the second) and two
control groups ran on Tuesdays and Thursdays (eight participants in the first group and six in
the second group).
For measuring well-being with mid-day sessions, one experimental group ran on
Wednesdays and Fridays and one control group ran on Tuesdays and Thursdays, each having
seven participants.
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In contrast to the Vancouver locations, days of sessions where changed to Tuesdays
through Fridays, as analysis revealed that Monday morning Vancouver participants started
with lower well-being than other days -- although not significantly lower--perhaps because of
being “down” from resuming work after the weekend or other reasons.
The mean age of the participants was 42.53 (S.D. = 10.38), and the final sample was
composed of forty-three participants (thirty-one women and twelve men).
Next, we provide an overview of the timeline of the experiments conducted at these
three locations.
4.1.4 Timeline of experiments
The research experiments took place between February 2011 and May 2012, with the
specific time ranges as outlined in the chart below, Table 1.
Table 1. Timeline of research experiment dates for each location
Experimental location
Dependent variable
Date range
Well-being
March 2011 – May 2011
City Hall
Creativity
May 2011 – July 2011
Well-being
April 2011 – June 2011
Aleph
Creativity
June 2011 – August 2011
ESCP Europe
Well-being
February 2012 – May 2012
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In addition, preliminary trial sessions took place prior to the start of the experiments
at City Hall (in January 2011) and ESCP Europe (in January 2012), with colleagues who
volunteered to participate and give feedback. These sessions allowed for necessary revisions
and improvements to be made to the experimental protocol in advance of commencing the
actual experiments. Notably, it was apparent from the first trial session in January 2011 that
testing both experimental variables during the same experiments would be too onerous on
participants as the time commitment completing questionnaires and providing feedback
exceeded the time of the session. This was particularly the case for measuring creativity, as
the protocol consumed more time than that for measuring well-being. Thus, we deemed it to
be more feasible to separate the testing the two variables in order to minimise additional time
required by participants.
4.1.5 Demographics
Participant demographics of the three experimental locations are reported in Table 2.
Table 2. Demographics of participants of the three experimental locations
Experimental
location
Dependent
variable
Number of
participants
Average
age
Female/
male ratio
Percent
female
All three
locations
combined
Well-being
& creativity
144
38.73
(S.D. 10.33)
83 : 61
58%
City Hall
Well-being
27
37.96
(S.D. 9.99)
18 : 9
67%
Creativity
29
40.10
(S.D. 8.51)
20 : 9
69%
Aleph
Well-being
23
32.23
(S.D. 6.96)
11 : 12
48%
Creativity
22
32.18
(S.D. 8.60)
11 : 11
50%
ESCP Europe
Well-being
43
42.53
(S.D. 10.38)
31 : 12
72%
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4.2 Experimental procedure overview
The experimental procedure for measuring well-being and creative production are
summarised below in Table 3.
Table 3. Interventions for measuring well-being and creative production
Two dependent variables—well-being and creativity—were measured at the first two
locations. Experiments at ESCP Europe focused solely on well-being levels because based on
preliminary analysis of the Vancouver results we decided to test several new dimensions of
the key hypothesis: Will benefits still result when the intervention takes place at mid-day and
if they do will there be a different impact level between morning and midday interventions?
As testing this dimension would require doubling the size of groups, and testing well-being
consumed all willing participants, this experiment was conducted for measuring impacts on
Well-being
Creativity
Preparatory
Session
N/A
List several current challenges
faced in the workplace
Pre-test
Satisfaction with Life Scale
Adjective Checklist
Technique
Guided meditation (Experimental groups) / Relaxation (Control groups)
After
technique
Mindful Awareness Attention Scale
End of
workday
Satisfaction with Life Scale
Solutions to selected challenge,
and Adjective Checklist
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well-being, there was no practical possibility to test the same dimensions for creative
production, which could be explored in future research.
At the first two locations, in Canada, a consent form (as shown in Annex E) was
distributed and signed by each participant prior to the start of each experiment, at the request
of the Human Resources departments. This was not requested by the third organisation, in
France.
The experiments at the first two experimental locations were single-blind: participants
were not aware of whether they were allocated to an experimental or control group, yet the
researcher was aware of this division. The experiments at the third experimental location
were double-blind: both participants and session presenter were not aware of whether they
were allocated to an experimental or control group. The double-blind was maintained during
the third experiment as the sessions were led by French-speaking research assistants rather
than by the research author, and the research assistants were divided according to days of the
week, with two of them leading the sessions with experimental groups and two of them
leading the sessions with control groups. They were provided with instructions and scripts for
either the experimental or control group sessions, and were not aware of the division, and did
not attend sessions other than the ones that they led.
The independent variable of study is the type of meditation technique: for the
experimental groups, guided meditation in which the participant’s attention is drawn to a
fixed point of internal focus through visualization and focused, concentrated thought which
has been previously shown to elicit AMS; for the control groups, participants used relaxation
activities in which their attention is simply allowed to wander, and which has been previously
shown to not evoke AMS.
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Various factors were controlled for amongst participants, including age, gender, race,
profession as well as previous experience with yoga, meditation, tai chi and similar AMS-
relevant activities.
4.3 Intervention for well-being analysis
Here we describe the procedure of the research experiments, starting with preparation
for the sessions, continuing on to detail the techniques used and following that, the post-
intervention procedures before moving finally to what was carried out at the end of the work
day of each day that participants took part in a session.
4.3.1 Beginning of day/mid-day prior to technique
The intervention each morning (or mid-day, for one set at ESCP Europe) lasted 25-30
minutes. Participants set personal belongings aside and switched off mobile phones. The first
session commenced with brief introductions and a consent form to be signed, giving
permission for the results to be used for research purposes, also granting anonymity to
participants and the right to withdraw. Upon arrival to each session, participant completed in
1-3 minutes a pre-test to measure well-being, the Satisfaction with Life Scale by Diener
(1985, as shown in Annex F, the English version and as shown in Annex H, the French
version), comprising of 5 statements ranked on a scale from one to seven.
The Satisfaction with Life Scale was selected as it has been validated in various
settings has the advantage of being a multi-item scale, and moreover that it provides an
overall, broad judgment of people's lives, which could give an accurate measure of
participant well-being (Pavot & Diener 1993). In contrast to other assessment tools that were
considered, for instance Ryff’s Psychological Well-Being Scales, the medium and long forms
of the scale have been shown to have validity however would have been too time-consuming,
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and the short form of the this measure has not been shown to be fully reliable, thus another
reason for choosing Diener’s scale is that in contrast to others such as this, it can be
completed in just a few minutes (Ryff & Singer 1998). A potential limitation of utilising the
Satisfaction with Life Scale is that many of the studies validating it were done with college
students rather than in organisational settings, however this was also largely the case for other
questionnaires that could have been selected, and the scale is considered to have validity
across different ages. Another potential limitation is that this research equates satisfaction
with life with well-being, yet Diener calls for a more in depth look at the relationship
between affect and life satisfaction, as well as between life satisfaction and domain
satisfactions, thus perhaps there are distinctions between satisfaction with life and well-being
that are not captured or properly measured by this tool. On the whole, Diener’s scale was the
best choice to give the most accurate and reliable measure possible within the constraints of
participant’s time and feasibility.
4.3.2 AMS induction/control technique
Various mechanisms exist in the research literature, and the one selected for these
experiments is a twenty minute formal guided meditation, as it is organisationally feasible </