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A Review of 200 Birth-Order Studies: Lifestyle Characteristics
Abstract and Figures
Alfred Adler was one of the first theorists to use birth-order position in his conceptualization
of clients. Birth order continues to inform professionals practicing from an Individual Psychology framework; however, the wealth of research on the topic can seem overwhelming. Using a modified version of Light and Smith's (1971) vote-counting methodology, the authors reviewed 200 published articles with statistically significant findings of birth order characteristics. From these studies, lifestyle characteristics associated with birth order were tabulated to provide a clear picture of results. Examples of typical characteristics associated with persons of specific birth-order positions include high success and achievement for first-born children, high need for achievement for only children, high sociability for middle children, and high social interest for youngest children. Implications for counselors conclude the article.
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... Experiences and personality traits associated with birth order are of interest to researchers. Considerable effort has been put into birth order research from different perspectives (Eckstein, et al., 2010). ...
... The most prominent proponent of birth order research, Sulloway (1996), maintains that birth order is the best predictor of social attitudes. The overwhelming majority of research uses the ordinal position instead of psychological order (Eckstein, et al., 2010). We adopt the former position, which is an Adlerian perspective. ...
... As they are portrayed as illdisciplined and disobedient (Herrera, et al., 2003;Rosenblatt & Skoogberg, 1974), they are willing to break the rules in order to bring novelty. At the same time, they are characterized as more artistic, less scientific, and people-oriented (Eckstein, et al., 2010), which are traits that usually typify individuals with entrepreneurial attitudes. ...
This paper investigates the effects of birth order on entrepreneurial intention (EI) and risk taking propensity of managers. Data from 230 managers from different industries in Kosovo were collected through self-report questionnaires. The results show that laterborns demonstrate a higher EI and risk taking propensity compared to their firstborn counterparts. Our findings have important implications for practitioners and researchers since we investigate the EI and risk taking propensity of managers in a non-Western culture. Moreover, given that individual characteristics cannot be changed, the knowledge of the impact of birth order on managers' attitudes towards intrapreneurship and risk taking is indispensable for organizations. Information about managers' EI and risk taking related to their birth order can be useful for fostering an entrepreneurial climate for managers of certain birth orders to act intrapreneurially rather than spin out.
... However, other birth-order findings suggest the opposite outcome, such that laterborns may be more prone to participate in green consumption and similar acts of prosociality. Indeed, several studies suggest that laterborns are more prosocial than firstborns (Okada et al., 2021;Salmon, 2016), while simultaneously being warmer and more empathetic, less narcissistic, and more cooperative, altruistic, and other-oriented in their achievement goals (Carette et al., 2011;Eckstein et al., 2010;Paulhus et al., 1999;Prime et al., 2017). For example, using a large-scale populationbased cohort dataset of more than 3,000 adolescents, Okada et al. (2021) recently found laterborns to score higher than firstborns on various prosociality measures, as captured through scores on the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; Goodman, 1997). ...
... Responses were given on a 7-point scale (1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree) and were averaged to form a composite GREEN consumption index (α = .91). Given that birth-order effects have been widely discussed in in relation to personality traits (Eckstein et al., 2010;Rohrer et al., 2015;Sulloway, 1995), participants further replied to the five-item personality inventory (FIPI), which captures each of the Big Five personality traits with a single-item measure per trait (Gosling et al., 2003). Participants indicated their responses on a 5-point scale for the personality items (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree). ...
... The current study sought to address the mixed findings pertaining to the link between birth order and prosociality in the domain of green consumption. In direct contrast to the findings from a recent article , but consistent with a broader stream of literature on birth-order effects on aspects such as prosocial behavior, cooperation, and altruism (e.g., Eckstein et al., 2010;Okada et al., 2021;Prime et al., 2017;Salmon et al., 2016), we found robust evidence for the notion that laterborns (vs. firstborns) were more prone to purchase and consume products and services sustainably. ...
Several studies have examined the role of birth order in shaping human personality, but fewer have tested this variable in relation to other pressing issues. We conducted a birth-order study on green consumption, which enabled us to detect a small-to-moderate effect size equivalent to r = .15 or d = 0.30 with sufficient statistical power (N = 335). To capture green consumption, participants indicated their tendency to express the value of environmental protection through purchases and consumption behaviors. Firstborns (vs. laterborns) consistently expressed lower concerns linked to environmental protection in their purchase patterns. While the effect size of this finding was small-to-moderate by conventional standards and in direct contrast to the findings from a recent article on the same topic, these results could still be informative to address challenges associated with climate change considering the number of individuals with siblings in the world and the ease with which birth-order data can be collected.
... In another example, a younger sibling may surpass an older sibling who has an intellectual disability, given that the older sibling has an impaired rate of learning. In this case, the younger sibling may take on the role of an oldest sibling (Eckstein et al., 2010). A second born is likely to compete in the same fields as a first born if there is little difference between them in terms of years, as there is a chance for the second born to close the distance and surpass the older sibling. ...
... Therefore, the second born develops a strategy of succeeding at what the first born has ignored and ignoring what the first born has succeeded at. When using these rules and focusing on psychological birth-order types, as opposed to ordinal birth order, there is evidence that studies are more likely to find significant results (for a review, see Eckstein et al., 2010). ...
... Middle borns are more likely to be sociable, faithful in monogamous relationships, successful in team sports, have feelings of not belonging, and are least likely to have "acting out" problems (for a review, see Eckstein et al., 2010). ...
The study examined whether psychological birth-order positions have an association with personality types. A total of 378 participants were recruited from a Myers–Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) fan site and asked to report their psychological birth order. On the basis of their MBTI, all participants belong to four psychological types (introvert vs. extravert, sensor vs. intuitive, thinker vs. feeler, and perceiver vs. judger). Chisquare analysis revealed that only children (defined as children who do not have siblings less than 5 years younger or older) have an increased chance of being introverted compared to other birth-order positions. Furthermore, middle children have a significantly decreased chance of being introverted and a significantly increased chance of being feelers than other categories of birth order.
... Beck et al. (2006) carried out a study on undergraduate and postgraduate students in Germany, revealing that first born were more dominant and authoritative, while second born found to be more sociable. Eckstein et al. (2010) found that middle born possess more interpersonal skills like sociability and are also rebellious to reconnoitering different areas of life than elder siblings, while last born are pampered by parents and secure baby position. Suitor and Pillemer (2007) found that parental favoritism keep continued even when their children enter in adulthood, as it was seen that mothers were more emotionally attached with their last-born adult children while they were more likely to discuss their problems and crises with their first adult child. ...
... Later, Miller (2013) strengthens this idea and suggests deviance means engaging in prohibited behaviors set by norms and customs of the society like physically assaulting another person, stealing, or destroying property or using drugs like marijuana, alcohol or other recreational drugs. Aslam (2015), Eckstein et al. (2010), Gustafson (2010), and Khan et al. (2018) also supported Adler's views by stating that children share different positive and negative traits based on the parental treatment they receive. The scores for this subscale range from 0-32 where higher scores indicating higher deviance. ...
... According to longitudinal studies with several thousand participants in Germany, Great Britain, and the USA, firstborns achieved higher values in intelligence tests than later borns, but no differences were found in other personality traits [7]. However, it is assumed that siblings have a significant influence on motor and athletic development [8,9]. Firstborns practice less high-risk sports than later borns [10], top athletes more often have older siblings than less capable athletes and it is assumed that siblings play an important role in the decision to take up a career and succeed in competitive sports [11]. ...
Purpose
The motor development of firstborns compared to children having an older sibling in the first two years of life was examined.
Method
The data of the study come from an ongoing research project with citizen participation, which is investigating the development of motor milestones in the first and second years of life. Parents report online their children's developmental progress using a development calendar. 18 motor skills from birth until children manage walking alone are recorded, 14 relate to gross motor skills and four to hand motor skills.
Results
Children with siblings achieved higher values at birth in terms of Apgar-score, height, weight, BMI and parental satisfaction with the health and development of the child compared to firstborns. However, no differences could be found at the ages of 10–12 months and 14 months. Firstborns reached five fine motor and manual dexterity milestones earlier than children with siblings. In contrast, when mastering 13 gross motor milestones, no differences could be found between firstborns and children with siblings.
Conclusion
Motor development at an early age is considered to be largely genetically controlled, analogous to physical development. However, the faster development of the fine motor skills of the firstborns could be related to the fact that parents interact more intensively with their firstborn than with later born children and – unlike gross motor skills – in fine motor skills not only genetic factors but also learning processes are effective from a very early age.
... Although this study is not generalizable as it is a qualitative study, it suggests that the oldest and the middle children shoulder the burden of the family system more by acquiring negative childhood roles. It was stated in previous studies that the youngest children are pampered and dependent on others and might sometimes have false claims (Feist and Feist, 2006), that they are the most sociable and well liked, and that they have strong empathy skills (Eckstein et al., 2010). Kalkan and Koç (2007) found that the oldest children tend to have a proactive and solution-oriented approach, that the middle children are submissive, powerless, and desperate, and that the youngest children, because they are protected within the family, are more passive and accepting, and they may give up more easily in the face of problems. ...
... According to longitudinal studies with several thousand participants in Germany, Great Britain, and the USA, firstborns achieved higher values in intelligence tests than later borns, but no differences were found in other personality traits (Rohrer, Egloff & Schmukle 2015). However, it is assumed that siblings have a significant influence on motor and athletic development (Eckstein, Aycock, Sperber, et al. 2010, Malina 2004. Firstborns practice less highrisk sports than later borns (Casher 1977), top athletes more often have older siblings than less capable athletes and it is assumed that siblings play an important role in the decision to take up a career and succeed in competitive sports (Hopwood, Farrow, MacMahon & Baker 2015). ...
The development of firstborns compared to children having an older sibling in the first two years of life was examined. Children with siblings achieved higher values at birth in terms of Apgar-score, height, weight, BMI and parental satisfaction with the health and development of the child compared to firstborns. However, no differences could be found at the ages of 10-12 months and 14 months. Firstborns reached five fine motor and manual dexterity milestones earlier than children with siblings. In contrast, when mastering 13 gross motor milestones, no differences could be found between firstborns and children with siblings. Motor development at an early age is considered to be largely genetically controlled, analogous to physical development. However, the faster development of the fine motor skills of the firstborns could be related to the fact that parents interact more intensively with their firstborn than with later born children and-unlike gross motor skills-in fine motor skills not only genetic factors but also learning processes are effective from a very early age.
... Literature has documented characteristics of individuals on the basis of their order. Controlled studies (Eckstein et al., 2010;Paulhus et al., 1999;Sulloway, 1999), all using within-family designs, generally reported that firstborns and only children are higher in conscientiousness, emotional stability, and extraversion and are lower in agreeableness and openness when compared with laterborns. Firstborns often seek the favor of their parents by acting as surrogate parents toward their younger siblings. ...
The focus of the current study is to examine the nature of the relationship of goal orientation with psychological birth order. Likewise, it also looked into the ability of psychological birth order to influence the endorsement of achievement goals (mastery-approach and avoidance; performance- approach and avoidance). A total of 220 high school students engaged in shadow education answered the White-Campbell Psychological Birth Order Inventory (PBOI) and the Achievement Goal Questionnaire (AGQ). Based on the regression analysis performed, only the pairing of psychological birth order and performance-approach is significant while those of psychological birth order, mastery-approach, mastery-avoidance, and performance-avoidance are not significant. Further analysis revealed that those who are psychologically firstborns tend to endorse the mastery-approach goal orientation while those who are psychologically youngest or lastborn endorses mastery-avoidance.
The position in which a person enters the family at birth is that person's birth order. The potential importance that birth order has upon behaviors within the family and later personality development was introduced by Alfred Adler. Adler proposed that one's position would impact a variety of personality characteristics including responsibility, ambition, sociability, and willingness to break the rules. Following Adler's proposals, numerous studies have investigated if particular birth positions are associated with particular personality profiles and forms of psychopathology. Increasingly sophisticated methods have investigated the true effect of birth order on development, personality, and psychological and medical disorders. This entry provides a survey of the literature and draws conclusions about the importance of birth order for applied psychology and research on personality and development.
This study adapted the process feedback and outcome feedback scales of Jaworski and Maclnnis (1989) to investigate relationships between perceived parental feedback and birth order. A sample of 72 female and 80 male undergraduate business students was used. Firstborn/only children were hypothesized to report receiving more process feedback from parents, whereas last-borns were hypothesized to report receiving more outcome feedback. Results indicated that last-borns reported receiving significantly less of both types of feedback (process: p <.0029; outcome: p <.0009) than firstborns or middle children. No gender effects were found. Results thus suggest differential receipt of parental feedback as one possible basis for apparent birth order effects in societally recognized achievement.
Primary grade children from small (two children) and large (five or more children) families were compared on teacher ratings of school maladjustment. Children from small families, referred to a school mental health program, scored as significantly more maladjusted than referred large?family children on Aggression and Acting?out problems. Conversely, children from large families had significantly more serious Learning problems. Thus, each group had predominant types of school adjustment problems.
Firstborn college students showed more death threat than middle- or laterborns. The firstborns also reported less conscious concern about death than the other two groups. Larger samples are needed as well as controls for factors like family size.
A questionnaire was used to obtain the birth order of all candidates for contested seats in the Illinois State Senate and General Assembly. It was hypothesized that firstborn and lastborn Ss would be more likely to enter political life and more likely to win their contests. Results indicated that no birth rank was overrepresented among these candidates but proportionally more firstborn and lastborn candidates won their contests than did middle-born candidates. Winners were more likely to return their questionnaires than were losers, and the data suggested that it might be possible crudely to predict election outcome on the basis of the proportion of questionnaires returned prior to the election.