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A Comprehensive Thermal Management System Model for Hybrid Electric Vehicles
Abstract
This study describes the creation of efficient architecture designs of vehicle thermal man-agement system (VTMS) for hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) by using numerical simula-tions. The objective is to develop guidelines and methodologies for the architecture de-sign of the VTMS for HEVs, which are used to improve the performance of the VTMS and the fuel economy of the vehicle. For the numerical simulations, a comprehensive model of the VTMS for HEVs which can predict the thermal response of the VTMS dur-ing transient operations is developed. The comprehensive VTMS model consists of the vehicle cooling system model and climate control system model. A vehicle powertrain model for HEVs is also developed to simulate the operating conditions of the powertrain components because the VTMS components interact with the powertrain components. Finally, the VTMS model and the vehicle powertrain model are integrated to predict thermal response of the VTMS and the fuel economy of the vehicle under various vehicle driving conditions.
The comprehensive model of the VTMS for HEVs is used for the study on the architec-ture design of the VTMS for a heavy duty series hybrid electric vehicle. Integrated simu-lation is conducted using three VTMS architecture designs created based on the design guidelines developed in this study. The three architecture designs are compared based on the performance of the VTMS and the impact of the VTMS design on the fuel economy under various driving conditions. The comparison of three optional VTMS architectures shows noticeably significant differences in the parasitic power consumptions of the VTMSs and the transient temperature fluctuations of electric components depending on the architecture design. From the simulation results, it is concluded that, compared with the VTMS for the conventional vehicles, the architecture of the VTMS for the SHEV should be configured more carefully because of the additional heat source components, the complexity of component operations, and the dependency of the parasitic power con-sumption on driving modes.
... Once the solar radiation strikes the uncovered outside cabin body, some will be absorbed by the opaque cabin's body, and some will pass through the cabin's windows which will heat the cabin's interior [6][7][8][9][10]. The radiation will cause the interior cabin temperature to rise rapidly [11], typically up to 80 • C [12,13] on sunny days and 50 • C on a practically cloudy day [7] where almost 80% of the temperature rises taking place during the first 15-30 min [11]. ...
... This energy serves as the primary source of heat in the cabin, as the interior space absorbs the majority of the exterior solar radiation [13,22]. Convective heat transfer from these surfaces causes the cabin air to gradually become warmer and, as there are no openings, the hot air is confined within the cabin and cannot exchange heat with the surrounding air [6][7][8][9][10]23]. This leads to a greenhouse effect, where the cabin will only reach equilibrium with the surrounding environment through the walls of the cabin, resulting in a high soak air temperature. ...
... In fact, optimal control problem and optimal sizing problem are largely studied. [15][16][17][18][19][20] Park 15 presents a methodology to optimize the pump and radiator sizing for a given cooling architecture under packaging and thermal constraints. Park introduced in the optimal problem definition a scaling factor for the pump and the radiator as the variable optimization. ...
... The main guidelines defined are: regroup powertrain components by operating temperatures and operating phases. 15 Methods combining the control and sizing optimal problem with an automatic topology generation are generally not available in the literature. Wei et al. 23 have defined the optimization problem for cooling system topology search. ...
To reduce CO 2 and pollutant emissions, automotive manufacturers tend to turn increasingly toward electrified powertrains solutions, such as Hybrid Vehicles (HEV). Model Based System Engineering (MBSE) and computational tools are useful to support the development of HEV systems. System architectures need to be investigated to find optimal solutions regarding multiple possible goals constraints (fuel consumption, CO 2 emissions, etc.). In this study, a novel global optimization framework is proposed to enable an automated cooling system optimization. The methodology starts with a set of components, design rules, and system requirements to search and automatically generate all the admissible cooling system architectures. System architectures are generated by a concept of decision tree. The decision tree algorithm is coupled to a design rules database to avoid exploring solutions that do not satisfy system requirements. Hydraulic models are automatically built for each system architecture generated to optimize head losses and minimize the pump consumption. For the most interesting solutions, 3D piping geometrical data (lengths, angles, and curve radius) are automatically drawn by a 3D optimization tool. Piping geometrical data are integrated in GT-SUITE thermo-hydraulic simulation models automatically built to evaluate the most interesting cooling system architectures generated. The best candidates are identified by a multi-criteria decision-making strategy. A first case of conventional vehicle cooling system is studied. Results on the given example indicate that the difference of energy consumption on WLTC cycle between the best performing architecture and the worst one is 69%.
... The ITMS also considers more components, provides an approach to evaluate combined heat loads under various operating conditions, and reduces cost, weight, and fuel consumption while maintaining robustness. More concretely, a doctoral dissertation from the University of Michigan Ann Arbor [226] systematically described the design process of an ITMS for a series HEV by using numerical simulations. A comprehensive ITMS model capable of predicting the thermal response during transient operations was developed by integrating it with the vehicle powertrain model. ...
... With all the thermal management subsystems ready which are described and summarized in Section 2 and Section 3, the pivotal step is to put them together in a compact overall system equipped with rational control strategies. Since PEMFCV are an emerging type of vehicle and few vehicle companies possess the core and complete technologies, the reference about the whole architecture and design process of IMTS, like [226], is highly limited in PEMFCV. The existing literature mainly studies one or several loops. ...
Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) vehicles (PEMFCV) have drawn tremendous attention owing to the advantages of low or zero emissions. Effective integrated thermal management systems (ITMS) considering thermal loops coupling and interaction and with a rational strategy are crucial for the efficient and secure operation of PEMFCV. Therefore, ITMS in PEMFCV are worthy to be reviewed comprehensively. This paper aims to provide the general and current ideas of ITMS design in PEMFCV from part-level to system-level, along with control strategies. The factors that affect the thermal performance of heat-generating components and systems are deeply analysed, and the key findings, challenges, and future work are presented. It is found that liquid cooling is more appropriate for ITMS because of the high specific heat and the convenience of integrating other thermal systems, and that heat pumps tend to be a more suitable choice for air conditioning systems. The future work mainly includes the improvement of cooling and cold start of PEMFC, perfection and verification of waste heat recovery system, exploration of new air conditioning systems, integration of systems, coupling of ITMS and energy management systems, and enhancement of model accuracy. The provided information is useful to guide the system layout and control strategies for ITMS at the early design stage.
... Among various types of batteries, lead-acid battery, nickel-based batteries, such as nickel/iron, nickel/cadmium, and nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH) batteries, and lithium-based batteries such as lithiumpolymer (Li-P) and lithium-ion (Li-I) batteries [12][13][14], the lithiumion (Li-ion) batteries have always been regarded with great interest and become the most promising battery candidate for EV applications due to its lightweight that has a high electrochemical potential permeating *Corresponding author: Mebarki B, ENERGARID Laboratory, University of Bechar, Bechar, BP417, 08000, Algeria, Tel: +213 661 963 537; E-mail: brahimo12002@yahoo.fr it to transform easily into ion (Li + ), high specific energy, high specific power and high energy density [15,16]. In addition, lithium batteries have no memory effect and do not have poisonous metals, such as lead, mercury or cadmium [16]. ...
... In addition, lithium batteries have no memory effect and do not have poisonous metals, such as lead, mercury or cadmium [16]. From the thermal management viewpoint, Li-ion battery is advantageous because Li-ion battery have lower internal resistance compared with Lead-acid battery [14]. As can be seen in Ragone diagram (Figure 2), Li-ion battery has higher energy and power density which results in weight advantage over the other types of batteries for the same battery capacity. ...
One of the main problems to be considered in an electric vehicle is the way to maintain a good climate conditions in order to ensure a thermal comfort in the passenger
ompartment to provide an optimum performance of the batteries. In this paper, the influence of the electric air-conditioning system on the power consumption of a Lithium-ion battery was studied. The model of the air conditioning system was developed based on the thermal loads variations caused by the external temperature. In order to optimize the autonomous efficiency of the batteries, a thermal management system must be installed. The model was coded on the Matlab/Simulink platform and simulated.
... In general, improvements in the thermal management system mitigate component degradation and improve vehicle performance. For electrified vehicles to reach ubiquity, more efficient thermal management systems are essential [5]. ...
... High-level management strategies focus on multiple components, either using combined or separate cooling loops. Park presents a model of a high-level thermal management system and uses it to size components within the system [5]. Romijn develops a distributed control algorithm to accomplish complete vehicle energy management for a heavy-duty HEV. ...
This paper develops a hierarchical control framework to manage both the electrical and thermal domains of an automotive electric vehicle (EV). Batteries, electric machines, and power electronics all have desired thermal operating ranges, with operation outside these limits leading to reduced component performance and lifespan. Previous studies present
various component- and high-level energy management algorithms that seek to maintain desired temperatures. However, the literature contains limited efforts to develop comprehensive control approaches that coordinate the electrothermal dynamics within the vehicle, ensuring that electrical systems do not generate more thermal energy than can be managed within temperature constraints. To address this gap, this paper presents a hierarchical control framework that governs electrical and thermal states across multiple timescales while meeting operational requirements, such as tracking a desired vehicle velocity and cabin temperature. To develop this framework, a network of communicating model predictive controllers coordinates the system dynamics, with significant reduction in computational complexity over a centralized control approach. A graph-based model of the candidate EV powertrain is developed and then decomposed to generate models used in each controller of the hierarchical framework. Through the case study of this paper, it is demonstrated that the hierarchical controller can make important trade-offs between tracking desired operational references and maintaining temperatures within constraints.
... Studies on HEV thermomanagement system have been extensive but widely spread in different areas, such as whole vehicle thermomanagement [2][3][4][5], pumps and thermostats adjustment [6,7], and battery thermomanagement issues. Within vehicle thermomanagement strategies, cooling fan speed adjustment is a specific topic and often relates to analysis of radiator, flow, and the air. ...
... Within vehicle thermomanagement strategies, cooling fan speed adjustment is a specific topic and often relates to analysis of radiator, flow, and the air. A recent comprehensive study [2] has already addressed several analytical models although it has not led to final controller prototype. ...
A hybrid electrical bus employs both a turbo diesel engine and an electric motor to drive the vehicle in different speed-torque scenarios. The cooling system for such a vehicle is particularly power costing because it needs to dissipate heat from not only the engine, but also the intercooler and the motor. An electronic control unit (ECU) has been designed with a single chip computer, temperature sensors, DC motor drive circuit, and optimized control algorithm to manage the speeds of several fans for efficient cooling using a nonlinear fan speed adjustment strategy. Experiments suggested that the continuous operating performance of the ECU is robust and capable of saving 15% of the total electricity comparing with ordinary fan speed control method.
... Among various types of batteries, lead-acid battery, nickel-based batteries, such as nickel/iron, nickel/cadmium, and nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH) batteries, and lithium-based batteries such as lithiumpolymer (Li-P) and lithium-ion (Li-I) batteries [12][13][14], the lithiumion (Li-ion) batteries have always been regarded with great interest and become the most promising battery candidate for EV applications due to its lightweight that has a high electrochemical potential permeating *Corresponding author: Mebarki B, ENERGARID Laboratory, University of Bechar, Bechar, BP417, 08000, Algeria, Tel: +213 661 963 537; E-mail: brahimo12002@yahoo.fr it to transform easily into ion (Li + ), high specific energy, high specific power and high energy density [15,16]. In addition, lithium batteries have no memory effect and do not have poisonous metals, such as lead, mercury or cadmium [16]. ...
... In addition, lithium batteries have no memory effect and do not have poisonous metals, such as lead, mercury or cadmium [16]. From the thermal management viewpoint, Li-ion battery is advantageous because Li-ion battery have lower internal resistance compared with Lead-acid battery [14]. As can be seen in Ragone diagram (Figure 2), Li-ion battery has higher energy and power density which results in weight advantage over the other types of batteries for the same battery capacity. ...
... Inside the vehicle cabin, the primary heat source of the cabin air thermal load is long-wave radiant energy, which is released from the interior surfaces and the roof after they absorb the shortwaves of the incident solar radiation that passes through the cabin glazing during direct exposure to the sun rays [10][11][12]. Thus, cabin air gradually becomes hotter by convection heat transfer from these masses [13][14][15][16][17][18]. ...
This article explores the potential of vehicle interiors, which can reach temperatures of up to 120°C due to solar exposure, as efficient solar collectors. Comparative studies have been conducted on the thermal behavior of heat-soaked vehicle cabins and dedicated solar collectors, highlighting their potential benefits in heating, cooling and ventilation. Thermal soak tests reveal a remarkable similarity in thermal performance between the two, with minor temperature variations of up to 5.3°C between the equivalent components. These temperature deviations are mainly due to differences in absorptivity characteristics, in which the black absorber plate exhibits superior absorption capabilities compared to the grey interior cabin surfaces. Integration of ambient air through the inlets on the cabin floor helps with initial cooling of the hot soaked cabin. The collector benefits from a preheated air mixture (comprising heat-soaked cabin air and ambient air), which improves its operating temperatures. This characteristic is attributed to the synergistic integration of the two systems. By decoupling these systems and aligning the properties of the absorber plate, the cabin and the collector could become thermally identical. The potential of the heated vehicle cabin as a power generation source is underscored, which presents opportunities to supplement the energy demand in remote locations. This study illuminates the untapped potential of vehicular solar heat capture, highlighting its feasibility, diverse applications, and significant implications for sustainable energy strategies and community development.
... This 71 includes hierarchical and distributed MPC architectures, which 72 are particularly capable of managing timescale separation caused 73 by fast electrical and slow thermal dynamics [27][28][29][30]. [31] and electromechanical components [32,33] within a vehicle. 79 Topology generation and optimization seeks to adjust the configu-80 ration or architecture of the system components [34,35]. ...
This article explores the optimization of plant characteristics and controller parameters for electrified mobility. Electrification of mobile transportation systems, such as automobiles and aircraft, presents the ability to improve key performance metrics such as efficiency and cost. However, the strong bidirectional coupling between electrical and thermal dynamics within new components creates integration challenges, increasing component degradation and reducing performance. Diminishing these issues requires novel plant designs and control strategies. The electrified mobility literature provides prior studies on plant and controller optimization, known as control co-design (CCD). A void within these studies is the lack of model predictive control (MPC), recognized to manage multi-domain dynamics for electrified systems, within CCD frameworks. This article addresses this through three contributions. First, a thermo-electro-mechanical hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) model is developed that is suitable for both plant optimization and MPC. Second, simultaneous plant and controller optimization is performed for this multi-domain system. Third, MPC is integrated within a CCD framework using the candidate HEV model. Results indicate that optimizing both the plant and MPC parameters simultaneously can reduce physical component sizes by over 60% and key performance metric errors by over 50%.
... The effectiveness of vehicle thermal management systems can be evaluated by the thermal load reduction for automotive powertrains and the thermal comfort improvement in cabins. In the same time, an efficient vehicle thermal management system can boost the automotive thermal efficiency which leads to higher fuel economy of internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) or miles per charge of electric vehicles (EVs); therefore, an optimised vehicle thermal management system is crucial for both ICEVs and EVs [1]. The difference between the thermal management solutions for ICEVs and EVs is also obvious, which exists in the energy source, powertrain and HVAC system [2,3]. ...
An overview of current thermal challenges in transport electrification is introduced in order to underpin the research developments and trends of recent thermal management techniques. Currently, explorations of intelligent thermal management and control strategies prevail among car manufacturers in the context of climate change and global warming impacts. Therefore, major cutting-edge systematic approaches in electrified powertrain are summarized in the first place. In particular, the important role of heating, ventilation and air-condition system (HVAC) is emphasised. The trends in developing efficient HVAC system for future electrified powertrain are analysed. Then electric machine efficiency is under spotlight which could be improved by introducing new thermal management techniques and strengthening the efforts of driveline integrations. The demanded integration efforts are expected to provide better value per volume, or more power output/torque per unit with smaller form factor. Driven by demands, major thermal issues of high-power density machines are raised including the comprehensive understanding of thermal path, and multiphysics challenges are addressed whilst embedding power electronic semiconductors, non-isotropic electromagnetic materials and thermal insulation materials. Last but not least, the present review has listed several typical cooling techniques such as liquid cooling jacket, impingement/spray cooling and immersion cooling that could be applied to facilitate the development of integrated electric machine, and a mechanic-electric-thermal holistic approach is suggested at early design phase. Conclusively, a brief summary of the emerging new cooling techniques is presented and the keys to a successful integration are concluded.
... Plant design can be categorized by studies focusing on sizing optimization and topology optimization. Sizing optimization seeks to optimize component sizes within the system, including thermal component design [30] and electro-mechanical components [31,32] within a vehicle. Topology generation and optimization seeks to adjust the configuration or architecture of the system components [33,34]. ...
This article explores the optimization of plant characteristics and controller parameters for electrified mobility. Electrification of mobile transportation systems, such as automobiles and aircraft, presents the ability to improve key performance metrics such as efficiency and cost. However, the strong bidirectional coupling between electrical and thermal dynamics within new components creates integration challenges, increasing component degradation and reducing performance. Diminishing these issues requires novel plant designs and control strategies. The electrified mobility literature provides prior studies on plant and controller optimization, known as control co-design (CCD). A void within these studies is the lack of model predictive control (MPC), recognized to manage multi-domain dynamics for electrified systems, within CCD frameworks. This article addresses this through three contributions. First, a thermo-electro-mechanical hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) model is developed that is suitable for both plant optimization and MPC. Second, simultaneous plant and controller optimization is performed for this multi-domain system. Third, MPC is integrated within a CCD framework using the candidate HEV model. Results indicate that optimizing both the plant and MPC parameters simultaneously can reduce physical component sizes by over 60% and key performance metric errors by over 50%.
... In addition, in terms of controlling the battery temperature, earlier works mostly focused on tracking a reference, i.e., keeping the temperature at a setpoint, Tao and Wagner (2016). In practice, however, the cycle life of a battery depends on an ideal working temperature range, as a narrow temperature window indicates wasteful thermal management, Park (2011). Therefore, some control schemes built earlier fail to provide an economic solution in this case. ...
This paper proposes a detailed battery thermal management system for electrified powertrains. A battery aging model consisting of capacity fade and power fade sub-models is built to adjust state of charge estimation and heat generation. The trade-off between the benefit of recuperating braking energy and the cost of additional cooling power is investigated. It is found that the recovery ratio depends on the efficiency of the air conditioning system and the intensity and density of the available braking power. A zone model predictive control approach is developed to maintain the battery temperature within its optimal operating range with minimum power consumption. Remarkable energy consumption reduction can be achieved comparing to traditional controllers.
... A thermal management optimization of a hybrid vehicle for maximizing the exergy efficiency and minimizing costs were investigated by Hamut et al. [11]. In another study, numerical simulations were used for the development of architecture designs with efficient vehicle thermal management systems in hybrid electric vehicles by Park in his doctoral dissertation [22]. This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. ...
Thermal management is becoming ever more important in passenger vehicles in the trend of vehicle electrification. Even though most of the passenger vehicles still have relatively conventional thermal management systems, advanced technologies have been increasingly developed. The internal combustion engine (ICE) have had the central role in thermal management but due to the powertrain hybridization and electrification, the engines are nowadays more efficient, smaller in size, and running less frequently. Especially for plug-in hybrid and electric vehicles, engines are not always used or not even available, and thus there is no excess heat readily available. This paper reviews the present technology for the thermal management of electrified powertrains in passenger vehicles. In this context, thermal management takes into account the cooling and heating systems for the powertrain components, and different methods to develop and improve thermal systems efficiency. The paper investigates the recent technology advances for improving energy efficiency of thermal systems. The research focus is on the hybrid and electric vehicles and especially on the challenges of improving thermal energy efficiency and performance.
... Due to their large thermal capacities relative to air, they release long-wave radiant energy and become an interior source of heat emission. Thus, the cabin air gradually turns hotter due to convective heat transfer from these masses [4,12,38,41,43,52]. The hotter air will be trapped inside the cabin due to the lack of openings (greenhouse effect). ...
... By co-simulation, the ITM behaviors were analyzed under various ambient conditions and vehicle loads [145]. The ITM design for a heavy duty military Series Hybrid Electric Vehicle was conducted by Park [146], which included a vehicle cooling system (VCS), climate control system (CCS) and vehicle powertrain system. Together with research on the heat transfer, fluid mechanics, and thermodynamics, the authors simulated CCS parameter performance, including coolant pumps, fans, radiators, thermostats, and heat sources, to control the battery thermal behavior stably and reliably. ...
With the increasing demands for vehicle dynamic performance, economy, safety and comfort, and with ever stricter laws concerning energy conservation and emissions, vehicle power systems are becoming much more complex. To pursue high efficiency and light weight in automobile design, the power system and its vehicle integrated thermal management (VITM) system have attracted widespread attention as the major components of modern vehicle technology. Regarding the internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV), its integrated thermal management (ITM) mainly contains internal combustion engine (ICE) cooling, turbo-charged cooling, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) cooling, lubrication cooling and air conditioning (AC) or heat pump (HP). As for electric vehicles (EVs), the ITM mainly includes battery cooling/preheating, electric machines (EM) cooling and AC or HP. With the rational effective and comprehensive control over the mentioned dynamic devices and thermal components, the modern VITM can realize collaborative optimization of multiple thermodynamic processes from the aspect of system integration. Furthermore, the computer-aided calculation and numerical simulation have been the significant design methods, especially for complex VITM. The 1D programming can correlate multi-thermal components and the 3D simulating can develop structuralized and modularized design. Additionally, co-simulations can virtualize simulation of various thermo-hydraulic behaviors under the vehicle transient operational conditions. This article reviews relevant researching work and current advances in the ever broadening field of modern vehicle thermal management (VTM). Based on the systematic summaries of the design methods and applications of ITM, future tasks and proposals are presented. This article aims to promote innovation of ITM, strengthen the precise control and the performance predictable ability, furthermore, to enhance the level of research and development (R&D).
... Thermal losses and thermal management have been researched for hybrid powertrains in which the internal combustion engine and battery are often the essential components [3][4][5]. There has been a lot of interest on the thermal management of lithium-ion batteries and battery systems [6][7][8][9]. ...
This paper evaluates thermal losses and thermal energy transfer in the powertrain components of an electric city bus. A simulation model of an electric city bus was developed in AMESim simulation software. Simulations were carried out in four different driving cycles and in different ambient temperatures. The simulation results show that there is a strong correlation between thermal losses of the inverter and electric motor with the total energy losses. Based on the results, thermal energy transfer from the components to the coolant was analyzed. The thermal energy transfer from the battery to coolant was higher in more demanding driving cycles whereas aggressive driving has more impact on the thermal energy transfer of the inverter and electric motor. In cold ambient temperature, auxiliary power losses increase significantly due to the need of heating. Battery losses are also higher in cold conditions because of the higher internal resistance.
... 현재 전기자동차의 열관리 시스템은 차량 종류에 따 라 설계를 다르게 하고 있다. 하이브리드 자동차 및 플러 그인 하이브리드 자동차 등과 같이 구동을 내연기관과 전기구동 모터를 동시에 사용하는 전기자동차의 열관리 시스템은 내연기관 열관리 시스템과 일부 공유하여 열관 리를 하고 있다[11] [12] [13] [14] ...
The object of this study is to develop an cooling control algorithm for electronics devices of the electric vehicle. In order to estimate the existing cooling control logic of the electronic devices for the small and medium sized electric vehicle, the experiments on the coolant temperature variation of the cooling system were conducted under 4 different seasons conditions. As a result, the existing cooling control logic were overcooled when it was compared with the reference temperature for a required cooling load. In addition, the newly developed optimum cooling control logic for improving the mileages of the tested electric vehicle with consideration of the ambient temperature, vehicle speed, and refrigerant temperature of the air conditioning on/off is necessary.
... • Battery thermal management system includes climate control in which the temperature of the battery pack is generated which influences the discharge of power (Park, 2011) ...
This report is based on engineering a hybrid system in order to convert the Peugeot 206 1.6L conventional gasoline engine car in to a hybrid with electric motor as the secondary source of wheel drive. The benchmarking of the performance characteristics of the conventional Peugeot 206 has been done with respect to the NEDC, in order to be able to match or better these characteristics after being converted to a hybrid. A parallel hybrid arrangement has been incorporated for the car; the engine has been downsized whilst choosing a suitable motor and battery pack to supply the required power by considering the efficiencies and losses of all the components of the hybrid system. The environmental impact in terms of fuel consumption and CO2 emissions have been calculated for both the versions and also the well to wheel efficiencies have been discussed for the hybrid car.
In designing the heat exchanger model, the existing epsilon-number of transfer units (NTU) method cannot reflect factors inside the heat exchanger, such as the local flow rate changes. Furthermore, it is difficult to apply a three-dimensional model to a one-dimensional analysis since high computational power is required. In contrast, a pseudo-three-dimensional heat exchanger model which has higher accuracy than the existing epsilon-NTU method and has faster speed for application in one-dimensional analysis. However, pseudo-three-dimensional model has still improvements in the simulation time as the mesh counts increase. In this study, the improved pseudo-three-dimensional heat exchanger model was developed and integrated within a one-dimensional analysis loop capable of simulating vehicle driving and the cooling system. The integrated model calculated the change in the energy consumption of the entire cooling system with the change in the aspect ratio of the heat exchanger. Also, the optimal operation strategy of the cooling system, which incorporated a proportional integral derivative controller of the three-way valve, was determined to reduce the parasitic losses. As a result, parasitic loss of the cooling system decreased by 14.1 % as aspect ratio increased by 46 % under FTP-72 (UDDS) driving schedule and simulation time was reduced 90.1 % while accuracy degrades only 2.7 %.
The aircraft thermal management system functions to provide suitable working conditions for pilot, crew, passengers, and the other aircraft systems. The additional weight, drag and power consumption caused by it greatly influences the performance of the aircraft. However, due to rising heat load of emerging novel aircraft concepts, traditional design approaches which rely on data and empirical equations may not apply to the future thermal management systems. Many existing literature which tried to identify the optimal thermal management system architectures only considered limited architecture space where the candidates were pre-selected in terms of experience or intuition. Therefore, viable but non-intuitive architectures may not be included in the design space. To fill this gap, this paper proposes a behavior-based backtracking methodology to systematically populate the architecture space by enumerating both intuitive and non-intuitive architectures. Thermal management requirements for traditional and novel configurations are used to generate the architectures. By comparing the generated architectures with existing ones, this paper validates that the proposed methodology is capable of generating both intuitive and non-intuitive architectures.
From a control perspective, the energy management system and the thermal management system of an electrified vehicle are often developed separately, which may not yield the optimal solution. Moreover, an optimal system design requires concurrent plant (topology and size) and controller optimization, which should apply to both energy and thermal domains. This paper originally provides a comprehensive analysis of design and control optimization layers to reveal the interconnections between them and how they influence the optimality of an electrified vehicle design considering both energy and thermal domains. It was found that energy and cost savings can be achieved by integrating these optimization layers, and the energy and thermal domains with four coordination schemes, namely, sequential, iterative, nested and simultaneous. There is a trade-off between optimality, causality, complexity and computational time. Additionally, future research directions in terms of reducing energy consumption and system costs of electrified vehicles are identified herein, such as using integrated design and control methods, employing electrified actuators, exchanging heat between powertrain components and utilizing waste heat recovery systems.
Adaptive and fast-calculating HVAC and climate models are gaining increasing importance in the automotive development process. Physically motivated thermal models achieve high quality results, but have a disadvantage in terms of their computing speed due to their complexity. One possible approach for the fast and precise simulation of thermal systems is deep learning with artificial neural networks. This paper aims to determine the extent to which neural LSTM are suitable for modeling the complex dynamic behavior of vehicle air conditioning. For this purpose, a physical reference model of a passenger car air conditioning system including a vehicle cabin is set up in the simulation environment Dymola with the component library TIL Suite. Furthermore, a model structure of a LSTM-based deep neural network to map the dynamic thermal behavior correctly is proposed. For the purpose of training the ANN, the overall system has been broken down into subsystems. The subsystems are individually trained open-loop and then linked to form a closed-loop overall model. For evaluation purposes, models with the same model structure but based on feed forward network (FFN) architectures are implemented, trained and tested.
This paper aims to compare and study the cooling performance of a battery system in accordance with the inlet and outlet geometry of the air passage in an EV. The arrangement and the heat source of the battery module were fixed, and the inlet/outlet area and its geometry were varied with the analysis of the cooling performance. The results of this study provide suggestions for the air flow stream line inside of a battery, the velocity field, and the temperature distributions. It was confirmed that the volume flow rate of air should be over 400m^3/h, in order to satisfy conditions under 50^{\circ}C, which is the limit condition for stable operation. It was also revealed that the diffuser outlet geometry can improve the cooling performance of battery system.
In recent years, the traffic congestion, energy issues and environmental problems are occurred by increase in motor vehicles as well as population. The short and long range electrically operated vehicles like EVs (Electric vehicles) and LEVs (Light Electric vehicles) have been receiving much attention as a way to resolve these problems. Among these electric vehicle types, electric bicycle and electric scooters have the important components such as battery cell and ECUs (Electric Control Units). The component temperature is increased due to the heat generated by the continuous operation, which leads to decrease of the life cycle and performance. An experimental study was conducted to observe the effects of cooling performance of battery cell and heatsink case for ECU. Subsequently a numerical model was developed and cooling performance results of numerical study were validated by comparing it with experimental study. A new model is proposed with enhanced thermal performance for ECU heatsink.
This paper presents a model-based method for the calibration of thermal on-board diagnostic functions. As an example application for the model-based calibration approach, the calibration of the engine temperature sensor diagnostic function is employed. The model used for calibration consists of a physical description of the engine and a map-based model for the external cooling circuit. For the calibration of the diagnostic function four parametric optimization approaches based on Least Squares and Quantile Regression are compared.
As an effort in reducing the dependency on fossil fuel, efforts have been gathered to develop electric vehicle (EV) for the past decades. Technology of electric vehicles (EV) has been initialized in developed countries. However, the latter have different geographical and environmental conditions. Therefore, the system of EV cannot be utilized directly in this country. The controller of an EV functions by utilizing a potentiometer; supplying a certain amount of voltage from the batteries to the motor by driver’s force applied to the acceleration pedal. This action generates a huge amount of heat due to the internal resistance of the controller (e.g. potentiometer). In order for an EV to operate at optimum condition, temperature of the controller has to be maintained at a certain limit. Hence an effective cooling system is required to be designed to fulfill the above condition. The objective of this paper is to present the design of the cooling system for the controller of an electric vehicle (EV). Two types of cooling system namely liquid cooled plate heat exchanger and forced air cooled finned structure are designed and evaluated to assess the behavior of heat transfer as well as effects of heat transfer fluids and cooling system material towards the heat removal rate. Simulation using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) for both cooling systems has been carried out to have better understanding. CFD results are compared with some of the analytical results. The findings revealed that both systems are suitable to be implemented as EV controller cooling system in Malaysian Environment.
In this study, reduction of cogging torque and torque ripple for an exterior rotor type brushless dc (BLDC) motor for an automotive cooling device were proposed and a design concept for a fan motor for use in a battery pack mounted in an electric vehicle/hybrid electric vehicle (EV/HEV) was presented. Various pole/slot combinations and permanent magnet (PM) pole arc ratios were compared using finite element analysis (FEA), and the PM overhang ratio necessary to sufficiently increase the magnetic flux that enabled coil linkage was determined through 3D FEA. Based on the analysis results, an actual model was produced, experimentally verified, and used to validate the proposed design model.
In this paper, a model of the thermal on board diagnostic system of a BMW spark ignition engine is presented. At first, the model of the thermal system including the engine itself and several heat exchangers is set up as a simulation environment for the diagnosis. The engine is divided into a combustion model and a three-zone heat transfer model. In a second step, the diagnosis function for the coolant temperature sensor is implemented as an example of a thermal on board diagnosis function.
This study is aiming to suggest the effective thermal management system design technologies for the high voltage and capacity battery system of the electricity driven vehicles and introduce the theoretical designing methods. In order to investigate the effective operation of the battery system for the electricity driven vehicles, the heat generation model for Li-ion battery system using the chemical reaction while charging and discharging was suggested and the thermal loads of the heat sources (air or liquid) for cooling and heating were calculated using energy balance. Especially, the design methods for the cooling and heating of the battery system for maintaining the optimum operation temperature were investigated under heating, cooling and generated heat (during charging and discharging) conditions. The battery thermal management system for the effective battery operation of the electricity driven vehicles was suggested reasonably depending on the variation of the season and operation conditions. In addition, at the same conditions under summer season, the cooling method using the liquid and active cooling technique showed a relatively high capacity, while cooling method using the passive cooling technique showed a relatively low capacity.
Fuel consumption rates of electric vehicles strongly depend on their battery performance. Because the battery performance is sensitive to the operating temperature, temperature management of the battery ensures its performance and durability. In particular, the temperature distribution among modules in the battery pack affects the cooling characteristics. This study focuses on the thermal modeling of a battery pack to observe the temperature distribution among the modules. The battery model is a prismatic model of 10 NiMH battery modules. The thermal model of the battery consists of heat generation, convective heat transfer through the channel and conduction heat transfer among modules. The heat generation is calculated by the electric resistance heat during the charge/discharge state. The model is used to determine a strategy for proper thermal management in Electric vehicles.
Li-Ion battery is attractive for HEVs and FCEVs because of its high power density and lack of memory effect. However, high battery temperatures during operation result in a short battery lifespan and degraded performance.To address this issue, battery manufacturers and OEMs have used different pre-set cooling strategies. Unlike the pre-set cooling strategy this thermal model forecasts battery temperatures, allows a better usage of the battery system, responds to battery power demand and maintains battery temperature limits. This paper discusses the real-time control of the battery cooling including battery stress analysis. The authors present a dynamic thermal model for the Li-Ion battery system using the finite-volume method and discuss transient battery thermal characteristics and real-time battery cooling control under various battery duty cycles. Validation results of the model are presented in this paper.
Compact heat exchangers have been widely used in various applications in thermal fluid systems including automotive thermal management systems. Radiators for engine cooling systems, evaporators and condensers for HVAC systems, oil coolers, and intercoolers are typical examples of the compact heat exchangers that can be found in ground vehicles. Among the different types of heat exchangers for engine cooling applications, cross flow compact heat exchangers with louvered fins are of special interest because of their higher heat rejection capability with the lower flow resistance. In this study, a predictive numerical model for the cross flow type heat exchanger with louvered fins has been developed based on the thermal resistance concept and the finite difference method in order to provide a design and development tool for the heat exchanger. The model was validated with the experimental data from an engine cooling radiator. As a case study, the effect of the geometric changes of the heat exchanger on the heat rejection performance was explored. The results suggested that a predictive heat exchanger model is advised for the investigation of the effect of the geometric changes due to the non-linear characteristics of the heat exchanger performance related to geometric changes.
We present the findings of an extensive case study for the decomposed, simulation-based, optimal design of an advanced technology heavy truck by means of analytical target cascading. The use of a series hybrid-electric propulsion system, in-hub motors, and variable height suspensions is considered with the intention of improving both commercial and military design attributes according to a dual-use philosophy. Emphasis is given to fuel economy, ride, and mobility characteristics. The latter are predicted by appropriately developed analytical and simulation models. This article builds on previous work and focuses on recent efforts to refine the applied methodologies and draw final conclusions.
The engine cooling system for a typical class 3 pickup truck with a medium duty diesel engine was modeled with a commercial code, GT-Cool in order to explore the benefit of controllable electric pump on the cooling performance and the fuel economy. As the first step, the cooling system model with a conventional mechanical coolant pump was validated with experimental data. After the model validation, the mechanical pump sub-model was replaced with the electric pump submodel and then the potential benefit of the electric pump on fuel economy was investigated with the simulation. Based on coolant flow analysis the modified thermostat hysteresis was proposed to reduce the recirculating flow and electric pump effort, thus enabling assessment of the full power saving potential. It was also demonstrated that the radiator size could be reduced without any cooling performance penalty by replacing mechanical pump with the electric pump and decoupling of the pump speed from engine speed. The predicted results indicate that the cooling system with the electric pump can dramatically reduce the pump power consumption during the FTP 74 driving schedule and that radiator can be down-sized by more than 27% of the original size under grade load condition.
In this study, two battery models for a high-power lithium ion (Li-Ion) cell were compared for their use in hybrid electric vehicle simulations in support of the U.S. Department of Energy's Hybrid Electric Vehicle Program. Saft America developed the high-power Li-Ion cells as part of the U.S. Advanced Battery Consortium/U.S. Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles programs. Based on test data, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) developed a resistive equivalent circuit battery model for comparison with a 2-capacitance battery model from Saft. The Advanced Vehicle Simulator (ADVISOR) was used to compare the predictions of the two models over two different power cycles. The two models were also compared to and validated with experimental data for a US06 driving cycle. The experimental voltages on the US06 power cycle fell between the NREL resistive model and Saft capacitance model predictions. Generally, the predictions of the two models were reasonably close to th e experimental results; the capacitance model showed slightly better performance. Both battery models of high-power Li-Ion cells could be used in ADVISOR with confidence as accurate battery behavior is maintained during vehicle simulations.
This paper presents three power module cooling topologies that are being considered for use in electric traction drive vehicles such as a hybrid electric, plug-in hybrid electric, or electric vehicle. The impact on the fatigue life of solder joints for each cooling option is investigated along with the thermal performance. Considering solder joint reliability and thermal performance, topologies using indirect jet impingement look attractive.
The underhood automotive environment is harsh and current trends in the automotive electronics industry will be pushing the temperature envelope for electronic components. The desire to place engine control units on the engine and transmission control units either on or in the transmission will push the ambient temperature above 125°C. However, extreme cost pressures, increasing reliability demands (10 year/241 350 km) and the cost of field failures (recalls, liability, customer loyalty) will make the shift to higher temperatures occur incrementally. The coolest spots on engine and in the transmission will be used. These large bodies do provide considerable heat sinking to reduce temperature rise due to power dissipation in the control unit. The majority of near term applications will be at 150°C or less and these will be worst case temperatures, not nominal. The transition to X-by-wire technology, replacing mechanical and hydraulic systems with electromechanical systems will require more power electronics. Integration of power transistors and smart power devices into the electromechanical actuator will require power devices to operate at 175°C to 200°C. Hybrid electric vehicles and fuel cell vehicles will also drive the demand for higher temperature power electronics. In the case of hybrid electric and fuel cell vehicles, the high temperature will be due to power dissipation. The alternates to high-temperature devices are thermal management systems which add weight and cost. Finally, the number of sensors in vehicles is increasing as more electrically controlled systems are added. Many of these sensors must work in high-temperature environments. The harshest applications are exhaust gas sensors and cylinder pressure or combustion sensors. High-temperature electronics use in automotive systems will continue to grow, but it will be gradual as cost and reliability issues are addressed. This work examines the motivation for higher temperature operation, the packaging limitations even at 125°C with newer package styles and concludes with a review of challenges at both the semiconductor device and packaging level as temperatures push beyond 125°C.
Assuring the right temperature in battery compartments of an electric or hybrid vehicle is crucial for the safe operation and the achievement of optimal performance of the batteries. This paper is about the design, fabrication, and testing of a novel system for thermal management for electric/hybrid vehicles. This system is based on Peltier-effect heat pumps. The experiment results show the applicability of this type of technology for the thermal management for this type of vehicles.
The target cascading methodology is applied to the conceptual design of an advanced heavy tactical truck. Two levels are defined: an integrated truck model is represented at the top (vehicle) level and four independent suspension arms are represented at the lower (system) level. Necessary analysis models are developed, and design problems are formulated and solved iteratively at both levels. Hence, vehicle design variables and system specifications are determined in a consistent manner. Two different target sets and two different propulsion systems are considered. Trade-offs between conflicting targets are identified. It is demonstrated that target cascading can be useful in avoiding costly design iterations late in the product development process.
This paper discusses a new computer simulation tool, V-Elph, which extends the capabilities of previous modeling and simulation efforts by facilitating in-depth studies of any type of hybrid or all electric configuration or energy management strategy through visual programming and by creating components as hierarchical subsystems which can be used interchangeably as embedded systems. V-Elph is composed of detailed models of four major types of components: electric motors, internal combustion engines, batteries, and vehicle dynamics which can be integrated to simulate drive trains having all electric, series hybrid, and parallel hybrid configurations. V-Elph was written in the Matlab/Simulink graphical simulation language and is portable to most computer platforms. A simulation study of a sustainable, electrically-peaking hybrid-electric vehicle was performed to illustrate the applicability of V-Elph to hybrid and electric vehicle design.
This report describes a hybrid vehicle simulation model, which can be applied to many of the vehicles currently being considered for low pollution and high fuel economy. The code operates interactively, with all the vehicle information stored in data files. The code calculates fuel economy for three driving schedules, time for 0-96 km/h at maximum acceleration, hill climbing performance, power train dimensions, and pollution generation rates. This report also documents the application of the code to a hybrid vehicle that operates with a hydrogen internal combustion engine. The simulation model is used for parametric studies of the vehicle. The results show the fuel economy of the vehicle as a function of vehicle mass, aerodynamic drag, engine-generator efficiency, flywheel efficiency, and flywheel energy and power capacities.
A generalized heat transfer correlation for louver fin geometry is developed with the aid of a large data bank. This data bank consists of 91 samples of louvered fin heat exchangers with different geometrical parameters, including louver angle, tube width, louver length, louver pitch, fin length and fin pitch. For the corrugated louver fin geometry, it is shown that 89.3% of the corrugated louver fin data are correlated within ± 15% with mean deviation of 7.55%. The inclusion of the plate-and-tube louver fin data in the heat transfer correlation (equation (Al)) results in a mean deviation of 8.21%.
This paper describes the need for dynamic (transient) sim- ulation of automotive air conditioning systems, the reasons why such simulations are challenging, and the applicability of a general purpose off-the-shelf thermohydraulic analyzer to answer such challenges. An overview of modeling methods for the basic compo- nents are presented, along with relevant approximations and their effect on speed and accuracy of the results.
CarSim 2.5.4, written by AeroVironment, Inc. of Monrovia, California and SIMPLEV 3.0, written by Idaho National Engineering Laboratory were used to simulate two series-configured hybrid electric vehicles that competed in the 1994 Hybrid Electric Vehicle Challenge. Vehicle speed and battery energy use were measured over a 0.2-km maximum effort acceleration and a 58-km range event. The simulations` predictions are compared to each other and to measured data. A rough uncertainty analysis of the validation is presented. The programs agree with each other to within 5% and with the measured energy data within the uncertainty of the experiment.
This book contains the following chapters: Introduction; Local heat transfer from banks of smooth tubes; Mean heat transfer from banks of smooth tubes; Heat transfer of banks of rough tubes; Heat transfer of banks of finned tubes; and Effectiveness of heat exchangers.
An electric vehicle simulation code which can be used with any IBM compatible personal computer was written. This general purpose simulation program is useful for performing parametric studies of electric vehicle performance on user input driving cycles. The program is run interactively and guides the user through all of the necessary inputs. Driveline components and the traction battery are described and defined by ASCII files which may be customized by the user. Scaling of these components is also possible. Detailed simulation results are plotted on the PC monitor and may also be printed on a printer attached to the PC. This report serves as a users` manual and documents the mathematical relationships used in the simulation.
The air-conditioning (A/C) system compressor load can significantly impact the fuel economy and tailpipe emissions of conventional and hybrid electric automobiles. With the increasing emphasis on fuel economy, it is clear that the A/C compressor load needs to be reduced. In order to accomplish this goal, more efficient climate control delivery systems and reduced peak soak temperatures will be necessary to reduce the impact of vehicle A/C systems on fuel economy and tailpipe emissions. Good analytical techniques are important in identifying promising concepts. The goal at the U.S. Department of Energy's National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) is to assess thermal comfort, fuel economy, and emissions by using an integrated modeling approach composed of CAD, computational fluid dynamics (CFD), thermal comfort, and vehicle simulation tools. This paper presents NREL's vehicle integrated modeling process.
This paper provides an overview of Advanced Vehicle Simulator (ADVISOR)—the US Department of Energy’s (DOE’s) ADVISOR written in the MATLAB/Simulink environment and developed by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. ADVISOR provides the vehicle engineering community with an easy-to-use, flexible, yet robust and supported analysis package for advanced vehicle modeling. It is primarily used to quantify the fuel economy, the performance, and the emissions of vehicles that use alternative technologies including fuel cells, batteries, electric motors, and internal combustion engines in hybrid (i.e. multiple power sources) configurations. It excels at quantifying the relative change that can be expected due to the implementation of technology compared to a baseline scenario. ADVISOR’s capabilities and limitations are presented and the power source models that are included in ADVISOR are discussed. Finally, several applications of the tool are presented to highlight ADVISOR’s functionality. The content of this paper is based on a presentation made at the ‘Development of Advanced Battery Engineering Models’ workshop held in Crystal City, Virginia in August 2001.
A novel design of lead–acid battery has been developed for use in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). The battery has current take-offs at both ends of each of the positive and negative plates. This feature markedly reduces battery operating temperatures, improves battery capacity, and extends cycle-life under HEV duty. The battery also performs well under partial-state-of-charge (PSoC)/fast-charge, electric-vehicle operation. The improvements in performance are attributed to more uniform utilization of the plate active-materials. The battery, combined with an internal-combustion engine and a new type of supercapacitor, will be used to power an HEV, which is being designed and constructed by an Australian industry–government consortium.
This paper summarizes battery thermal modeling capabilities for: (1) an advanced vehicle simulator (ADVISOR); and (2) battery module and pack thermal design. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory’s (NREL’s) ADVISOR is developed in the Matlab/Simulink environment. There are several battery models in ADVISOR for various chemistry types. Each one of these models requires a thermal model to predict the temperature change that could affect battery performance parameters, such as resistance, capacity and state of charges. A lumped capacitance battery thermal model in the Matlab/Simulink environment was developed that included the ADVISOR battery performance models. For thermal evaluation and design of battery modules and packs, NREL has been using various computer aided engineering tools including commercial finite element analysis software. This paper will discuss the thermal ADVISOR battery model and its results, along with the results of finite element modeling that were presented at the workshop on “Development of Advanced Battery Engineering Models” in August 2001.
A thermal management methodology, based on the Vehicle Integrated
Thermal Management Analysis Code (VITMAC), has been developed for a
notional vehicle employing the all-electric combat vehicle (AECV)
concept. AECV uses a prime power source, such as a diesel, to provide
mechanical energy which is converted to electrical energy and stored in
a central energy storage system consisting of flywheels, batteries
and/or capacitors. The combination of prime power and stored energy
powers the vehicle drive system and also advanced weapons subsystems
such as an ETC or EM gun, electrically driven lasers, an EM armor system
and an active suspension. Every major system is electrically driven with
reclamation when possible from braking and gun recoil. Thermal
management of such a complicated energy transfer and utilization system
is a major design consideration due to the substantial heat rejection
requirements. In the present paper, an overall integrated thermal
management system (TMS) is described which accounts for energy losses
from each subsystem component, accepts the heat using multiple coolant
loops and expels the heat from the vehicle. VITMAC simulations are used
to design the TMS and to demonstrate that a conventional TMS approach is
capable of successfully handling vehicle heat rejection requirements
under stressing operational conditions
Hybrid Cars Now, Fuel Cell Cars Later
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Integrated Vehicle Thermal Management for Advanced Vehicle Propulsion Technologies
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SIMPLEV; A Simple Electric Vehicle Simulation Program, Version 2.0
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Feedback control of dynamic systems
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Thermal Performance of EV and HEV Battery Module and Packs
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