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Recommendations and Guidelines for Managing Caves on Protected Lands
... Cave protection has also been formalized through legislation Bat populations may be negatively impacted by surface disturbances near caves, such as logging, fuels treatments, wildfire, controlled burns, siltation/erosion events, or slash deposition (Poulson 1976;Jones et al. 2003;Elliott 2012). However, specific impacts to bats using caves have not been studied for many of these threats. ...
... Resources for these recommendations include Jones et al. (2003) and Veni (2006). ...
... Objective 3: Promote surface land management policies and guidelines that minimize degradation of subsurface air quality and microclimates. See BMP's in Elliot (2012) and guidelines in Jones et al. (2003). ...
... O Brasil possui um território com um enorme potencial espeleológico, considerando tanto as áreas cársticas quanto não cársticas. As paisagens cársticas geralmente são caracterizadas como áreas onde ocorre o intemperismo químico, por meio da dissolução da rocha matriz (FORD; WILLIAMS, 1989;JONES et al., 2003). As cavernas localizadas em áreas cársticas podem estar presentes em diferentes litologias, não limitando apenas às rochas carbonáticas. ...
... O carste brasileiro é caracterizado por regiões extensas, áreas amplas de calcário horizontal, os quais apresentam sistemas de drenagem com rios de baixo gradiente. Além disso, o carste pode ser dividido em três zonas: exocarste (ou zona externa), epicarste (ou zona de contato da rocha com o solo) e endocarste (ou zona subterrânea) (FORD; WILLIANS, 1989;JONES et al., 2003). Nessa divisão as cavernas são encontradas no endocarste e são consideradas habitats que compõe parte do ecossistema subterrâneo. ...
Current Brazilian environmental legislation, coupled with weak enforcement, makes the country's speleological heritage at a constant risk of being impacted or suppressed. Decree 6640/2008 deals the use of natural subterranean environments, determining the relevance of the caves to be protected or impacted / suppressed. Normative Instructions 02/2009 and 02/2017, which regulate this decree, are based on methodologies that do not cover the complexity of subterranean biological systems. Required environmental indicators were chosen without an in-depth study of the sensitivity of such parameters in a singular environment such as the subterranean. These Normative Instructions do not require studies of the microbial community and nutrient cycle. However, the subterranean microbiota plays a fundamental role in ecological dynamics, as well as having great potential to house new species and possibly producers of new drugs and biotechnological products. Studies that consider microbial biomass, taxonomic and functional diversity of this microbiota and networks of microbial interactions, can be good biological indicators on the environmental status of the caves. Including microbiological parameters in cave studies, would allow the conservation of ecological relations such as trophic networks, which support communities, nutrient cycling and ecological functioning of the underground environment.
... O carste é um tipo de paisagem, onde o intemperismo químico, através da dissolução da rocha encaixante, determina as formas de relevo. O nome provém de uma área no leste da Eslovênia, divisa com o norte da Itália, chamada "krs" e significa paisagem nua, pedregosa, sem água (JONES et al, 2003;WILLIAMS, 1989). Acabou originando os termos karst (idênticos no francês, inglês e alemão), carso (italiano; português de Portugal) e carste (português do Brasil). ...
... O carste pode ser definido em termos de três zonas: a zona externa ou exocarste, a zona de contato da rocha com o solo, ou epicarste, e a zona subterrânea, denominada endocarste (FORD; WILLIAMS, 1989;JONES et al., 2003). ...
Existem algumas formas de relevo em rochas não carbonáticas que se assemelham ao relevo normalmente encontrado no calcário. Tais formas são carste, a partir do momento em que a dissolução tem um papel fundamental (embora não necessariamente predominante) no desenvolvimento destas. Este estudo apresenta a evolução do conceito de carste, sugerindo que os processos de intemperismo químico que originam formas cársticas em ambientes próximos a superfície, nas rochas não carbonáticas, são mais frequentes que se pensava.
... The size of the zone may vary by bat species' biology and life history as well as the condition of the surrounding landscape. The shape of this zone may be irregular to accommodate fall swarming and spring staging areas, likely flight paths, local topography, alternate roosts, foraging habitat, surface water sources (e.g., streams, ponds, and wetlands) and hydrologically connected karst features/drainage basins (see Jones et al. 2003). For each conservation zone, develop a plan to manage suitable habitat, taking into consideration current conditions, desired future conditions, and future constraints and/or challenges. ...
... Dolines of the São Francisco depression are most of them covered by fine sediments; thus, they can be classified as "buried dolines" (Waltham et al. 2005). Even when the karst is buried under other rocks and/or sediments, the palaeokarst can provide the same effect as the karst landscape on the surface (Jones et al. 2003). ...
Localized recharge from dolines is very important, especially in arid and semi-arid regions, where it contributes to the groundwater recharge on karst aquifers. In areas with a shortage of water, these are the geomorphic structures where water runoffs occur and accumulate. The study area is located in sub-basins of the Rio Verde Grande, in Verdelândia and Varzelândia municipalities, and it displays features of the semi-arid climate (average annual regional rainfall of about 790 mm). The area is also characterized by the presence of dolines in the Neoproterozoic pelitic–carbonate rocks of the karst Bambuí Group. To understand the process of such a recharge and quantify it within the study area, automated identification in ArcGIS was applied in order to select two dolines. Also, the following methodological procedures were adopted: soil texture characterization; soil infiltration tests using Guelph and concentric double-ring infiltrometers; permeability tests; automated monitoring of rainfall and groundwater level; water balance estimated with the decendial water balance and water level variation methods. The results yielded local recharge values ranging from 57.7 to 122.2 mm/year (7.8–13.3% of the rainfall).
https://www.springerprofessional.de/en/groundwater-recharge-through-the-dolines-in-the-semi-arid-climat/17522488
... Sugere-se ainda que, notadamente na área de seu entorno, o mapeamento de feições geomorfológicas que hoje se manifestam intensificadas pela ação antrópica seja empregado como indicador de fragilidades inerentes ao sistema cárstico no qual se insere. Esse procedimento vem sendo empregado em regiões cársticas abertas à visitação turística, como em alguns casos discutidos por JONES et al. (2003). Nesse contexto, adquire importância fundamental envidar esforços no diagnóstico da capacidade de uso que vigora no sistema cárstico da área investigada sem que a sua capacidade de resiliência seja comprometida. ...
The Rei do Mato cave is inserted in karst topography, and has suffered environmental impacts because of activities that occur inside and outside the area. This study aimed to identify and describe the impacts that occur in the area and seek their causes. We performed searches in which it was found that the most common impacts involving vandalism of speleothems, waste accumulation, changes in permeability of soil, runoff and cover or impregnation of surfaces.
KEYWORDS: Karst Topography; Environmental Impacts; Rei do Mato Cave.
... Sambilikan (Nuñeza et al 2012) but higher than the recorded number of herpetofauna species in Fiji PABITRA (Morrison & Naikatini 2008). According to Jones et al (2003) species diversity within caves is affected by food or resource availability. Stevens & O'Connor (2006) also reported that habitat area, temperature, humidity, rainfall, latitude and altitude also affect species diversity. ...
The Philippines is a biodiversity-rich country with high percentage endemism of reptiles and amphibians. However, cave herpetofauna particularly in Mindanao, the country's second largest island, is poorly known. In this study, 19 caves in Mindanao were surveyed using the modified cruising method to document the herpetofaunal species present giving particular attention to endemic species. Nine species of herpetofauna (four amphibians and five reptiles) belonging to six families were recorded. The endemic Hylarana grandocula was the most abundant and widespread among the amphibian species while the endemic Cyrtodactylus annulatus was the most widely distributed reptile species. A 44 % endemicity was recorded. Kitaotao cave 5, which has suitable microhabitats, had the most species of herpetofauna. More reptilian species were found in a coastal cave. Assessment of more caves in Mindanao could increase the total number of herpetofaunal species. The presence of endemic species in caves indicates the need to protect these particular caves where the endemic species are found. Rezumat. Filipine reprezinta o ţară bogată din punct de vedere al biodiversitaţii, unde se manifestă un enedemism ridicat la reptile şi amfibieni. In orice caz, herpetofauna cavernicolă, în mod particular în Mindanao, a doua insula din ţară ca suprafaţă, este puţin cunoscută. În acest studiu, 19 peşteri din Mindanao au fost explorate folosind metoda deplasării modificate pentru a documenta speciile de herpetofauna prezente, cu o atenţie specială pentru speciile endemice. Noua specii de herpetofaună (patru amfibieni şi cinci reptile) aparţinând la şase famili, au fost identificate. Endemitul Hylarana grandocula a fost cel mai abundent şi răspândit dintre speciile de amfibieni în timp ce endemitul Cyrtodactylus annulatus a fost specia de reptile cea mai răspândită. A fost observată o endemicitate cu un procent de 44 %. Peştera Kitaotao, care are microhabitate adecvate, adăposteşte cele mai multe specii de herpetofaună. Cele mai multe specii au fost găsite într-o peşteră de pe coastă. Studierea mai multor peşteri din Mindanao poate creşte numărul total de specii de herpetofaună. Prezenţa speciilor endemice in peşteri indică necesitatea de a proteja peşterile în care au fost găsite aceste speci endemice.
... Education and increased public awareness are important to the conservation and protection of cave ecosystems. For detailed accounts of conservation, preservation, and management of karst resources, see Hobbs, 1992;Boyer and Pasquarell, 1999;Mahler et al., 1999;Hamilton-Smith and Eberhard, 2000;Elliott, 2000Elliott, , 2005Tercafs, 2001;and Jones et al., 2003. Distribution of Cave Life in the USA AVE FAUNA are not distributed randomly; they depend on the regional climatic, topographic, and geologic setting. ...
Resumo
O CNC (Cadastro Nacional de Cavernas) é um importante Banco de Dados (BD) cuja finalidade é compilar o maior número de informações disponíveis a respeito das cavernas em território nacional. Ao longo dos anos, o EGRIC tem alimentado tal BD, sobretudo com cavernas em arenitos na região da Serra do Itaqueri, área de maior atuação do grupo, onde há 16 cavidades registradas. Com o propósito de reestruturar o BD do próprio EGRIC, elaborou-se um projeto que resultou em trabalhos de campo para confirmação e atualização de dados. Entretanto, tal projeto também evidenciou algumas inconsistências e levantou questionamentos quanto aos parâmetros para o cadastro de cavidades, sobretudo da dimensão mínima de uma caverna: qual o valor mínimo para que uma cavidade seja cadastrada? Trata-se de uma discussão complexa, pois a própria definição de caverna é arbitrária e subjetiva conforme o contexto em que se usa. Cada grupo ou indivíduo utiliza a definição que se adequa melhor a uma finalidade específica, o que ainda torna necessário quantificar uma dimensão mínima para o cadastro de uma cavidade. Como resultado dessa reflexão, estabeleceu-se um critério dimensional, com amparo estatístico, de cavidades já conhecidas na região. As demais cavidades serão cadastradas internamente e, caso se identifique alguma relevância científica, também serão cadastradas no CNC, mesmo que seu desenvolvimento seja inferior ao estabelecido.
Palavras-Chave: Banco de dados, CNC, Serra do Itaqueri, Cadastro, Definição de caverna.
Abstract
The CNC (Brazilian National Cave Register) is a crucial database (DB) to compile the most extensive information available of caves in Brazilian territory. EGRIC has supplied it over the years, especially with sandstone caves from Serra do Itaqueri region, the largest area of operation by the group where there are 16 registered cavities. To restructure the EGRIC's database, the group elaborated on a project whose update will impact the CNC data previously provided by EGRIC. At a late stage, the project resulted in fieldwork for data accuracy and gaped some inconsistencies in registered data that raised a few questions towards cavities dimensions for registration: How small can a cave be so it should be registered? There is no single answer to this question since the definition of a cave is arbitrary and subjective according to each context that is used. Each person or group utilizes a definition fitting for a specific purpose (still, a minimum dimension is required). As a result, statistical criteria based on already registered sandstone caves at the Serra do Itaqueri area will be used for CNC registration. The remaining identified cavities will be registered internally in EGRIC's BD, and once observed a scientific relevance, the cavity will be registered at the CNC DB, despite a minor development.
Keywords: Database. CNC. Serra do Itaqueri. Registration. Definition of caves.
Localized recharge from dolines is very important, especially in arid and semi-arid regions, where it contributes to the groundwater recharge on karst aquifers. In areas with a shortage of water, these are the geomorphic structures where water runoffs occur and accumulate. The study area is located in sub-basins of the Rio Verde Grande, in Verdelândia and Varzelândia municipalities, and it displays features of the semi-arid climate (average annual regional rainfall of about 790 mm). The area is also characterized by the presence of dolines in the Neoproterozoic pelitic–carbonate rocks of the karst Bambuí Group. To understand the process of such a recharge and quantify it within the study area, automated identification in ArcGIS was applied in order to select two dolines. Also, the following methodological procedures were adopted: soil texture characterization; soil infiltration tests using Guelph and concentric double-ring infiltrometers; permeability tests; automated monitoring of rainfall and groundwater level; water balance estimated with the decendial water balance and water level variation methods. The results yielded local recharge values ranging from 57.7 to 122.2 mm/year (7.8–13.3% of the rainfall).
Gastrotricha is a cosmopolitan phylum of aquatic and semi-aquatic invertebrates that comprises about 820 described species. Current knowledge regarding freshwater gastrotrichs inhabiting caves is extremely poor and there are no extant data regarding Gastrotricha from Montenegro. We describe a new species from Obodska Cave, which is also the first record of a gastrotrich from this region. Due to its unusual habitat and morphological characteristics, this species may be important when considering the evolution and dispersion routes of Chaetonotidae Gosse, 1864 (sensu Leasi & Todaro 2008). We provide morphometric, molecular and phylogenetic data for the new species, together with photomicrographs and drawings.
Coastal karst is a dominant landform within the Caribbean that has played a significant role in shaping human migration and settlement patterns, modern economic development in the region and its evolving biodiversity. Recent exploration of coastal karst, associated models of littoral cave development and comparative coastal resource management strategies are examined in three distinct island settings in the Caribbean: The Republic of Haiti, Grenada and Isla de Mona (Puerto Rico). These regional island examples display distinct and complex coastal karst morphologies ranging from intensely karstic carbonate platforms to complex non-carbonate island cores overlain by extensive and thickly-bedded coastal and interior carbonate cover or predominantly volcanic landscapes with limited fringing carbonates. Previously unreported field research in these selected island settings support an emerging view of the complex karst development in the region and indicate that significant karst areas remain to be explored while illustrating the associated landform vulnerabilities, anthropogenic effects and range of coastal resource management and preservation initiatives applied to date.
Human impacts to coastal karst landscapes encompass a broad range of examples, including small and large scale construction, resource mining, and recreational and agricultural uses. The geographic definitions of coastal zones vary widely from one area to another. Coastal resource management, preservation and restoration efforts and their respective operational plans, are equally and understandably as diverse and in some instances overlapping or conflicting in their intended scope, legal frameworks and practical application. The very structure of coastal karst and associated carbonate aquifers introduces unique problems in terms of geologic stability, extraction of hydrocarbon reserves, environmental preservation, and water resource quantity and quality. These problems incorporate additional complexity to the definition of physical boundaries, resource documentation, and the design and implementation of management plans. Many of the case studies presented in Part II illustrate some of the regional karst resource management approaches applied to specific littoral settings. This chapter examines several examples of coastal karst resource utilization and outlines potential models for predicting geologic stabilities, identifying sustainable land uses and approaching preservation challenges associated with such landforms.
Despite the large variability of landforms in Montenegro, no attempts have yet been made to regionalize its geomorphology. However, Digital Elevation Models are globally availability and in recent decades, we have seen a strong increase in computation possibilities to qualify and quantify relief. Here, we used the Geomorphon method to define and delineate the geomorphological characteristics of Montenegro, using the ASTER Digital Elevation Model with 30 m resolution. Together with a literature review and field observations, this has led to the preparation of the regional geomorphological map of Montenegro at scale 1:800,000. In total, 6 geomorphological regions were recognized: Coastal Montenegro, Inland Depression, Durmitor Flysch, Northwestern Highlands, Prokletije and the Northern Cristalline Hills. Karst landforms largely dominate the geomorphology of the country, with the occurrence of numerous dolines, uvala’s, large poljes (Gradaj, Grahovo and Njeguši) and karst plateaus (Banjani, Jezerska Površ). Limestone areas are often issected by impressive canyons (Morača, Cijevna, Mala Rijeka, Tara, Sušica and Piva), of which the formation is thought to be parallel with that of the ria coast. The latter corresponds to large submerged river valleys that were scoured during the Messian Salinity Crisis. Besides karst features, a glacial imprint can be found in Montenegro, which is amongst the southernmost in Europe. To conclude, the Geomorphon method allowed making a rapid assessment of the country’s main geomorphological characteristics, that could be further defined with existing research and field observations. Furthermore, the method also shows good otential in supporting detailed field-investigations as demonstrated here for the Njeguši polje.
Ensuring the appropriate quantity and quality of energy flow from the surface to the subterranean environment is a universal challenge of managing subterranean fauna in karst. This chapter covers four major issues central to an understanding of the energy connections between the surface and the subsurface ecosystems. The first issue is that there needs to be a greater focus on species that are not restricted to subterranean habitats because some of these species act as major vectors of energy into subsurface ecosystems. The second issue is that a greater understanding of the paths of allochthonous energy into the subterranean ecosystem is necessary to ensure the long-term health of the subterranean fauna. Percolating water delivered from the epikarst appears to be more important than organic matter transported by sinking streams in supporting the biofilm that serves as the base of the aquatic food web. Energy transported by active movement of organisms from the surface is essential in supporting the terrestrial food web and possibly some aquatic species as well. The importance of many potential sources of energy, such as the organic matter left on the riparian zones of subterranean streams, has not been studied. The third issue is that management practices need to focus on factors that threaten the energy flow from the surface to the subsurface because, unlike many other threats to subterranean ecosystems, disruptions of such paths of energy are usually not overt and easily recognizable. The fourth issue is that the metabolic adaptation of many subterranean species to the underground environment may increase their resilience to disruptions of energy flow from the surface. Thus, management practices that recognize threats to such energy paths may allow for a higher probability of successful interventions leading to restoration of the health of subterranean ecosystems.
Ecohydrology can be defined as the science of integrating hydrological and biological processes over varied spatial and temporal scales. There exists in karst a strong and direct interaction between the circulation and storage of groundwater and surface water. These fluxes in turn affect the spatial distribution of organisms in these habitats. Because of the fact that the appearance, storage and circulation of water in karstified areas is significantly different from other more homogenous and isotropic terrains , karst ecohydrology should develop original methods and approaches. At the same time, traditional approaches are also very useful. Large karst underground geomor-phological patterns occur in many sizes and varieties, ranging from a few meters long or deep to very large, the deepest being deeper than 1 km and longer than hundreds of kilometres. In this article, special attention is paid to ecohydrological functions of karst underground features (caves, pits, conduits, etc.), which play a crucial dual role in (1) hydrology and hydrogeology of water circulation and storage and (2) ecology of many rare and endangered species. Differences in morphology, hydrology, hydroge-ology and climate have resulted in a range of different environments, which provide the opportunity for the coexistence of different species. The role of the epikarst and vadose zones, as well as caves in ecohydrological processes, is discussed. The importance of the flood factor in karst ecology is analysed. The aim of this article is to move forward the discussion among different disciplines to promote and develop a conceptual framework for karst ecohydrology.
Introdução O ambiente tem preocupado, sobretudo nos últimos anos, a humanidade, tendo em vista que as alterações introduzidas artificialmente pela ação antrópica têm resultado em problemas sérios para a existência do próprio ser. A geografia, enquanto uma ciência autônoma pode contribuir na proposta de soluções aos problemas referentes ao homem e o ambiente, soluções estas alcançadas através de métodos específicos e diversos. Sotchava (1978, p. 2), em seu trabalho "Por uma teoria de classificação de geossistemas de vida terrestre", já ressaltava que "Sistematizar o parcelamento do meio natural é um requisito indispensável à solução de muitos problemas geográficos". Neste contexto, o estudo de uma área qualquer sobre a superfície terrestre, elaborado de forma sistêmica, facilita a compreensão do meio, auxiliando na proposta de soluções aos problemas identificados. A dificuldade consiste em possibilitar o uso deste recurso mantendo-o tão próximo quanto possível do estado natural, conduzindo-se a necessidade de se estudar e compreender o mesmo, objetivando, com isso, elaborar um plano que permita estas atividades e a manutenção de um estado de equilíbrio que se assemelhe ao previamente existente. Na legislação ambiental brasileira, o capítulo VI da Constituição Federal de 1988 trata especificamente do meio ambiente, originando várias leis regulamentares, entre elas, a lei 9.985, de 18 de julho de 2000, que instituiu o Sistema Nacional de Unidades de Conservação da Natureza – SNUC, estabelecendo critérios e normas para a criação, implantação e gestão das unidades de conservação, conforme expressado em seu artigo primeiro.
Carbonate karst is characterized by subterranean drainage and contains the most biodiverse groundwater faunas globally. These faunas, which include a suite of higher taxa largely restricted to karst subterranean waters, comprise species that characteristically are narrow range endemics. They typically possess a suite of adaptations to subterranean life that render them especially vulnerable to anthropogenic disturbance. Most such faunas depend on imported energy, largely in the form of dissolved organic carbon, or on chemoautotrophic energy in particular circumstances. Karst is especially vulnerable to surface inputs at both local and broad scales owing to the absence of, or thin soil cover, and by the presence of open conduits that can transport materials such as sediments, pollutants, or nutrients to the deep subterranean waters without amelioration. Management actions – such as sustaining water supply, control of pollution and nutrification, regulating resource extraction, catchment surface management to sustain recharge and prevent siltation, and control of human access – may need to be applied at very different scales, ranging from a small cave, or extending to an entire catchment which may comprise extensive areas outside the karst itself.
A series of sampling sites in 6 caves was established in order to assess the importance of the epikarst as a habitat of high
diversity of meiofauna. Special attention was given to the stygobiotic species of copepods (Crustacea), which was the most
abundant group of animals in water percolating from the epikarst. In total, 37 species of Copepoda were identified from nearly
4000 individuals. To understand epikarst as a habitat, 14 structural and physico-chemical factors were analysed and compared
for two types of habitats, i.e., trickles and pools filled with percolation water. Results of canonical correspondence analysis
indicated that the significant factors influencing faunal composition in trickles were the thickness of the cave ceiling and
the concentrations of sodium, nitrate, and potassium ions, while in pools correlations between individual species and pH,
temperature, volume, conductivity and thickness of the cave ceiling were statistically significant. Aquatic copepod assemblages
in epikarst encompass species of different taxonomic affinities, living in severe environmental conditions. The pattern of
the system reflects both high taxonomic diversity and environmental severity.
Prispevek obravnava delo Oddelka za varstvo jam pri Upravi za slovaške jame na področju speleoklimatskega monitoringa slovaških turističnih jam od 1996 dalje. Monitoring je usmerjen na podrobno merjenje osnovnih parametrov klimatskih procesov (temperatura, relativna vlažnost zraka, kondenzacija, gibanje zraka, zračni pritisk itd.) v turističnih jamah v obdobju najmanj enega leta. Bistvo pridobljenega znanja pomaga pri varovanju jam in v praksi turističnim jamam omogoča boljše razumevanje geoekosistema, določa vpliv obiskovalcev, čas trajanja regeneracije jame in oceni možne negativne posledice. Rezultate monitoringa uporabljamo za določanje kapacitete konkretne jame, omejitve števila obiskovalcev, organizacijo vodenja in druge potrebne ukrepe. Meritve v predstavljenih jamah smo opravljali glede na prioriteto: področja svetovne dediščine, ledene jame, naravna zveza zračnih mas s površinsko klimo, možne nevarnosti - vse v zvezi z uporabo in delovanjem jame. Tehnična oprema kot tudi raziskovalna metodologija sta v prispevku podrobno predstavljeni.
The paper deals with the activities of the Cave Protection Department of the Slovak Caves Administration in the field of speleoclimatic monitoring in the Slovakian show caves since 1996. The monitoring is concentrated on detail survey of basic climatic parameters processes (temperature, relative air humidity, dew point, air velocity, atmospheric pressure etc.) in by now studied show caves during minimally one year. The essence of obtained knowledge is to enhance cave protection in the practice of show caves, better understand the geoecosystems; determine visitors’ influence, the period of regeneration and evaluation of possible negative influences. The results of the monitoring are used for determining the carrying capacity of individual caves, limits for visitors, guiding the manageiant and other necessary measures. Presented caves were surveyed by priorities like: World Heritage site, ice caves, natural air mass communication with surface climate, potential threats - all in relation to cave utilization and operation. Technical eqqipment, as well as research methodology are described in detail in the paper.
1884 je pričel J. Marinitsch meriti in zapisovati temperature v Škocjanskih jamah in njihovi okolici. Meritve za čas 1886-1914 so bile zabeležene v “Höhlenbuch”. Leta 1928 so potekale podrobne mikroklimatske meritve sočasno v podzemlju in na površju. V letih 1960-1962 so člani ljubljanske univerze opravljali meteorološka opazovanja v jami in v udornici Velika dolina. 1992 so v okviru Inštituta pričeli z rednimi beleženji temperatur. Kasneje so v različne dele postavili 5 avtomatskih termometrov. Analizirani so rezultati dvoletnih opazovanj (maj 1997 - maj 1999) ter predstavljeni v tem prispevku. Čeprav so si letni povprečki precej podobni (10,6 ° in 10,1 °C), kažejo mesečni povprečki velika nihanja (od 1,6 ° do 17,3 °C), medtem ko so bile absolutne temperature v razponu od -1,5 ° do 21,9 °C. Najpomembnejša dejavnika za razporeditev temperature sta razdalja od vhoda in vertikalna lega. Primerjava temperature vode Reke in temperature zraka pri Mačji brvi kaže visoko stopnjo korelacije (R2 = 0,8994). Predhodna opazovanja v tem kratkem času kažejo, da je del Škocjanskih jam, kjer teče Reka, izrazito dinamična jama in da obiskovalci ne morejo preveč vplivati na tamkajšnja meteorološka dogajanja.
In 1884 J. Marinitsch started to measure and note down the data of temperature in the Škocjanske jame caves and nearby. The results for the period 1886-1914 are recorded in the “Höhlenbuch”. During the year 1928 detailed microclimatic measurements are performed simultaneously on the surface and underground. In the years 1960-1962 the members of the Ljubljana University have carried on the meteorological observations in the cave and specially in the collapse doline Velika dolina. In 1992 Karst Research Institute started to monitor the temperatures. Later on 5 temperature recorders were placed into different parts of the cave. The results of the two years (May 1997 - May 1999) were analysed and are presented in this paper. Although the annual mean values are rather similar (10.6° and 10.1°C), there is a great amplitude between the monthly mean values (1.6° to 17.3°). The absolute temperatures range between -1.5° and 21.9°C. The most important factors are distance from the entrance, and the vertical position. The comparison between temperatures of the Reka river and the air temperatures bears an important correlation. Previous results of this short period already show that the part of Škocjanske jame, where the Reka river is flowing, is an extremely dynamic cave and the visitors cannot have much impact on it’s meteorology.
Instrumenti, ki zvezno merijo nivo, temperaturo in prevodnost vode so bili postavljeni na 10 točkah. Opazovalna mesta so postavljena na dnu, kjer jama doseže vode Reke (Timave), ki zbira podzemne vode klasičnega Krasa. Predhodne analize velikega števila podatkov, ki smo jih zbrali do sedaj, pomagajo bolje določiti način pretakanja vode v globinah. Ugotovili smo tri različne vodne valove, vpliv črpanja na nekaterih delih in mešanje različnih voda na drugih.
Some instruments that continuously measure height, temperature and conductivity of waters have been placed in 10 stations. The stations are located on the bottom of the cavities that reach the waters of the Timavo, the underground river that collects the hypogean waters of the Classical Karst. The preliminary analysis of the remarkable amount of data that has been collected up to now helps define the modalities of water circulation in depth better. There are three different types of flood wave, pumping effects in some tracts and mixing of different waters in other tracts.
Najpomembnejša odgovornost pri upravljanju s svetovno dediščino je dvojna. Po eni strani bi morali ohraniti integriteto in kakovost naravnega okolja, po drugi pa omogočiti dostop čim širši javnosti. Čeprav je v tej trditvi morda nekaj dvoumnosti pa ni dvoma, da se osnovna elementa tega vprašanja dopolnjujeta in da enega ni mogoče v celoti rešiti, ne da bi upoštevali tudi drugega. To vodi do ključnega vprašanja, ali je upravljalec sposoben odgovorno izvajati svoja pooblastila. Prispevek podaja pregled in ocene različnih splošnih pristopov k upravljanju, ki so bili oziroma bi lahko bili uporabljeni. To vključuje različne sheme nadzora nad vplivom obiskovalcev, v glavnem iz ZDA; gre za trojni (okoljski/družbeni/ekonomski) trajnostni pristop in tveganja pri upravljalski strategiji. Sklep prispevka je, da mora upravljalec vsakega kraškega področja razviti sprotno se dopolnjujoč načrt upravljanja, ki mora vključevati tako dolgoročne in načelne rešitve, obenem pa se mora ukvarjati tudi s posebnimi izzivi, ki so tipični le v lokalnem okviru. Vsak pristop, o katerem je govora v tem prispevku, lahko pomaga pri pripravi kateregakoli načrta upravljanja.
The key management responsibility in World Heritage Areas is a two-fold one of preserving environmental integrity and quality while at the same time providing for broad-scale public access. Although there is some mbiguity in this mandate, there is no question that these two elements of management are complementary, and that one cannot fully assess one without consideration of the other. This leads to the key question of how management is able to meet the responsibility of this mandate. This paper reviews and assesses various conceptual approaches that have been or might be utilised. These include various visitor impact control schemes generally of U.S. origin; the three faceted (environmental /social /economic) sustainability approach and risk management strategies. This paper concludes that each karst area management agency must develop an ongoing assessment plan that both deals with broad-scale issues while also meeting the distinctive challenges which are endemic to their own situation. Any of the approaches discussed may make a contribution to any one such plan.
The main concerns in this report are biodiversity and cultural property associated with limestone in East Asia. These areas of interest are rarely paired, but do have common features: both are largely untraded goods, although some elements are highly valued by some but not by others. The World Bank finds that their loss or damage in the course of economic development is a significant issue, and that limestone areas are very important sites for both biodiversity and cultural property. Other limestone- related issues are dealt with relatively briefly insofar as they are relevant to the purpose of the report. In this way, the report is a first step to redress the balance in favor of concern for limestone biodiversity and cultural property, which are under-represented in the literature on limestone. Although such topics karst formation, karst features, hydrology, and geological features are discussed only very briefly, no lack of their importance is implied. This report deals primarily with limestone areas in East Asia, which in World Bank parlance comprises its client countries of Mongolia, China, the Republic of Korea, Thailand, the Lao People's Democratic Republic (Lao PDR), Vietnam, Cambodia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea. Many of the conclusions and recommendations are nonetheless applicable to tropical and subtropical karst areas worldwide. Fifteen environmental assessments of World Bank and International Finance Corporation (IFC) projects from the last 10 years involving major infrastructure and cement factory investments were reviewed. None of the assessments mentions the unique aspects of limestone biodiversity, adequately addresses biodiversity issues, or proposes measures to mitigate and monitor the impact on local biodiversity. However, one report mentions the aesthetic and wilderness values of the limestone areas that would be affected by the project. There was no indication that cultural remains or values related to limestone were assessed.
Leta 1999 sva opisala 20 jam in kraških vodnjakov, v katerih živi po 20 ali več na podzemlje vezanih vrst živali. Pet izmed teh jam je ali pa je bilo urejenih za turistično izrabo: Postojnsko-planinski jamski sistem (Slovenija), Sistem Baget - Sainte Catherine (Francija), Shelta Cave (Alabama, ZDA), Mammoth Cave (Kentucky, ZDA) in Vjetrenica (Bosna in Hercegovina). Prav dejstvo, da imajo lahko močno preurejene jame z visokim številom obiskovalcev tudi pestro favno, kaže, da se oboje ne izključuje. Številne standardne tehnike za vzorčevanje, so uporabne le v maloštevilnih jamah. Te metode so le omejeno uporabne. Onesnaženje je lahko za jamske živali neposredno pogubno ali pa omogoča površinskim živalim, da tudi v podzemlju izpodrivajo. Zato moramo zasledovati tako gostoto favne, kot tudi spremembe v njeni taksonomski sestavi. Ob načrtovanju novih posegov je treba pred kakršnim koli urejanjem raziskati krajevno favno, tako površinsko kot podzemeljsko. Za biološko zasledovanje stanja priporočava naslednje: 1. vzorčenje skozi daljše obdobje; 2. nastavljanje vab v kopenskih in v vodnih habitatih; 3. nastavljanje lončastih pasti v kopenskih habitatih.
In 1999, we described the twenty caves and karst wells that have 20 or more species of obligate cave organisms living in them. Among these caves five are developed as tourist caves — Postojna-Planina Cave System (Slovenia), Baget - Sainte Catherine System (France), Shelta Cave (Alabama, USA), Mammoth Cave (Kentucky, USA), and Vjetrenica Cave (Bosnia & Herzegovina). For these and other tourist caves, there is a special responsibility to protect this fauna. The very fact that caves with large numbers of visitors and with modifications to the cave can have high species diversity shows that the two are not incompatible. Many of the standard sampling techniques, may work in some caves only; they are of restricted use. Pollution may be either directly detrimental to the cave fauna or may enable surface species to outcompete the endemic cave fauna. Therefore, changes in the quantity of fauna have to be monitored as well as changes in its taxonomic composition. In the case of new tourist installations, the local cave and surface fauna has to be investigated prior to any modifications. For biological monitoring, we recommend one of the following: 1. minimum-time census, rather than minimum-area census; 2. baiting in both terrestrial and aquatic habitats; 3. pitfall traps (baited or unbaited) in terrestrial habitats.
Opisan je razvoj jamskega monitoringa od 19. stoletja dalje. Prednost razvojnih teorij je omogočila doseči primerljive rezultate in napovedati razvoj jamske klime, še preden je prišlo do nepopravljivih procesov. Našteti so najpomembnejše parametri monitoringa. V zadnjih letih smo doživeli močan tehnološki razvoj in ocenjena je bila relativna pomembnost vsakega parametra. Novembra 1999 so odprli za obisk Kartchner Caverns, AZ, ZDA. Opravljenih je bilo nekaj predhodnih raziskav. Arizona Conservation Project, Inc. (ACPI) je predvidel 22 merilnih postaj. Dobili so oceno vpliva. Drugi primer je iz Cango Caves. Septembra 2000 so postavili preprosto mrežo za monitoring, ki naj bi delovala eno leto. Sestavljena je iz 15 preprostih “data loggerjev”, razporejenih po jami. Merijo temperaturo zraka in vode, koncentracijo CO2 in relativno vlažnost in vrednosti občasno prenesejo v računalnik izven jame. Prispevek podaja prve rezultate. Popolnoma avtomatičen monitoring bo postavljen v prihodnosti, ko bodo pregledani rezultati te prve preproste opazovalne mreže. Vzpostavili bodo popolnoma avtomatizirano mrežo, ko bodo razpolagali z rezultati prve preproste opazovalne mreže.
The evolution of cave monitoring since 19th century is described. The advantage of the development of theories was the possibility to obtain comparable results and forecast the evolution of a cave climate before irreversible modifications take place. The most important parameters to be monitored are indicated. In recent years both important technological improvements have been obtained and the relative importance of each parameter has been reviewed. Kartchner Caverns, Arizona, USA, was opened to the public in November 1999. Some preliminary studies have been performed. Arizona Conservation Project, Inc. (ACPI) established 22 monitoring stations. An evaluation of the impact assessment was obtained. The second case concerns Cango Cave. A simple monitoring network has been installed in September 2000 to be operated for one year. It consists in about 15 rugged data loggers distributed along the cave. Air and water temperature, carbon dioxide concentration, and relative humidity are measured and the values are transferred periodically by a shuttle into a computer outside the cave. A totally automatic monitoring network will be installed in the future after the results of the first simple network are achieved.
Populations of cave invertebrates are generally considered to be food-limited. The cave entrance is a major source of food input into the community in the form of decaying organic matter. Thus, the densities of scavenging terrestrial cave invertebrates should be related to the distance from the cave entrance because this represents a measure of food abundance. A test showed this expectation to be true in Crossings Cave, Alabama. A population density peak occurred 10 m inside the cave where the dark zone and detritus infall regions meet. The greatest population peak occurred at 100 m where densities of crickets and their guano are highest. The pattern should hold for most caves, but the actual distances will vary in each site depending on its circumstances. When the fauna was removed from the cave, the remnant had not regained community equilibrium a year later. Removal of the dominant scavenger, a milliped, allowed other species populations to expand because of decreased competitions.
Solution processes in unconfined carbonate aquifers result in a network of channels. To characterize the enhancement of porosity and permeability by dissolution, we examine four contrasting carbonate aquifers: Paleozoic dolostone, Paleozoic limestone, Mesozoic chalk, and Cenozoic limestone. In all four cases, the channels add little to the porosity, but they enhance the permeability of fractured rock by one to three orders of magnitude. Similar porosity and permeability changes are predicted for all unconfined carbonate aquifers, in both dolostone and limestone, in both allogenic and autogenic settings, and in carbonate rocks of all ages.
Density of troglobitic crustaceans and levels of potential food sources were compared in reference pools and pools polluted by septic system effluent in Banners Corner Cave, Virginia. Data from four physicochemical variables indicated slight to high pollution in five pools compared with two unpolluted pools. Polluted pools had high levels of conductivity, nutrients and fecal coliforms. Highly polluted pools also had decreased dissolved oxygen levels. Isopods (Caecidotea recurvata) were absent from highly polluted pools. Highest isopod density (up to 74.6/m2) occurred in slightly and moderately polluted pools. Amphipods (Stygobromus mackini) were absent from all polluted pools. Fungal biomass was negligible in all pools. Bacterial biomass accounted for a greater proportion of sediment total organic matter (TOM) in polluted pools, but there was little overall increase in TOM in polluted pools. Results of a laboratory growth experiment suggest that isopods can use bacteria from septic effluent as a food. However, presence of coarse particulate matter, not organic enrichment by septic system effluent, was the most likely cause of high isopod density in some pools. Septic system effluent may provide additional food to the aquatic community in Banners Corner Cave, but generally was damaging to the system.
The obligate cave faunas of nine regions of the United States –Florida Lime Sinks, Appalachians, Interior Low Plateaus, Ozarks, Driftless Area,Edwards Aquifer/Balcones Escarpment, Guadalupe Mountains, Black Hills, andMother Lode – are described and compared. The number of aquatic(stygobitic) species ranged from zero (Black Hills) to 82 (Appalachians), andthe number of terrestrial (troglobitic) species ranged from zero (Florida LimeSinks) to 256 (Interior Low Plateau). Even at the level of genus, overlapbetween regions is low. Several predictor variables (karst area, number ofcaves, number of long caves, number of deep caves, distance from the Pleistoceneice margin, distance from the late Cretaceous Sea, and vegetation type – asurrogate for productivity) were assessed using rank order statistics,especially rank order multiple regression with a backward elimination procedure.For both stygobites and troglobites, only number of caves was a significantpredictor. The absence of a karst area effect suggested that the degree of karstdevelopment is better described by the number of caves rather than area ofkarst. There was no evidence that distance to Pleistocene glacial boundaries wasimportant, but there was some support for the importance of distance from late Cretaceous sea margins, a potential source of aquatic subterranean colonists. Finally,there was no indication that surface productivity had an effect on speciesrichness. Analysis was complicated by correlations among predictor variables.
Ground-water flow in karst aquifers is very different from flow in granular or fractured aquifers. Chemical contamination may be fed directly to a karst aquifer via overland flow to a sinkhole with little or no attenuation and may contaminate downgradient wells, springs, and sinkholes within a few hours or a few days. Contaminants may also become temporarily stored in the epikarstic zone for eventual release to the aquifer. Flood pulses may flush the contaminants to cause transiently higher levels of contamination in the aquifer and discharge points. The convergent nature of flow in karst aquifers may result in contaminants becoming concentrated in conduits. Once contaminants have reached the subsurface conduits, they are likely to be rapidly transported to spring outlets. Traditional aquifer remediation techniques for contaminated aquifers are less applicable to karst aquifers.
We documented 18 caves and two karst wells that have 20 or more stygobites and troglobites. Crustacea dominated the aquatic fauna. Taxonomic composition of the terrestrial fauna varied, but Arachnida and Insecta together usually dominated. Geographically, the sites were concentrated in the Dinaric Karst (6 caves). Sites tended to have high primary productivity or rich organic input from the surface, be large caves, or have permanent groundwater (phreatic water). Over the past few years, there has been a growing aware-ness and concern with biodiversity worldwide. Books and monographs with a focus on biodiversity have appeared (e.g., Wilson 1992; Master et al. 1998) and a rapidly increasing amount of information is available about patterns of biodiver-sity for many groups of organisms. The same can be said for the fauna of caves and other subterranean habitats. Tabulations and often lists of cave and subsurface-limited species are avail-able for many countries in Stygofauna Mundi (Botosaneanu 1986) and in the multi-volume Encyclopaedia Biospeologica published by the Societe de Biospeologie in Moulis, France. Extensive lists of the caves and wells in which a particular sub-terranean species is found have been published. Prominent examples include Virginia (Holsinger & Culver 1988), the Iberian Peninsula (Belles 1987), and Slovenia (Bole et al. 1993). While not as well studied as temperate areas, similar information exists for many tropical regions (Peck & Finston 1993; Deharveng & Bedos 2000). Understanding patterns of subterranean biodiversity requires an understanding of regional patterns. In general, the number of species found in any one cave or subsurface site is small relative to the number of species in the region. Cave habitats (as opposed to small cavity, interstitial habitats such as the underflow of rivers) are especially fragmented, with differ-ent species occurring in caves only a few kilometers apart. For example, of the more than 500 caves biologically investigated in West Virginia, the maximum number of obligate species in any cave is 14, but the state, with a karst area of 2500 km², has 76 obligate species. It is the documentation of these regional patterns and their explanation that is one of the major tasks of speleobiologists over the next several decades (Peck & Finston 1993; Sket 1999a). Nevertheless, it is important not to neglect diversity pat-terns at individual sites. Even though most subterranean bio-diversity results from the accumulation of different species from nearby sites, there are some outstanding examples of high biodiversity from individual caves and wells that are worth documenting. Protection and concern for the subterranean fauna of a region often begin with protection and concern for a particular cave. It is, after all, individual caves and wells that provide the building blocks for regional biodiversity. The purpose of this short communication is to enumerate those caves and wells that are particularly rich in subterranean species and to offer some preliminary explanations for these biodiversity hotspots, both in terms of their geographic distri-bution and in terms of the types of sites. We use the terms troglobite for terrestrial, cave-limited species and stygobite for aquatic, cave-limited species. Stygobites also include intersti-tial species but they are not considered here.
An approach that couples flow rate measurement with mass balance calculations has been used to evaluate the geochemical evolution and kinetic behavior of Laurel Creek, West Virginia as it flows from a siliceous, noncarbonate caprock onto the Greenbrier Group Limestones, into and through the Laurel Creek-Cross Road Cave System, and out of the spring at the lower end of the system. At a discharge of 1.0 m3 s−1, the stream was calculated to be removing calcite from the aquifer by dissolution at a rate of 4.1 mg 1−1 hr−1, for a total removal of 46 kg CaCO3/hr. Laurel Creek remained undersaturated with respect to calcite throughout the entire reach studied. Comparison of calculated saturation states with laboratory based kinetic mechanism information provided by the work of Plummer et al. (1978) suggests that the elementary reaction that describes attack by carbonic acid dominates calcite dissolution within the main conduit portion of the flow system.
The specialised aquatic hypogean, i.e. stygobiotic, fauna has been recognised in some regions moderately rich. Slovenia, the broader Dinaric region, and Europe are particularly rich with about 7–8% of all Metazoa and about 40% of Crustacea species being stygobionts. The hypogean biotic diversity is in general predominantly a crustacean diversity. The high number of stygobiont Crustacea–Malacostraca species can be explained by the near absence of Insecta as well as by their high endemicity and sometimes additional specialisation, i.e. the spatial and ecological partition of the environment by the species. Although one cave system may exceptionally shelter up to 40 stygobiont species, they are distributed there into separate associations. Among more than 2000 described stygobiontic Malacostraca species, which include close to 950 Amphipoda, the species numbers within some genera are very high (e.g. Niphargus with 275 spp.). With 10 orders represented the higher taxonomic diversity of stygobiont Malacostraca matches that of fresh waters or the sea. Comparison of some faunas shows that the limiting factors for biodiversity might be the lower ecological diversity of habitats and restricted food resources underground, both brought about to a high degree by the darkness and absence of plants. Being K-strategists, stygobionts are endangered by any sudden changes in their environment. In the case of an increased food input by modest organic pollution, they can be outcompeted by energetically demanding but competitively stronger recent immigrants from surface.
Peer Reviewed http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/62166/1/Curl_Karst1966.pdf
Pollution within a subterranean ecosystem caused gross staining of stream passages within a cave, although no visible impact was observed outside of the system. The source of the pollutant was identified in the surface catchment using water tracing experiments, and the direction and destination of water and pollutants within subterranean passages determined. Impacted sites and control sites were identified within the cave and compared to pre-disturbance data for the impacted cave and an adjacent system. The abundance and diversity of invertebrate taxa at impacted sites, downstream of the pollutant source, were significantly lower than in the pre-disturbance community and unaffected control sites.
Half-Title PageWiley Series PageTitle PageCopyright PageTable of ContentsPreface and Acknowledgements
The twelve chapters by different authors are abstracted separately. The work reported began in the International Hydrological Decade of 1964-74, and in the last decade the hydrological setting of the karst aquifer has been well mapped. There are citation and subject indexes. -K.Clayton
The evolution of the holarctic cave Collembola of the subfamily Entomobryinae is analyzed. A number of evolutionary lines are shown, involving the two polyphyletic genera Pseudosinella and Sinella in Japan, North America, and Europe. Characteristics of these animals are of two types: cave dependent (responding rapidly to the cave environment) and cave independent (showing no effect of the cave environment). The evolution of the cave organisms is divided into three stages. The first stage represents the level of adaptation normally found in troglophile organisms, although some troglobites are found in the stage. All such forms are very limited in their cave distribution, and occupy a few caves around the periphery of major cave habitats. The second stage of evolution shows more cave adaptation, but the evolutionary pathways are varied, with convergence, parallelism, and divergence common. Most forms within this stage are troglobites, but there are a few troglophiles, and many of the organs characteristic of the stage occur as preadaptations in some putative ancestral forms. The members of this stage are abundant and relatively widespread. Within the third evolutionary stage convergence is universal, and the organs characteristic of these forms are limited to cave members of the family. Forms falling within this stage are relatively abundant but extremely limited in distribution. The probable adaptive significance of several organ modifications characteristic of troglobite forms is discussed, and these structures are interpreted as positive adaptations to the new requirements of cave life which have the final result of closely limiting the animals to the cave environment.
Introducing: The Diverse NSS One of the most striking aspects of the organized, or 'card carrying,' caving community is the diversity of people who choose to belong --to call themselves cavers. We include the sedentary newsletter reader, the twice-a-year cave visitor, the deep explorer dragging a camp duffel, and the cave diver. The unifying force in this mixture is a curiosity about caves, both existing and unknown. Together we wait expectantly for new discoveries. Whether directly or vicariously we are all explorers, accepting and enjoying the proceeds as one of the last terrestrial frontiers is pushed back. The caves are never the same, because as we explore we also destroy. Frontier is not a renewable resource. The recognition that we wield a double-edged sword has resulted in a kind of group schizophrenia. Some argue for totalitarian control; caves are sacred and must be completely preserved from the boots of all cavers. Others rebel and become outlaws at the slightest attempt to regulate or even influence their behavior. The majority stand between these two extremes, painfully aware that we are in danger of loving our caves to death. 1 Is this perception correct? When and where is the damage taking place, and can we minimize it? In this essay I analyze our behavior and beliefs in exploring and knowing caves, making an important distinction between individuals who accept caves as given and those who actively reveal caves to us. I will suggest that cave damage is both subtle and poorly understood, and explore the role of technology and the limits that we must impose on our use of it through individual ethics.
The distributions ojenearly 45,000 caves and 924 obligate cave species and subspecies (stygobites and troglobites) in the 48 contiguous states of the United States were mapped by county. Both maps show a highly clumped distribution. Approximately one-half of the variance in the number of species in a county is explained by variance in the number of caves per county. While several maps of karst and pseudo-karst areas of the 48 contiguous states are available, most notably that of Davies et al. (1986) and its variants (Culver 1999), we know of no similar map of cave locations. We have a special interest in the distribution of caves since we have compiled a list of the oblig-ate cave-dwelling species by county for each of the 3100 coun-ties in the 48 contiguous states (available at www.karstwa-ters.org). In particular, we were interested in the explanatory power the distribution of caves has in accounting for the distri-bution of obligate cave-dwelling species. Therefore, we have assembled data on the number of caves by county, based on information in the National Speleological Society cave fries and from records of state cave surveys. The list includes not only solution caves, but lava tubes, sea caves, etc. The purpose of this brief communication is to present dot maps of the distribution of caves by county and the distribution of obligate cave species by county, and briefly to compare the two. A more complete analysis of the spatial distribution of cave species will appear elsewhere at a later date. The maps presented below were generated using the Geographic Information System software package, MapView . Each cave (or species) in a county is represented by a dot so that, for example, a county with 10 caves has 10 dots. The position of the dot within the county is assigned at random by MapView . While this produces some loss of accuracy, it also ensures that no precise location information can be determined from the maps. For some counties, the number of caves is so great that the dots completely fill the county, and individual dots are indistinguishable and superim-posed. Figure 1. Dot map of the number of caves per county. Each dot represents one cave. Figure 2. Dot map of the number of stygobites and troglo-bites per county. Each dot represents one county record of a stygobite or troglobite.
We assembled a list of obligate cave-dwelling species and subspecies, their county distribution, and their provisional global conservation rank. A total of 927 species and 46 additional subspecies in 96 families exclusively from cave and associated subterranean habitats have been described in the 48 contiguous states of the United States. The terrestrial (troglobitic) species are concentrated in northeast Alabama (especially Jackson County), with other concentrations in Kentucky, Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia. Only 23 counties, comprising less than 1% of the land area of the 48 contiguous states, account for over 50% of the terrestrial species and subspecies. The aquatic (stygobitic) species are concentrated in Hays County, Texas, with other concentrations in Florida, Oklahoma, Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia. Only 18 counties, comprising less than 1% of the land area, account for over 50% of the aquatic species and subspecies. Endemism is high, with 54% of the species known from a single county. Approximately 95% of the species are listed by The Nature Conservancy as vulnerable or imperiled in the United States. These cave species comprise 50% of all vulnerable or imperiled species listed in databases of the Natural Heritage Program. Less than 4% of these subterranean species have federal status. Conservation can best be accomplished through habitat protection, which must include protection of the associated surface habitat.
AimThe goal of this study was to determine the role habitat availability plays in the distribution of obligate subterranean cave fauna in eastern North America.LocationThe numbers of stygobites, troglobites and caves in the counties of the south-eastern USA were analysed.Methods
The data were characterized by large numbers of zeroes and by spatial clustering of non-zeroes in five regions. Regression and conditional autoregressive (CAR) models were used to elucidate the patterns and relationships between numbers of species and numbers of caves both locally and regionally.ResultsLocal effects (regions and numbers of caves in counties) accounted for 45% of the variation in troglobite counts (P=< 0.001) and 24% of the variation in stygobite counts (P=< 0.001). Significant spatial autocorrelation among both stygobites and troglobites (P=< 0.0001) was found as well.Conclusion
Overall, habitat availability as measured by cave numbers influenced species richness. Spatial and regional effects also played an important role in determining the observed distributions of the subterranean fauna. Terrestrial and aquatic communities showed very different patterns in their relationship to habitat and within the different regions.
1. The electron and the proton content (measured as electrode potential [Eh] and pH) of an environment characterize this environment in many ways. In this paper the electrode potential and the pH are used as empirical parameters rather than as electrochemical data capable of thermodynamic interpretation. From published and unpublished work by the authors and from the literature, more than 6,200 pairs of characteristics were gathered, covering most types of the aqueous environment as well as the potential milieu of the chief actors in these environments: algae and bacteria. 2. It appears that the Eh-pH limits of biological systems and of the naturally occurring aqueous environment almost coincide. This would indicate that there are few, if any, sterile terrestrial environments caused by limiting Eh-pH characteristics. 3. As it seems unlikely that environments will be found outside the limits outlined in this paper, physico-chemical speculations on the sedimentary environment should be limited by this outli...
Stone forest aquifers comprise an important class of shallow, unconfined karstic aquifers in the south China karst belt. They occur under flat areas such as floors of karst depressions, stream valleys, and karst plains. The frameworks for the aquifers are the undissolved carbonate spires and ribs in epikarst zones developed on carbonate strata. The ground water occurs within clastic sediments which infill the dissolution voids.
The aquifers are thin, generally less than 100 meters thick, and are characterized by large lateral permeabilities and small storage. The result is that the aquifers are difficult to manage because recharge during the rainy season moves rapidly out of the aquifers. Water levels fall sharply as the dry season progresses and the ground-water supply falls off accordingly.
The magnitude and duration of the seasonal recharge pulse that replenishes the stone forest aquifers have been severely impacted by massive post-1958 deforestation in the south China karst region. Water that was formerly retained beyond the wet season in the forested uplands, later to be released to the stone forest aquifers under the lowland plains, now passes quickly through the system during the wet season. The loss of this seasonal upland storage has resulted in both a reduction in the volume of recharge to the lowland stone forest aquifers and a shortening of the seasonal recharge event. The result is accelerated water-level declines in the stone forest aquifers as the dry season progresses which, in turn, causes premature dewatering of wells and decreased spring discharges. This response is compounded by increased ground-water withdrawals as the people attempt to offset the declining supply. Management of the total water-supply system requires not only tinkering with the aquifer, but massive reforestation efforts to restore dry season water retention in the upland parts of the watersheds.
This study reviews significant state and federal laws that can be used to protect karst, caves, and associated unique minerals and biota. The first state cave protection act was passed in Colorado in 1883; unfortunately it was repealed in 1971. From that modest beginning there are now a total of 22 states, Puerto Rico, and the Cherokee Nation that have specific cave protection acts. Most of these have been legislated during the last 20 years. There are a number of laws on the federal level that can be used for cave protection. The most important of these is the Federal Cave Resources Protection Act of 1988, which mandates cave conservation for many federal land management agencies. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 and the Federal Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1976 can also be of significant use in the conservation of caves on federal land. The effects of these acts are variable. One factor is how important agency officials and law enforcement officers regard caves. It has not been unusual that little was done in the way of protection or prosecution even when the perpetrators have been apprehended. This attitude is changing rapidly primarily because those involved in enforcing the laws have been educated to the uniqueness and values of caves and their contents.
Depending on the intensity, quality and duration ofthe illumination, necessary for viewing show caves,conditions conducive for algal growth are created. Although algae are the major component of this flora,ferns and mosses have also been recorded. Little isknown of the algae, except that they are considered anuisance in terms of discoloration and damage to thekarst formations. The occurrence and possible controlof the algal flora has been studied in the CangoCaves, one of the most important touristic sites inSouth Africa. The algal flora is sparse in speciesdiversity and primitive forms are present. They haveparticular physiological adaptations and usingmicro-oxygen liberation and fluorescence measurements,their photosynthetic characteristics were established. Environmentally friendly control measures wereinvestigated and a solution for their control is proposed.
Effects of deforestation upon slopes in limestones and in volcanic rocks in the Benson River valley, northern Vancouver Island, have been investigated quantitatively. Postlogging soil erosion and vegetal regeneration success were assessed by measuring soil depth, percent bare rock and moss cover, and the numbers and diversity of trees, shrubs, and plants on 25 sampling sites, each containing ten measuring quadrats selected at random. Sixteen sites were on the Quatsino Formation, a well-karstified limestone, and nine on the Karmutsen Formation of basaltic lavas. Eight sites were of virgin forest, 16 were logged between 1970 and 1983, and one (on limestone) was logged in 1911. Both bedrock types were significantly affected by the cutting. There was greater loss of soil and an increase in bare rock on the limestones. Erosion was increased significantly by burning on the limestones but not on the volcanics. Within-group comparisons on the limestones determined that steeper slopes and harder burned areas suffered the most and are slowest to regenerate. Volume of timber on the 1911 site was 19 percent of that in similar uncut forest sites. It appears that complete recovery on the barren limestone slopes will require at least some centuries.
Environmental impacts on karst settings are common as they are more sensitive than those of other rock terrains. Regulatory
procedures that are effective in other rock terrains are not necessarily applicable to karst settings. Development and exploitation
by man that affect the karst hydrology regime can trigger catastrophic events and result in numerous legal actions where the
effects of changes go beyond property boundaries. A great variety of regulations and examples of litigation exist for karst
areas.
The concerns over the risks to human health from radon in dwellings are well documented and extensive arrangements are in place for measuring and dealing with elevated levels. Similar arrangements are in place for work-place exposure, but uncertainties exist in dealing with locations not falling into either of these categories. In caves, radon has been identified as occurring at elevated levels by a number of groups; but, with the exception of major show caves, its impact and risk to those who work in the caves has not received adequate attention thus far. This paper details a survey performed in a relatively “low-risk” geographical area of the UK and proceeds to quantify the risk of exposure in the cave environment. Radon levels of 12,500 Bq m−3 have been recorded but this is likely to underestimate the levels in many parts of the cave system for reasons associated with cave architecture and aeration. Annual doses to certain groups of cavers have been calculated to be as high as 120 mSv.
Incluye bibliografía e índice
Peer Reviewed http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/62163/1/Curl_Entrances1958.pdf