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The Neurobiology of Trance and Mediumship in Brazil
Abstract and Figures
Throughout most of the 19th and 20th centuries, trance and mediumistic experiences were regarded as a manifestation of severe mental disorders by most members of the Western scientific community (Almeida, 2007; Moreira-Almeida, Almeida, & Lotufo, 2005) and were usually described as rich in dissociative behavior, hallucinations, feelings of being controlled by an external power, depersonalization, personality shifts, and alleged post-trance amnesia. These phenomena were the subjects of numerous scientific studies around the turn of the 20th century, but scientific interest subsequently declined. However, there has been renewed interest in dissociative and hallucinatory experiences in non-pathological samples, as there is evidence that these experiences often involve people not suffering from mental disorders (Cardeña et al., 1996; Krippner, 1997b; Martinez-Taboas, 1995; Moreira-Almeida, Lotufo, & Greysen, 2007; Moreira-Almeida et al., 2008). These experiences have been widespread in most societies throughout history, and are part of the Greek, Roman, and Judeo-Christian roots of Western society, passed down through oracles, prophets, and shamans (Hastings, 1991). It is often difficult to differentiate the terms "medium" and "channeler" since both claim to refer to receiving information that supposedly does not originate from consensual reality (e.g., from living persons, media, their own memory). Mediums purportedly obtain this information from deceased persons, whereas channelers claim to obtain information from other spiritual entities (e.g., deities, nature spirits, inhabitants of other dimensions; e.g., Hastings, 1991; Klimo, 1998). Although there are several possible definitional approaches to trance and mediumship, for the purposes of the present chapter we define trance as did Wulff (2000): "a state of profound absorption or lack of mental content during which the individual is experientially cut off from the outside world; it is frequently accompanied by vocal and motor automatisms, lack of responsive awareness, and amnesia" (p. 399). Mediumship is defined as an experience in which an individual (the medium) purports to be in communication with, or under the control of, the personality of a deceased person or other nonmaterial being (Moreira-Almeida, Lotufo, & Cardeña, 2008). Frequently, mediumship takes place while the medium is in what Bourguignon (1976) refers to as a "possession trance" in which an alleged incorporeal agency takes possession of a medium's volition, speech, and bodily movements. An interesting fact is that most of the world's population believes in life after death, including the possibility that trance and mediumship can bridge the two, reflecting certain basic assumptions about human nature and cognitive reference points (Peres et al., 2007a, 2007b). The availability of new neurobiological research tools has now opened doors to studying such topics in more sophisticated ways, which may help further understanding of the nature of human consciousness and its relationship with the brain. This chapter reviews neurobiological studies on trance and mediumistic experiences with an emphasis on Brazilian samples, where these continue as a vibrant tradition. We also discuss some crucial methodological issues and the implications of current studies for the mind-brain relationship. Moreover, we report data from two parallel strands of our own investigations conducted in Brazil, namely by the team consisting of Joan H. Hageman, Ian Wickramasekera II, and Stanley Krippner (HWK) and the team of Julio F. P. Peres, Alexander Moreira-Almeida, and Leonardo Caixeta (PAC). The PAC team has studied the neurobiology of mediumship using electroencephalography (EEG) in a group of mediums during their trance state (Caixeta et al., in press), while the HWK team has reported studies on two trance mediums using various neurobiological tools. Krippner was the only member of this team who participated in on-site investigations, and Hageman and her colleagues (Hageman, Krippner, & Wickramasekera II, 2009) also participated in psychophysiological studies of a channeler in the United States.
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... The concept of talking to or being possessed by spirits is a cultural phenomenon found in almost every society worldwide, such as traditional areas of Ladakh, 11 the spiritistic religions of Candombl e, Kardecismo, and Umbanda, 16 Spiritist groups in Brazil 16,26 and Spiritualists in the United Kingdom, 29 with cross-cultural psychiatrists and anthropologists engaging in extensive investigations of this topic. 5,8,10,20 Channeling has been called by a variety of names throughout history, such as prophecy, oracle, spiritual communication and spirit possession. ...
... The concept of talking to or being possessed by spirits is a cultural phenomenon found in almost every society worldwide, such as traditional areas of Ladakh, 11 the spiritistic religions of Candombl e, Kardecismo, and Umbanda, 16 Spiritist groups in Brazil 16,26 and Spiritualists in the United Kingdom, 29 with cross-cultural psychiatrists and anthropologists engaging in extensive investigations of this topic. 5,8,10,20 Channeling has been called by a variety of names throughout history, such as prophecy, oracle, spiritual communication and spirit possession. ...
... 23,37 Most channelers had shared their experiences with others and expressed their channeled information in a variety of ways as well. Similar to anthropological perspectives on channeling, 16 many of our participants reported using channeled information in order to share important information or to benefit others. ...
Historical records suggest that channeling has existed globally, in a variety of cultures, for thousands of years, and recent research suggests that channeling is more prevalent than most people realize. The present study used an online survey to explore mental health factors, personality characteristics, subjective experiences and the impact of channeling on 83 participants who self-identified as trance channelers. Most participants endorsed being spiritual but not religious as adults, and on average the channeling experiences began at middle age. The majority of participants did not report pathological levels of dissociative or psychotic symptoms, anxiety or depression. Compared to relevant norms, participants reported similar scores on most personality factors, psychological absorption and empathy. Participants’ average scores on emotional and environmental sensitivity corresponded to being designated as sensory-processing sensitives. Participants reported high levels of noetic beliefs and experiences, particularly beliefs in life after death, non-local consciousness and telepathy. Most participants reported that their channeling process is willful and consensual, and that they are consciously aware of the channeling state while it occurs. The majority of participants also reported a positive impact of channeling on their lives. Lower psychotic symptoms, older age when the trance channeling experiences began, and higher sensitivity scores predicted a greater positive impact of trance on participants’ lives. Given that trance channeling has played a role in religious and spiritual traditions around the world throughout history, the present study provides an important exploration of the trance channeling phenomenon.
... The concept of talking to or being possessed by spirits is a cultural phenomenon found in many societies worldwide, such as traditional areas of Ladakh (Crook, 1997), Spiritist groups in Brazil (Hageman et al., 2009;Negro Jr et al., 2002) and Spiritualists in the United Kingdom (Roxburgh & Roe, 2011), with cross-cultural psychiatrists and anthropologists engaging in extensive investigations of this topic (Bastos et al., 2015;Bourguignon, 1976;Cardeña et al., 2023;Hunter & Luke, 2014). A global survey in the 1970s found that 53% of 488 societies had some form of ritually-induced altered states of consciousness (Bourguignon, 1976). ...
... One potential reason channeling has persisted over human history is that channeling is believed to transmit valid and important information in many cultures and contexts. For example, within the spiritistic religions of Candomblé, Kardecismo, and Umbanda (Krippner, 2008;Seligman, 2005), Brazilian mediums engage in trance methods to interact with and embody "spirit agents" who are believed to carry important information, such as warning the community about potential issues, diagnosing illnesses, and prescribing cures (Hageman et al., 2009). ...
Background and Objectives. This exploratory study aimed to evaluate the potential usefulness of channeled information for ten questions from scientists. The study’s objectives were to 1) assess the correspondence of channeled and non-channeled answers within questions, 2) evaluate the correspondence of different channelers’ responses for each question while in channeling and non-channeling states, 3) examine whether channelers believe they are receiving information from the same source, and 4) explore qualitative themes that emerge for each question. Method. Fifteen channelers provided answers to 10 questions in a channeled and non-channeled state. The first three objectives were quantitatively evaluated by three judges using structured criteria to assess correspondence. The last objective employed qualitative thematic analysis of the channeled answers. Results. The quantitative analyses found 1) low correspondence between channeled and non-channeled answers as hypothesized, 2) virtually no correspondence for each question across channelers, contrary to our hypothesis, and 3) little support that the channelers perceived they were accessing the same source of information. The qualitative analysis resulted in coherent and common themes in the channeled responses for many but not all ten questions. Several methodological lessons were gleaned from the study, such as refining inclusion/exclusion criteria and the questions asked of channelers, allowing a similar amount of time for channeled and non-channeled answers, ensuring consistent methods across study sites, and including additional quantitative measures informing on the channelers experience in channeling and non-channeling states. Conclusions. This exploratory study offers insight into improving future studies attempting to obtain valuable information through channeling.
... The concept of talking to or being possessed by spirits is a cultural phenomenon found in many societies worldwide, such as traditional areas of Ladakh (Crook, 1997), Spiritist groups in Brazil (Hageman et al., 2009;Negro Jr et al., 2002) and Spiritualists in the United Kingdom (Roxburgh & Roe, 2011), with cross-cultural psychiatrists and anthropologists engaging in extensive investigations of this topic (Bastos et al., 2015;Bourguignon, 1976;Cardeña et al., 2023;Hunter & Luke, 2014). A global survey in the 1970s found that 53% of 488 societies had some form of ritually-induced altered states of consciousness (Bourguignon, 1976). ...
... One potential reason channeling has persisted over human history is that channeling is believed to transmit valid and important information in many cultures and contexts. For example, within the spiritistic religions of Candomblé, Kardecismo, and Umbanda (Krippner, 2008;Seligman, 2005), Brazilian mediums engage in trance methods to interact with and embody "spirit agents" who are believed to carry important information, such as warning the community about potential issues, diagnosing illnesses, and prescribing cures (Hageman et al., 2009). ...
Background and Objectives The type of channeling in which we enter a trance has been called by various names throughout history, such as prophecy, oracle, spiritual communication, and spirit possession. One potential reason channeling has persisted over human history is that channeling is believed to transmit valid and vital information in many cultures and contexts. The overall goal of this exploratory study was to evaluate the potential usefulness of channeled information for ten questions of a scientific nature. The objectives of the study were to 1) assess the correspondence of channeled and non-channeled answers within questions; 2) evaluate the correspondence of different channelers’ responses for each question while in channeling and non-channeling states; 3) examine whether channelers believe they are receiving information from the same source for the United States channelers, and 4) explore qualitative themes that emerge for each question. Method Channelers provided answers to ten questions in a channeled and non-channeled state. These answers were evaluated for correspondence by three judges using structured criteria. Qualitative thematic analysis was applied to the answers as well. Results A low correspondence between channeled and non-channeled answers was found as hypothesized. Contrary to our hypothesis, there was low correspondence for each question across channelers. We also observed that there was little support that the channelers were accessing the same source of information. We found coherent and common themes for many but not all ten questions. Several methodological learnings were gleaned from the study. Conclusions This exploratory study offers excellent insight into improving future studies attempting to obtain valuable information through channeling.
... Os resultados dos estudos com médiuns (Bastos Jr. et al., 2014;Delorme et al., 2013) reforçam a clássica hipótese de absorção, mostrando aumento da atenção concentrada concomitante a uma diminuição da auto-consciência durante comunicações mediúnicas. Além disso, a recorrente diminuição da atividade Teta durante comunicações mediúnicas pode sugerir um estado de meditação profunda acompanhado de um sentimento de conexão emocional e unidade com o universo (Hageman et al., 2010;Delorme et al., 2013). ...
... Esses autores sugerem que, justamente no limite entre Alfa e Teta (7Hz e 8Hz) encaixam-se as possibilidades de neuroprogramação, assim como é a condição ideal para técnicas com visualização e uso da criatividade. É neste ínterim, quando o corpo se encontra em relaxamento profundo, mas ainda há consciência do ambiente, que se cria a contingência necessária para conscientemente modificar esquemas da realidade (Bastos Jr. et al., 2014;Hageman et al., 2010). ...
It is possible to observe historically the antagonism outlined between science and religion. From Galileu and the scientific revolution, there were multiple disciplines that aimed their theoretical aspirations for the understanding of this interface, like the neurosciences in the 19th century. There is now a growing interest in investigating the neuronal correlates of religious experience and its implication in everyday life. This manuscript presents a PRISMA systematic review of the studies that sought to understand the neurological correlates of religious experience using the Electroencephalogram (EEG) technique in the last eighteen years. For this, data collection was performed in Pubmed, PsycINFO, Scielo and Science Direct databases. Among the results, Gamma wave modulation was observed in Christian and Buddhist rituals, Theta waves showed an increase in Christianity and a decrease in Spiritualism and Alpha waves in Islamic rituals. The researchers suggest that these findings may be correlated with a greater sense of purpose and meaning in life, as well as amplification of empathy and compassion.
... also reports that a number of subjects during LSD therapy undergo muscle spasms, and a variety of other abnormal physiological changes (like nausea, vomiting, cardiovascular variations, etc.). Some of these are typical of ingestion of other psychedelic drugs and some of reports of culturally defined trance as well as a variety of psychopathologies either involving hallucinations or not-for example, rolling of the eyes (Orengo-Garcia 1998;Kawai et al. 2017;Connelly 2015;Hageman et al. 2010;Kreig 1964). maintains that the core experience influences the unfolding of the re-adaptation of the individual's ontogeny in the session by its nature and that the people present at the LSD therapy session as well as the room in which it takes place also are utilized by the past event's structure. ...
The nature of dose, the amount of a drug that produces a certian effect in the body, either to treat disease or to result in a psychological effect has become an important issue today among people using street versions of the drug. What is interesting is that this concern is directed to products, LSD mainly, that are not professionally produced, ie, not pharmaceutical in quality. The relation of a quantity of drug and outcome is central to understanding the human variation in response and the nature of that response. Comparing psychedelics on this basis and how these drugs are conceived of in communities of use is important.
... also reports that a number of subjects during LSD therapy undergo muscle spasms, and a variety of other abnormal physiological changes (like nausea, vomiting, cardiovascular variations, etc.). Some of these are typical of ingestion of other psychedelic drugs and some of reports of culturally defined trance as well as a variety of psychopathologies either involving hallucinations or not-for example, rolling of the eyes (Orengo-Garcia 1998;Kawai et al. 2017;Connelly 2015;Hageman et al. 2010;Kreig 1964). maintains that the core experience influences the unfolding of the re-adaptation of the individual's ontogeny in the session by its nature and that the people present at the LSD therapy session as well as the room in which it takes place also are utilized by the past event's structure. ...
The problem of what people report and what researchers expect them to feel, see, and describe is significant, yet the reason I decided to write up some of my findings for the student newspaper in 1969 was due to the increased media coverage and the impressions that the expected Leary/Alpert paradigm was producing (Caldararo 1969). It seemed at every level, people of my generation were being confronted with ways of experiencing reality that the drug had opened for an individual interpretation; their personal inner journey seemed to be in danger of being stolen.
... rving President Eisenhower, plus documentation of indigenous oral traditions. Rarely are these channeled messages associated with accompanying quantitative research. There are few exceptions, such as groups whose religious-like interests are affiliated with the Spiritualists in the United Kingdom (Roxburgh & Roe, 2013) and the Spiritists in Brazil (Hageman et. al., 2009). ...
Introduction
The term ”energy medicine” describes healing modalities that manipulate or channel purported subtle energies associated with the body. The objectives of this pilot study were to determine the feasibility of studying energy medicine for people with carpal tunnel pain and gathering relevant preliminary data.
Methods
Following a prospective, within-participant design, participants were recruited to experience a 30 min treatment from one of 17 energy medicine practitioners. Of 374 adults experiencing carpal tunnel pain who were screened for the study, 190 received an energy medicine treatment. Practitioners delivered treatments at close distance, some with and some without light, stationary touch. Outcome measures were collected before, during, and immediately after the treatment, and three weeks later. The primary outcome measure was self-reported pain. Secondary subjective measures included credibility regarding energy medicine and expectancy regarding the efficacy of treatments, pain interference, sleep quality, well-being, mood, and sense of personal transformation. Physiological measures included median nerve conduction velocity, heart rate variability, heart rate synchrony (between the participant and practitioner), and expression levels of neuroinflammation-related genes.
Results
On average, self-reported current pain scores decreased 2.0 points post-session and 1.3 points at three weeks compared to baseline values using a 0–10 point scale with 10 denoting worst pain (F(2, 565) = 3.82 p <0.000005). This effect was not influenced by the participants’ level of expectancy or credibility regarding the energy medicine modality. Well-being, negative emotion, and sleep quality scores significantly improved at the follow-up visit. Multiple heart rate variability measures significantly changed reflecting increased parasympathetic activity which may indicate decreased stress. No other secondary outcome showed significant change.
Discussion
Studying the administration of energy medicine to people with carpal tunnel pain is feasible, although requiring a documented carpal tunnel syndrome diagnosis proved to be prohibitive for recruitment. Our finding of preliminary evidence for positive effects in pain and pain-related outcomes after a single session of energy medicine warrants further controlled investigation.
... rving President Eisenhower, plus documentation of indigenous oral traditions. Rarely are these channeled messages associated with accompanying quantitative research. There are few exceptions, such as groups whose religious-like interests are affiliated with the Spiritualists in the United Kingdom (Roxburgh & Roe, 2013) and the Spiritists in Brazil (Hageman et. al., 2009). ...
Throughout history, within numerous multicultural contexts across the globe, channeling has been expressed, practiced, revered and shunned. Broadly defined, channeling is “communication of information to or through a physically embodied human being, from a source that is said to exist on some other level or dimension of reality than the physical as we know it, and that is not from the normal mind…of the channel” (Klimo, 1998, p.2). Despite its persistence and presence across time, the enigmatic, speculative nature of channeling creates a unique research challenge. Historically, scientific channeling research tends to minimize attention on the actual channeled material, in part due to validation constraints. The focus of this qualitative exploration was to categorize and thematically analyze content channeled during the final segment of a trance channeling study. Recorded over two days, 13 healthy adult trance channels responded to the question, "Do you have any suggestions/messages regarding the current or future channeling experiments?" Transcribed content analysis revealed seven common themes under three categories – Scientific Methodology: 1) Constraints of the current quantitative study, 2) Advancing channeling research; Channeling Processes: 3) 'How-to' of channeling, 4) Experienced processes described from the “non-physical being's” point-of-view; Open-Ended Information: 5) Philosophical - personal to global to universal, 6) Gratitude and Collaborative spirit, and 7) Personal messages for healing/growth. Themes 2 and 6 were the most represented content of messages delivered. This analysis was designed to present the experiences of the channelers, how that might be interpreted and to provide global access to the potentially valuable content.
... also reports that a number of subjects during LSD therapy undergo muscle spasms, and a variety of other abnormal physiological changes (like nausea, vomiting, cardiovascular variations, etc.). Some of these are typical of ingestion of other psychedelic drugs and some of reports of culturally defined trance as well as a variety of psychopathologies either involving hallucinations or not-for example, rolling of the eyes (Orengo-Garcia 1998;Kawai et al. 2017;Connelly 2015;Hageman et al. 2010;Kreig 1964). maintains that the core experience influences the unfolding of the re-adaptation of the individual's ontogeny in the session by its nature and that the people present at the LSD therapy session as well as the room in which it takes place also are utilized by the past event's structure. ...
The Goodman Building housed mainly temporary workers before WWII, after it became home to Beat artists, especially veterans on the GI bill, then in the late 1960s a gathering place for young artists who were radicalized by seeing the brutalization of people in the Western Addition. But part of this history is found in the squats and hippie communes, cooperatives like the Food Conspiracy and Tenants’ Union. This turned the building into a center for organizing to preserve the community and heritage housing in both the Western Addition and the Tenderloin.
Background: Numerous world cultures believe channeling provides genuine information, and channeling rituals in various forms are regularly conducted in both religious and non-religious contexts. Little is known about the physiological correlates of the subjective experience of channeling.
Methods: We conducted a prospective within-subject design study with 13 healthy adult trance channels. Participants alternated between 5-minute blocks of channeling and no-channeling three times while electroencephalography (EEG), electrocardiography (ECG), galvanic skin response (GSR), and respiration were collected on two separate days. Voice recordings of the same story read in channeling and no-channeling states were also analyzed.
Results: The pre-laboratory survey data about demographics, perception of the source, purpose and utility of channeled information reflected previous reports. Most participants were aware of their experience (rather than in a full trance) and had varying levels of perceived incorporation (i.e. control of their body). Voice analysis showed an increase in voice arousal and power (dB/Hz) differences in the 125 Hz bins between 0 and 625 Hz, and 3625 and 3875 Hz when reading during the channeling state versus control. Despite subjective perceptions of distinctly different states, no substantive differences were seen in EEG frequency power, ECG measures, GSR and respiration.
Conclusions: Voice parameters were different between channeling and no-channeling states using rigorous controlled methods, but other physiology measure collected were not. Considering the subjective and phenomenological differences observed, future studies should include other measures such as EEG connectivity analyses, fMRI and biomarkers.
Provides a cross-cultural and neurobiological assessment of the nature of shamanism.
Model of relationship between hypnotic ability ,PSI and sexuality. 1991
Visual or auditory hallucinations may accompany epileptic seizures or auras. Penfield reproduced such experiences by electrical stimulation of the temporal lohe cortex. We have found that similar hallucinatory experiences may arise from subcortical stimulation of the temporal lobe. The study of these events yields information pertinent to the processes involved in perception, imagery formation, and memory.