Content uploaded by Timothy Johnston
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Timothy Johnston on Feb 13, 2020
Content may be subject to copyright.
American Journal of Business Education – October 2010 Volume 3, Number 10
15
Who And What Influences
Choice Of University?
Student And University Perceptions.
Timothy C. Johnston, Murray State University, USA
ABSTRACT
Emerging peer-to-peer communication via social media, and the role of influential peers, is
changing the way that marketers communicate with prospects. The model is changing from a
sender-receiver model to one that includes influential peer-to-peer and receiver-to-sender
communication. This research examines this phenomenon in the context of student choice of a
university. What is the relative influence that various sources of information have on students’
choice of university? How does the influence of friends and family members compare to the
influence of non-personal media? How do high-touch tools like campus visits compare to high-
tech tools such as social media sites? Results of a survey of students showed that parents, along
with other family and friends, were the most influential sources of information. Outside of
personal contacts, a student’s visit to campus was highly influential. Surprisingly, social media
was not rated as highly influential compared to traditional media. Results of a second survey of
university employees generally predicted student responses well, although employees
underestimated the influence of university representatives (faculty members, staff, and coaches)
and underestimated the impact of a visit to campus as sources of information for prospective
students.
Keywords: Marketing, consumer choice behavior, higher education marketing, social media, influentials,
influencers, word-of-mouth
INTRODUCTION
niversities are challenged to attract good students to enroll each year, in competition with other
universities. Higher education marketing, also called enrollment management, is a big business and
itself an academic field.
One task of higher education marketers is to communicate to prospective students the benefits of enrolling.
There is a perception among higher education marketers that the traditional means of communication, such as
brochures and college fairs, are giving way to newer social media methods, including websites, FaceBook,
YouTube, Twitter, etc. (Marklein, 2009).
Emerging peer-to-peer communication via social media, and the role of influential peers, is changing the
way that marketers communicate with prospects. The model is changing from a sender-receiver model to one that
includes influential peer-to-peer and receiver-to-sender communication. Social media technology has made peer-to-
peer contact easier, and hence increased the influence of peers on decision makers (peers here means Internet users,
not necessarily demographic peers). This research examines this phenomenon in the context of student choice of a
university.
What is the relative influence that various sources of information have on students’ choice of university?
How does the influence of friends and family members compare to the influence of non-personal media? How do
high-touch tools like campus visits compare to high-tech tools such as social media sites?
U
American Journal of Business Education – October 2010 Volume 3, Number 10
16
This research examines data from students who rated the influence of various sources of information on
their decision to enroll at a university. The research also considers data from a survey of university employees who
predicted the responses of students. The methodology and results of two survey are discussed next. The paper
concludes with potential implications for communicating with prospective students.
LITERATURE REVIEW
During the process of telling consumers about products, marketers realized that consumers were talking and
listening to each other about the products. The listeners found the information from their peers more credible than
information from the company. And not all talkers were created equal. The opinions of some consumers were
highly credible and had a great impact on other consumers.
Berry & Keller (2003) termed these people the Influentials, and argued based on survey data that the
opinions of about one in ten Americans had a great deal of influence on the opinions and behavior of the other 9 of
their peer consumers. Because Influentials try new products and services early, and have strong opinions and are
not shy about sharing them, marketers should target special communications to these people. Positive
recommendations from the Influential 10% are spread by word-of-mouth to the impressionable remaining 90% of
the market.
Gillin (2007) updated the idea of Influentials with a discussion of what he termed the New Influencers.
Gillen’s Influencers use social media tools such as podcasts, FaceBook, Twitter, and especially blogs to
communicate with consumers. Gillen focused less on the demographics and lifestyles of Influentials and more on
their goals and motivations for speaking out in the social media sphere. Social media norms, such as transparency
(e.g. revealed biases and potential conflicts-of-interest), are easily breached by overtly commercial messages.
Researchers have explored the importance of word-of-mouth communication for a long time. Brown &
Reingen (1987) listed early research on the positive effects of word-of-mouth communication on household goods
and food products (Katz & Lazarsfeld, 1955), automobile services Engel, Blackwell, & Kegerreis, 1969), and the
selection of a physician (Feldman & Spencer, 1965).
They also studied the relative influence of strong and weak social ties between people. Strong ties (between
members of a family or group) were perceived as more influential than weak ties, and they were more likely to be
utilized as sources of information for related goods. Weak ties allowed information to travel from one subgroup to
another (Brown & Reingen, 1987).
Higher education marketing is an industry unto its own with conferences, professional organizations,
consultants, and academic and practitioner journals. It is beyond the scope of this paper to review the field,
especially the models for college choice. The choice of college can be a complex choice that includes several
sequential decisions (Dawes & Brown, 2005). The choice may involve multiple decision makers (Broekemier &
Seshadri, 2000), and multiple attributes. It may be fraught with emotion as well as rational choice processes.
Much research has focused on the attributes of the choice alternatives. Relatively little research has been
done on the sources of influential information (for example, Armstrong & Lumsden, 2000). Recent research has
shown that university admission offices are using social media more, such as social media sites and blogs. About
85% of colleges reported using social media in recruiting in 2008, compared to 51% in 2007 (Mattson & Barnes,
2009).
This research explores the influence of sources of information for university choice, where some sources
reflect strong social ties (parents) and others are non-personal sources of information, such as a university website.
METHODOLOGY
The student data were collected with a paper survey. The questions comprised about 20% of the content of
a survey instrument, and the remaining items were part of a different project and were unrelated to this research.
American Journal of Business Education – October 2010 Volume 3, Number 10
17
The author generated a list of items based on personal judgment, and the list was revised after a pretest with 20
respondents.
Generally respondents were given the survey form and asked to complete it and return it while the field
researcher waited. Responses were anonymous, with no identifying data. Field researchers chose the respondents
at their convenience from students on a university campus.
Table 1 has demographic data for the population of undergraduate students at the University (approx. 6400)
and sample (n=475). The mean age of the sample (21.5 years) is very close to the mean age of the population (21.8
years). This reflects the population of primarily traditional full time resident undergraduate students who began as
freshman soon after graduating from high school.
There were proportionately more male respondents in the sample (49.7%) than in the population (41%),
with corresponding underrepresentation of females. There were proportionately more juniors and seniors
respondents in the sample (25% and 45%) than in the population (22% and 33%), with corresponding
underrepresentation of freshman and sophomores.
While the sample was not chosen by a method to make it strictly representative of the University much less
the wider population of university students, the profile of the sample is characteristic of the University population
and not unlike other regional public universities in the United States.
Table 1: Characteristics of student population and sample
Population
Sample
Age
21.8 years
21.5 years
Male
41%
49.7%
Female
59%
50.1
Freshman
22%
14%
Sophomore
20%
16%
Junior
22%
25%
Senior
33%
45%
SURVEY RESULTS
Respondents were asked: “What sources of information influenced your decision to enroll at (University)?
Please rate each of the following sources of information on a scale of 0 to 6, where 0 = zero influence to 6 =
extremely high influence. Do not leave any blank.” (The word University here replaces the name of the university
in the study). The sources of information are listed in Table 2, in the order presented in the survey.
The survey of students yielded 475 respondents and 2677 non-zero ratings. The task of rating the influence
of 16 sources of information proved to be challenging to the respondents, perhaps partly because the task came at
the end of answering additional unrelated questions. The responses reflected apparently thoughtful ratings of a
subset of items with the balance of items being rated at zero influence.
As a practical matter, a zero rating of an item was more a reflection of an unrated item than a rating of zero
influence. For example, it is difficult for a respondent to rate the relative influence of a campus visit if he or she did
not visit the campus, hence a zero rating is equivalent to a “not applicable” response.
An analysis was conducted with all ratings, including zeros. A subsequent analysis of only non-zero
ratings yielded mean ratings with better face validity (e.g. greater means for items with high ratings). For example,
the top mean rating for an item, not including zero ratings, was 3.85 on a scale where 6 equals "extremely high
influence." This has greater face validity than the analysis that included zero ratings, in which the highest-rated
source of income had a mean value of 2.45 influence. Both analyses yielded similar item rankings.
American Journal of Business Education – October 2010 Volume 3, Number 10
18
Therefore, the analysis considers only rated items. In other words, the zero ratings are treated as not rated,
and the responses one through six are used to calculate the mean values. The sources of information and mean
ratings of influence, for rated items only and ignoring zero responses, are listed in Table 2.
Table 2: Sources of information and mean influence ratings on choice of university
Source of information
Number of ratings
Influence rating
(mean)
Student Rank
mother influence
300
3.84
2
father influence
270
3.76
4
other family member influence
210
3.57
7
student friend in high school
223
3.69
6
student friend at (University)
225
3.73
5
high school teacher/coach/counselor
190
3.45
8
(University) faculty/staff/coach
171
3.85
1
(University) Student Ambassador
76
2.91
12
attended (University) sport event(s)
132
3.16
9
other visit to (University) campus
247
3.81
3
Facebook/ MySpace/YouTube
79
2.91
11
(University) website
187
2.84
13
other website
20
2.70
15
paper mail from (University)
151
2.99
10
e-mail from (University)
115
2.83
14
Personal sources of information, including family and friends, are among the top-rated sources of influence.
The data show that five of the top seven influential sources of information were family members and friends.
Mean rating of “mother influence” was ranked number 2 (n=300; 3.84) and “father” influence was ranked
number 4 (n=270; 3.76). “Student friend” at the University and from high school were ranked number 5 (n=225;
3.73) and number 6 (n=223; 3.69), respectively. “Other family member” ranked number 7 (n=210; 3.57) in
influence.
This is consistent with the consumer behavior concept of primary reference group: “We may have direct
and extensive contact with some reference groups like our immediate circle of friends or family but less contact with
our former high school classmates. Reference groups with which we have considerable contact tend to exert the
greatest influence” (Hoyer & MacInnis, 2007, p. 403).
The big surprise in this analysis is that the top-rated source of information is “University
faculty/staff/coach,” with a mean 3.85 influence rating. The data suggest that a coach or faculty or staff member had
a big influence on the 171 people who rated this item. One caveat is that the respondents were chosen at the
convenience of student field researchers, and 5 of the 20 researchers participated in intercollegiate athletics. Student
athletes are perhaps overrepresented as respondents in the sample.
One is led to conclude that for these students the university coach is more influential than Mom! Upon
further attention one sees that the mean ratings of influence are too close to call, being separated by only .01, and the
greater number of students who rated “mother influence” (300 versus 171 for University faculty/staff/coach) gives
Mom the edge in influence.
On the other hand, “university faculty/staff/coach” influence was rated number one, much higher (n=171;
3.85) than “high school teacher/coach/counselor” at number 8 (n=190; 3.45). Traditionally, high school employees
are seen as accessible and influential to prospective students, and are the target of more promotion, than are
university employees.
American Journal of Business Education – October 2010 Volume 3, Number 10
19
These items represent people who are not in a student’s family, but can still be considered members of the
student’s primary reference group due to personal acquaintance and face-to-face interaction. The roles of these
people in the lives of students make them potential opinion leaders as well. “Opinion leaders have some position,
expertise, or firsthand knowledge that makes them particularly important sources of relevant and credible
information, usually in a specific domain” (Hoyer & MacInnis, 2007, p. 403). For prospective students who live in
the geographic region, there is a good chance these people are alumni or alumnae of the University as well.
The unusual item in the top half is “other visit to University campus.” This item is the third-highest rated
(3.81) source of influence and the only non-personal item among the highest rated items. (The name includes
“other” because it appears after “attended (University) sport event(s)” on the survey instrument.) The finding that
247 out of 475 respondents chose to rate this item, and gave it a mean rating between that of Mother and Father, is a
testament to the influence of a campus visit.
The high rating of a visit to campus shows the influence of physically visiting campus to a prospective
student. It also reflects the efforts of this particular university to bring high school students to campus for recruiting
days, open houses, and conferences for student groups (FFA, Future Business Leaders of America, and DECA).
High-touch contact was more influential than high-tech (e.g. Internet) sources of information for this sample.
Ranked number nine was “attended University sport event(s)” (n=132; 3.16). This was somewhat
surprising given the many opportunities for students in the geographic region to attend basketball and football
games, in particular. There is a perception that sports teams are important recruiting tools for students in general.
The survey did not attempt to measure the influence of television or other media coverage of sporting events.
The bottom half of the rankings is comprised mainly of non-personal sources of information. The item
“paper mail from University” was ranked number 10 (n=151; 2.99), and was followed closely by “Facebook/
MySpace/YouTube” at number 11 (n=79; 2.91). What is surprising is that paper mail from the University remains
an important source of information, give the widespread opinion that print media in general is being dominated by
digital media (Garfield, 2009).
One must keep in mind that the modal high school graduation year of respondents was 2005 (see Table 3).
Use of social media such as Facebook, MySpace, YouTube, and recently Twitter has grown rapidly in the years
since about 2006. The University began formally using YouTube and Twitter as communication tools in 2009.
Social media as information sources may be more influential to future students than it was to students who were
choosing a university in 2005.
Table 3: High School graduation year of students
Graduation Year
Frequency
Percent
1975-2001
24
34
2002
16
2
2003
21
3
2004
32
5
2005
129
19
2006
112
17
2007
69
10
2008
57
9
total
460
100
The item “University Student Ambassador” reflected the influence of Student Ambassadors on prospective
students, and was ranked number 12 (n=76; 2.91), essentially a tie with “Facebook/ MySpace/YouTube.” A
prospective student may have come in contact with a Student Ambassador on a campus visit, where the Ambassador
served as a tour guide. Student Ambassadors represent the University at a variety of events including career fairs,
high school visits, college fairs, etc. The University also has sent Ambassadors on recruiting trips to high school
campuses.
American Journal of Business Education – October 2010 Volume 3, Number 10
20
The list of information sources contains three additional Internet-related items that were tied in the ratings.
“University website” ranked at number 13 (n=187; 2.84) and “e-mail from University” ranked at number 14 (n=115;
2.84). “Other website” received relatively few ratings and was ranked number 15 (n=29; 2.70). The opportunity to
write-in a URL did not yield any one influential website. Here again, the current interest in online communication
suggest that these items should be rated higher.
The survey instrument included an open-ended item “other” that received a relatively high mean rating, but
an analysis of the responses did not yield any consensus on an additional source of information. Many write-in
responses to the “other” question were related to reasons a student chose the University rather than a source of
information (e.g. received a scholarship). Therefore the “other” item is omitted from the rankings and discussion.
In conclusion, the student survey found the surprising results that university faculty, staff, and/or coaches
are highly influential, ranked up with mother and father. Also, a visit to campus is the only non-personal source of
information that is ranked as a rival to personal sources of information. Internet and new media sources of
information do not dominate traditional material such as paper mail.
SECOND STUDY: UNIVERSITY EMPLOYEE SURVEY
Universities are challenged to attract good students to enroll each year, in competition with other
universities. Do the university employees—administrators, faculty members, and staff—have an accurate
perception of what sources of information are influential to prospective students?
In a second study, university employee data were collected with a paper survey. Generally respondents
were given the survey form and asked to complete it and return it by campus mail to the investigator. Responses
were anonymous, with no identifying data.
University administrators, faculty members, and staff (university employees) were asked: “Please predict
the results of student ratings by RANKING the 6 top-rated sources of information, where 1 is highest rated source of
information, 2 is the second highest rated source of information, etc. through 6 as the sixth highest rated source. Use
each number 1 though 6 only once, and leave the unranked items blank.”
The survey of university employees yielded 190 respondents. A breakdown of the respondents by
university role is found in Table 4. An “Adminstrator” is an employee who works half-time or more in
administration. “Faculty” includes tenured, tenure-track, and non-tenure-track faculty members. “Staff” includes
employees not providing instruction and not considered “professional” staff.
Table 4: Characteristics of university employee population and sample
Population
Sample
Administrator
23%
14%
Faculty
37%
49.0%
Staff
40%
36%
Other
0
1%
Total
100%
100.0%
A ranking task was used with university employees to avoid the ambiguity of zero ratings in the student
survey discussed previously. The university employee rankings are compared to student rankings in Table 5. The
data in the Student Rank column is based on the mean ratings of the items.
American Journal of Business Education – October 2010 Volume 3, Number 10
21
Table 5: Sources of information and mean influence ratings on choice of university, student and university employee
(administrators, faculty and staff) responses
Source of information
Student responses
(n=475)
Student
Rank
Employee
responses
(n=190)
Employee
Rank
mother influence
300
2
160
1
father influence
270
4
147
2
other family member influence
210
7
66
5
student friend in high school
223
6
129
3
student friend at (University)
225
5
140
4
high school teacher/coach/counselor
190
8
118
6
(University) faculty/staff/coach
171
1
61
11
(University) Student Ambassador
76
12
26
14
attended (University) sport event(s)
132
9
29
7
other visit to (University) campus
247
3
123
10
Facebook/ MySpace/YouTube
79
11
41
8
(University) website
187
13
45
12
other website:
20
15
4
15
paper mail from (University)
151
10
21
9
e-mail from (University)
115
14
11
13
Only the ordinal rank data from Students and Employees are compared. No statistical tests of differences
between mean ratings (t-test) or tests of difference between the ranking patterns within item rankings (chi-square)
are presented. Employees were constrained to rank only six items, and to use each rank (1 to 6) only once. Students
were free to rate any or all items and to use each rating score multiple times. The differences between the data
generated by the rating and ranking tasks make statistical tests difficult to interpret. Therefore the discussion of
findings will focus on the larger differences in rankings that were generated with the rating and ranking tasks by this
sample of students and employees.
Students and university employees agree on rankings of the influence of sources of information more than
they disagreed. The rankings on 10 items differed by only one or two places in the order. The surprising differences
in rankings were found with the influence of “University faculty/staff/coach” and “visit to university campus.”
Students ranked “University faculty/staff/coach” number one, whereas compared university employees
predicted an influence rank of 11. This is a big gap and suggests a lack of awareness among university employee as
to the influence of university faculty members, staff, and coaches on prospective students. Unfortunately due the
combined category it is not possible to tease out the relative influence on prospects of various university
representatives. Also, as mentioned earlier, student athletes are perhaps overrepresented as respondents in the
sample.
Regarding “visit to university campus,” student responses yielded a rank of 3, compared to the university
employee mean rank of 10. This is also a big gap in ranking, and may indicate that university employees
underestimate the impact that a visit to campus makes on prospective students.
The rankings by university employees generally mirrored those of students when they estimate personal
sources of information (parents, friends) as having a greater degree of influence than non-personal sources of
information. It is somewhat of a surprise that university employees ranked new media tools (Facebook, MySpace,
and YouTube) at 8, higher than the student-reported rank of 11. This disparity may reflect the nascent nature of new
media at the time that current students choose a university, as compared to the current emphasis on new media as
means to communicate with prospective students.
In conclusion, university employees predicted student ranking of sources of information by influence fairly
accurately. The gaps appeared where university employees perhaps underestimated the influence of university
representatives (faculty members, staff, coaches) and underestimated the impact of a visit to campus by a
prospective student.
American Journal of Business Education – October 2010 Volume 3, Number 10
22
LIMITATIONS
Student respondents were asked to access their memory about a complex decision process that took place
typically from one to four years prior to the survey. One should be aware of the limits of memory as well of the lack
of self-awareness for a complex decision; both can be sources of error in the data. Field researchers chose the
respondents at their convenience from students on one university campus. Employee respondents were asked
predict the student rankings and the limitations of the employee to access these data are considerable.
The data were limited to current university students who were at one time prospective students who chose
the university. Prospective students who considered but did not choose the university were not in the sampling
population. Richins (2003) showed that dissatisfied customers share negative word-of-mouth, which could deter
prospective students from choosing the university. The sources or effects of negative influence were not considered
in this study.
LESSONS LEARNED
Not surprisingly, personal sources of information were important, and more so than non-personal sources.
Parents led the list, and a university should communicate with both. If you have to communicate with only one
influencer, persuade the mother! Parents may have a role in the decision-making group that goes beyond their
influence as a source of information. University representatives (faculty, staff, coach) have a surprisingly high
degree of influence. The high school staff member—not so much.
University employees predicted student ranking of sources of information by influence fairly accurately.
The gaps appeared where university employees perhaps underestimated the influence of university representatives
(faculty members, staff, coaches) and the impact of a visit to campus by a prospective student. Perhaps the
university should target communication to its internal “influencers” at least as much as the less-influential high
school counselors.
Among non-personal sources of information, a visit to campus stands far above all others. It appears that
one surefire way for a university to break through the clutter of brochures, emails, and websites to reach a
prospective student is to host him or her on campus. A campus visit strategy is somewhat expensive and
challenging to scale up. Is there a substitute? Can a university approximate the experience with media-rich, social,
interactive online experiences?
Paper mail held its own in this study, when its influence was compared to that of social media tools,
university website and email. The influence ratings of all media tools were lower than that of personal sources of
information and campus visits.
The use of social media is growing rapidly. The influence of social media as a source of information is
probably underestimated in this study. The use of social media by admissions increased rapidly from 2007 to 2008,
and this study was based on decisions mostly made in about 2005.
These exploratory findings raise questions for future research and potentially for the promotion strategy of
the university. If family members and friends are the most influential sources of information to students, then what
are the influential sources of information to family and friends? Is the university communicating with family
members of prospective students, or is the university leaving this important channel of influence to chance?
The use of social media tools is growing. What social media New Influentials have the “ear” of
prospective students? Is the university’s online voice being heard, or is it being drowned out by online peers?
Again, is the university part of the conversation or is it leaving this important channel of influence to chance?
American Journal of Business Education – October 2010 Volume 3, Number 10
23
CONCLUSION
For higher education marketers, the findings underscore the need to communicate not only with students,
but also with parents and University representatives. These people are influential sources of information for
students.
The highest-rated non-family source of information was a visit to the campus. While a campus visit is a
relatively expensive means of communication, it has an outsized impact on prospective students.
Among non-personal sources of information, the influence of paper mail was comparable to that of social
media tools, although the university decisions studied were made prior to recent popular gains in the use of social
media. Marketers should consider that social media are not at present a replacement for traditional media, but rather
a supplement. Universities are faced with adapting to new ways of communicating with prospective students and
their influencers, while maintaining the personal connections that are so influential to the choice of university.
Emerging peer-to-peer communication via social media, and the role of influential peers, will continue to
change the way that higher education marketers communicate with prospective students. This mirrors general
changes in the communication model for marketers, from a sender-receiver model to one that includes influential
peer-to-peer and receiver-to-sender communication.
REFERENCES
1. Armstrong, Jami J. & D. Barry Lumsden (2000). Impact of Universities' Promotional Materials on College
Choice. Journal of Marketing For Higher Education, 9:2, 83-91.
2. Barnes, Nora Ganim & Eric Mattson (2009). Social Media and College Admissions: The First Longitudinal
Study. Center for Marketing Research. Retrieved May 5, 2009 at
http://www.umassd.edu/cmr/studiesresearch/mediaandadmissions.pdf
3. Berry, Jon & Ed Keller (2003). The Influentials: One American in Ten Tells the Other Nine How to Vote,
Where to Eat, and What to Buy. NY:Free Press
4. Broekemier, Greg M. & Srivatsa Seshadri (2000). Differences in College Choice Criteria Between
Deciding Students and Their Parents. Journal of Marketing For Higher Education, 9:3, 1-13.
5. Brown, Jacqueline Johnson and Peter H. Reingen (1987). Social Ties and Word-of-Mouth Referral
Behavior. The Journal of Consumer Research, 14:3 (December), 350-362.
6. Dawes, Philip L. & Jennifer Brown (2005). The Composition of Consideration and Choice Sets in
Undergraduate University Choice: An Exploratory Study. Journal of Marketing For Higher Education,
14:2, 2005, 37-59.
7. Engel, James E., Roger D. Blackwell, and Robert J. Kegerreis (1969), "How Information is Used to Adopt
an Innovation," Journal of Advertising Research, 9 (December), 3-8.
8. Feldman, SidneyP. and Merlin C. Spencer (1965), "The Effect of Personal Influence in the Selection of
Consumer Services," in Proceedings of the Fall Conference of the American Marketing Association, ed.
Peter D. Bennett, Chicago: American Marketing Association, 440-452.
9. Garfield, Bob (2009). Future May Be Brighter, but It’s Apocalypse Now. Advertising Age (March 23).
Retrieved May 1, 2009 at http://www.newspaperdeathwatch.com/wp-
content/uploads/2009/03/chaos_scenario_for_media.pdf
10. Gillin, Paul (2007). The New Influencers: A Marketer's Guide to the New Social Media. Fresno: Linden
Publishing.
11. Hoyer, Wayne D. & Deborah J. MacInnis (2007). Consumer Behavior. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
12. Katz, Elihu and Paul F. Lazarsfeld (1955), Personal Influence, Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
13. Marklein, Mary Beth (2009, April 29). College recruiters are Twittering, too. USA Today.
14. Richins, Marsha L. (1983). Negative Word-of-Mouth by Dissatisfied Consumers: A Pilot Study. The
Journal of Marketing, 47:1 (Winter), 68-78.
American Journal of Business Education – October 2010 Volume 3, Number 10
24
NOTES
