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Very long chain omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids and human health
Abstract
Omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids are a family of polyunsaturated fatty acids that contribute to human health and well-being. Functionally the most important n-3 fatty acids appear to be eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoioc acid (DHA), but roles for n-3 docosapentaenoic acid (DPA) are now emerging. Intakes of EPA and DHA are usually low, typically below recommended intakes. Increased intakes are reflected in greater incorporation into blood lipid, cell and tissue pools. Increased content of EPA and DHA modifies the structure of cell membranes and the function of membrane proteins involved as receptors, signaling proteins, transporters, and enzymes. EPA and DHA modify the production of lipid mediators and through effects on cell signaling can alter patterns of gene expression. Through these actions EPA and DHA alter cell and tissue responsiveness in a manner that seems to result in more optimal conditions for growth, development, and maintenance of health. The effects of n-3 fatty acids are evident right through the life course, meaning that there is a need for all sectors of the population to have a sufficient intake of these important nutrients. EPA and DHA have a wide range of physiological roles which are linked to certain health or clinical benefits.
Practical application: Very long chain omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids are found in seafood, especially fatty fish, and in supplements. They exert a range of health benefits as a result of their molecular, cellular and physiological actions. Consequently, very long chain n-3 fatty acids play important roles in growth, development, optimal function, and maintenance of health and well-being right across the life course. Therefore, all sectors of the population need to ensure sufficient intake of these important nutrients. This can be achieved through eating fatty fish or, failing that, use of good quality supplements.
... These restrictions have also been associated with numerous pathologies that may ultimately cause the death of an individual (Das, 2006)). Fish PUFAs, and especially omega-3 (ω-3) fatty acids, provide an essential nutritional requirement for humans and are beneficial to their health (Calder, 2014). Humans rely on fish and other marine products as their principal source of long chain ω-3 fatty acids (Calder and Yaqoob, 2009). ...
... Altogether, the present results are of particular interest for the aquaculture industry. Since consumer awareness concerning fish health is increasing (Ashley, 2007) and the consumption of Σ omega-3-rich food is highly encouraged (Calder and Yaqoob, 2009;Calder, 2014), selecting fish that have high Σ omega-3 content without the negative effects on health status through increased oxidative stress would be an interesting venue for breeding programmes. Furthermore, the relationship between TBARS and the Σ omega-3/Σ omega-6 ratio, along with catalase, warrants further investigation to determine the significance of this ratio for the health status of individuals in natural populations. ...
In fish, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are essential structural elements in cellular membranes, participate in pathway regulation and act as important energy storage sources for optimum growth performance. However, they are also highly susceptible to peroxidation and thus potential oxidative damage. Omega-3 fatty acid content can vary among individuals and populations of fish and can therefore modulate their health status or resistance to oxidative stress. Our objective was to modulate omega-3 content in fish through different diets and estimate its impact on growth performance, overall fatty acid composition, oxidative stress parameters and antioxidant activity. We conducted experiments on juveniles (1+) of four salmonid groups: Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus), brook charr (Salvelinus fontinalis) and their reciprocal hybrids. We found that growth performance in the four groups was negatively affected by high dietary fatty acid content. The content of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS, a marker of lipids peroxidation) significantly rose in Arctic charr when fed the omega-3-rich diet. It was also observed that individuals with high docosahexaenoic acid and low omega-6 content had lower TBARS content. Consequently, high omega-3/omega-6 ratios were accompanied by lower oxidative stress levels. This supports the utilization of omega-3/omega-6 ratios as a marker of the ability of fish to modulate oxidative stress both in the wild and in an aquaculture context. This will further help to predict responses to environmental or nutritional modifications.
... Red meat is also a source of health-beneficial Long Chain (≥ C20) omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC omega-3 PUFA), comprising eicosapentaenoic (EPA, 20:5n-3), docosahexaenoic (DHA, 22:6n-3), and docosapentaenoic (DPA, 22:5n-3) acids. EPA, DHA and DPA are known to positively influence human health with mitigating properties against the prevalence of metabolic, cardiovascular, and chronic diseases [8][9][10], hence the need for striking the right balance between health-beneficial LC omega-3 PUFA composition and intramuscular fat (IMF) content in bovine meat is essential. The research quest for healthy red meat with enhanced culinary properties of sensory organoleptic attributes of taste, aroma, tenderness, juiciness, and health-beneficial LC omega-3 PUFA is on the increase [11][12][13]. ...
... FMP is associated with the overall palatability of meat [75], because it is an indicator of the degree of saturation in fatty acids, which in turn, impacts meat firmness, processing ease, and consumer appreciation of beef [54,74]. This study established that the Wagyu breed had the highest IMF (11.1%) and lowest FMP ( 6 Total saturated fatty acids 7 Total monounsaturated fatty acids 8 Total polyunsaturated fatty acids 9 Omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids 10 Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids 11 Ratio of n-6/n-3 respectively [52]. Australian Angus x Hereford crossbreds were reported to have FMP of 47.2°C [76], compared to purebred Japanese black steers at 14 months of age with a melting point of 35.5 °C, which decreased to 21.2 °C when they were 28 months old [74]. ...
Background
We investigated breed and gender variations in the compositions of long-chain (≥ C20) omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC omega-3 PUFA), fat melting point (FMP) and intramuscular fat (IMF) contents in biopsy samples of the M. longissimus dorsi muscle of grazing beef cattle. The hypothesis that biopsy compositions of health-beneficial LC omega-3 PUFA, FMP and IMF in a pasture-based production system will vary with breed, was tested. Muscle biopsies were taken from 127 yearling pasture-based Angus, Hereford, and Wagyu heifers and young bulls exclusive to the Australian Bowen Genetics Forest Pastoral breeding stud averaging 12 ± 2.43 months of age and under the same management routine.
Results
Breed had a significant influence on IMF, FMP, and the compositions of oleic acid, α-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic (EPA), docosahexaenoic (DHA), docosapentaenoic (DPA), and total EPA + DHA + DPA in the M. longissimus dorsi muscle biopsies (P ≤ 0.03). The Wagyu breed had the highest (11.1%) and Hereford the lowest (5.9%) IMF (P = 0.03). The reverse trend was observed in FMP values where the Hereford breed had the highest (55 °C), Angus intermediate (46.5 °C), and Wagyu the lowest (33 °C) FMP. The Wagyu and Angus breeds had similar oleic fatty acid (18:1n-9) content, while the Hereford breed had the lowest (P < 0.01). The highest ALA, DPA, total EPA + DHA, total EPA + DHA + DPA and total ALA + EPA + DHA + DPA contents were detected in the Wagyu breed (P ≤ 0.03). The Hereford had similar EPA and DPA contents to the Angus (P ≥ 0.46). Total EPA + DHA + DPA contents in Wagyu, Angus, and Hereford were 28.8, 21.5, and 22.1 mg/100g tissue (P = 0.01), respectively. Sex was an important source of variation that influenced LC omega-3 PUFA composition, FMP and IMF, where yearling heifers had higher IMF (11.9% vs 5.3%), lower FMP (33°C vs 37°C), and higher LC omega-3 PUFA than bulls.
Conclusion
All the results taken together indicate that the Wagyu breed at 28.8 mg/100g tissue, was the closest to meeting the Australia and New Zealand recommended source level threshold of 30 mg/100g tissue of health-beneficial ≥ C20 omega-3 FA content. Since gender was a significant determinant of LC omega-3 PUFA composition, IMF content and FMP, it should be factored into enhancement strategies of healthy meat eating quality traits in grazing cattle. These findings also suggest that the Bowen Genetics Forest Pastoral beef cattle studs are important sources of LC omega-3 PUFA that can be used to cover the deficit in these health claimable fatty acids in Western diets.
... Red meat is also a source of health-beneficial Long Chain (≥ C20) omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC omega-3 PUFA), comprising eicosapentaenoic (EPA, 20:5n-3), docosahexaenoic (DHA, 22:6n-3), and docosapentaenoic (DPA, 22:5n-3) acids. EPA, DHA and DPA are known to positively influence human health with mitigating properties against the prevalence of metabolic, cardiovascular, and chronic diseases [8][9][10], hence the need for striking the right balance between health-beneficial LC omega-3 PUFA composition and intramuscular fat (IMF) content in bovine meat is essential. The research quest for healthy red meat with enhanced culinary properties of sensory organoleptic attributes of taste, aroma, tenderness, juiciness, and health-beneficial LC omega-3 PUFA is on the increase [11][12][13]. ...
... FMP is associated with the overall palatability of meat [75], because it is an indicator of the degree of saturation in fatty acids, which in turn, impacts meat firmness, processing ease, and consumer appreciation of beef [54,74]. This study established that the Wagyu breed had the highest IMF (11.1%) and lowest FMP ( 6 Total saturated fatty acids 7 Total monounsaturated fatty acids 8 Total polyunsaturated fatty acids 9 Omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids 10 Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids 11 Ratio of n-6/n-3 respectively [52]. Australian Angus x Hereford crossbreds were reported to have FMP of 47.2°C [76], compared to purebred Japanese black steers at 14 months of age with a melting point of 35.5 °C, which decreased to 21.2 °C when they were 28 months old [74]. ...
... Previous reports indicate that cartilaginous fish livers contain large amounts of oil rich in ω− 3 long-chain fatty acids (LCω3PUFAs, which are important in the human diet and are of commercial and scientific interest (Özyılmaz & Ö ksüz, 2015;Sellami et al., 2018;Lamas & Massa, 2019). They are essential for growth, development, optimal functioning, and maintenance of lifelong health and well-being (Calder, 2014). At the functional level, n-3 eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6n-3) appear to be the most important due to their essential roles as structural components, signaling messengers, and precursors of metabolic processes (Morais et al., 2015). ...
... At the functional level, n-3 eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6n-3) appear to be the most important due to their essential roles as structural components, signaling messengers, and precursors of metabolic processes (Morais et al., 2015). In addition, many studies have demonstrated the beneficial effects of these fatty acids in the prevention and treatment of some cardiovascular diseases, inflammatory processes, cancer, and hypertension (Calder, 2014). In recent years, the relationship between the consumption of these fatty acids and the reduction of the symptoms of COVID19 has been studied (Weill, 2020). ...
interest. The aim of this work was to promote a circular economy model by obtaining oil by enzymatic hydrolysis
from Mustelus schmitti livers and incorporating it into bread. The oil extraction reaction was carried out using
Alcalase® 2.4 L at pH 8.0, 55 ◦C of temperature for 60 min. Fatty acid analysis showed that the oil was rich in ω-3
long chain fatty acids (LCω3PUFAs), with the eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)
being the main constituents (13 and 70 % of total PUFAs, respectively). Then, an external gelation method was
developed to produce alginate capsulates loaded with the extracted oil. The encapsulation efficiency (EE) was
93.41 %. Finally, capsulated and unencapsulated fish oil were used to develop breads and more than 95 % of EPA
and DHA were recovered after baking. Thus, 20 g of baked product can provide about 45 % of the recommended
minimum daily intake of EPA plus DHA. The results suggest that it is possible to use the liver from the narrownose
smoothhound (Mustelus schmitti) shark fishery to produce value-added products based on a circular
economy.
... In this study, both species exhibited a lipid profile rich in n-3 PUFAs, particularly EPA and DHA. As a result, their lipid profile may ensure important amounts of these long-chain FA, which are known to confer multiple health benefits to humans (SiriwardhanaSiriwardhana et al., 2012;Shahidi and Ambigaipalan, 2018;Ruxton et al., 2005;Ruxton et al., 2004;Calder, 2014). ...
The present study examines the fatty acid (FA) profiles of the Atlantic chub mackerel (Scomber colias) and the Mediterranean horse mackerel (Trachurus mediterraneus), from the NW Mediterranean, focusing on FA distribution across maturity stages in three lipid fractions: reserve lipids, membrane lipids, and free fatty acids (FFAs). Results show that the reserve FA fraction primarily influences the total FA profile during reproductive stages. PERMANOVA analysis indicated that 82.45% of the variance was explained by species, lipid fractions, maturity stages and their interaction, with DHA, C18:1 n-9, and C16:0 identified as key contributors. In total FA, the predominant FA were polyunsaturated FAs (PUFAs) (37.19-54.72%). The highest values for monounsaturated FAs were found in the reserve FA fraction (20.17-38.27%). PUFAs were predominant in the membrane lipids (>60% for each species), especially DHA (49.89-56.51%) and were also substantial (27.68-43.10%) in the reserve lipids. Saturated FAs were predominant in the FFA fraction (48.84-64.77%). A comparative analysis with other small pelagic fish in the region addresses the influence of environmental factors, seasonality, and feeding strategies in lipid profiles of pelagic fish in the NW Mediterranean. These findings contribute to our understanding of how environmental stressors, such as rising sea temperatures, affect the health and condition of marine fish, with broader implications for marine food webs and trophic interactions in a changing climate. The results also support that monitoring PUFAs (particularly EPA and DHA) in pelagic fish could serve as indicator of the health of both the stock and the pelagic environment they live.
... Omega-3 fatty acids are essential nutrients with well-established roles in maintaining overall health and well-being (Calder, 2014). Found predominantly in fatty fish, flaxseeds, and walnuts, these polyunsaturated fats, including eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), have garnered significant attention due to their potential benefits for cardiovascular health, brain function, and inflammatory conditions. ...
Omega-3 fatty acids have garnered attention for their potential benefits in cardiovascular health and reproductive wellness. This study aimed to investigate the effects of omega-3 supplementation on blood cholesterol levels and ovulation events in trained individuals. A randomized controlled trial was conducted, involving physically active individuals aged 18-45 years engaged in regular exercise training. Participants were randomly assigned to receive either omega-3 supplementation or placebo for a specified duration. Blood lipid profiles, including total cholesterol, LDL-C, HDL-C, and triglyceride levels, were assessed using standardized laboratory assays. Ovulation events and menstrual cycle characteristics were monitored through hormonal assays, ultrasonographic imaging, and menstrual cycle tracking. Analysis of the findings revealed significant reductions in triglyceride levels following omega-3 supplementation, accompanied by trends towards improved LDL-C/HDL-C ratio. Moreover, enhancements in ovulatory function and menstrual cycle regularity were observed in physically active women receiving omega-3 supplementation. These findings underscore the potential benefits of omega-3 supplementation for optimizing cardiovascular and reproductive health outcomes in trained individuals. Future research endeavors should focus on elucidating the underlying mechanisms and conducting longitudinal studies to assess the sustained impact of omega-3 supplementation on health and performance in physically active populations.
... An increased abundance of EPA and DHA in cell membrane phospholipids is associated with anti-inflammatory effects by reducing the production of pro-inflammatory eicosanoids from ARA and synthesis of specialized pro-resolving mediators, while also influencing other processes involved in inflammation, such as lipid raft formation, gene transcription regulation and cytokine (chemokine and adhesion molecules) production [66,67]. As EPA competes simultaneously with ARA for the key enzymes cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase to form less proinflammatory mediators, the use of the ARA/ EPA ratio is discussed as a marker of chronic inflammation [68]. ...
Background
Different dietary choices can influence blood fatty acid profiles, which are crucial for maintaining physiological health and reducing disease risk. In particular, the exclusion of animal foods in vegetarian diets is associated with a higher risk of undersupply of long-chain omega (n)-3 fatty acids, which could, potentially, have a negative effect on inflammation. This study aimed to examine differences in plasma and erythrocyte fatty acid profiles as well as inflammation-related biomarkers between various plant-based diets and a regular omnivores diet.
Methods
The Nutritional Evaluation (NuEva) study is a is a parallel-designed trial. Here screening data was used to investigate differences in plasma and erythrocyte fatty acid profiles across omnivores (Western diet; n = 62), flexitarians (n = 69), vegetarians (n = 64) and vegans (n = 57). Furthermore, markers associated with inflammation are investigated and correlated with selected fatty acids.
Results
Flexitarians showed lower erythrocyte saturated fatty acids (SFA) than omnivores, while vegans had the lowest plasma SFA. Vegans had higher erythrocyte monounsaturated fatty acids proportions, like oleic acid, than flexitarians and vegetarians. n-6 fatty acids, particularly linoleic acid, were highest in vegans and vegetarians. Conversely, omnivores had higher arachidonic acid in erythrocytes. Vegans had lower n-3 fatty acids in both plasma and erythrocytes, also reflected in a lower n-3 index (eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) + docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)) values, indicating a trend with restriction of animal foods: omnivores/flexitarians > vegetarians > vegans. While interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, IL-10, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and high-sensitive C-reactive protein (hsCRP) did not differ between groups, and vegans had lower leptin levels compared to omnivores.
Conclusions
The NuEva study revealed significant impact of dietary patterns on fatty acid profiles, with vegans and vegetarians displaying lower concentrations of SFA and n-3 fatty acids, including EPA and DHA, compared to omnivores and flexitarians. Despite the clear differences in fatty acid profiles across the diets, the inflammatory markers measured in our healthy collective are comparable.
Trial registration
Registered under ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier no. NCT03582020.
... Por su parte, en cuanto a los carbohidratos, es muy relevante su tipología, ya que no todos los carbohidratos se digieren con la misma facilidad; por ejemplo, el almidón es fácilmente digerible y es el que se presenta en mayor proporción, mientras que la fibra, aunque representa un menor porcentaje del total, y es más digerible que la procedente de plantas terrestres, es más difícil de digerir por ser un carbohidrato complejo (Nagappan y col., 2021). Por último, los lípidos procedentes de las microalgas presentan altas cantidades de n-3 LC-PUFA, carentes en otras alternativas (Sarker, 2023), y de especial relevancia, puesto que reportan grandes beneficios para la salud humana (Calder 2014) y para el sistema inmunitario del pez (Lu y col., 2021). Además, se ha demostrado que las microalgas mejoran la proporción de ácidos grasos omega-3 frente a los omega-6, gracias a su alto contenido en EPA y DHA, beneficiando así a los consumidores, que disponen, en este sentido, de un producto de mayor calidad nutricional (Chen y col., 2019). ...
El pienso empleado en acuicultura incluye elevadas cantidades de aceite y harina de pescado, ingredientes excelentes desde un punto de vista nutricional, pero insostenibles medioambientalmente debido a que requieren de la captura de pequeños peces pelágicos para su elaboración. Por este motivo, la comunidad científica busca ingredientes alternativos que permitan el desarrollo sostenible de la acuicultura y garanticen la seguridad alimentaria de la población mundial, sin perjudicar el rendimiento productivo y el bienestar de los animales cultivados. En este sentido, las microalgas se postulan como ingredientes prometedores, debido a sus buenas cualidades nutricionales y a su sostenibilidad, ayudando así a conservar el medio ambiente.
... [2] Consumption of omega-3 fatty acids, which are abundant in fatty fish such as salmon and mackerel, has been linked to increased cognitive performance and a decreased risk of cardiovascular disease. [3,4] Additionally, aquatic food products have a highquality protein content that includes all of the essential amino acids required for human health. [5,6] This protein richness positions aquatic foods as fundamental components of healthy diets globally. ...
Examining recent innovations in aquatic food products shows significant progress in sustainable processing, product quality, and safety. The introduction of nano-encapsulation and innovative packaging methods has undeniably propelled the industry forward. These developments have proven effective in preventing microbial growth and moderating changes in product quality alterations. In addition, technologies such as colorimetric sensors and oxygen scavengers have brought fresh perspectives to real-time food quality monitoring and control, further solidifying their contribution to the indus-try's growth. Despite these advances, challenges persist, particularly in the areas of food safety and environmental conservation. The paper emphasizes the need for robust and responsive risk assessment measures and effective mitigation strategies. These can prevent potential biological, chemical, and environmental hazards, thereby improving food safety and safeguarding our precious ecosystems. The review also highlights the importance of the regulations that strike a balance between meeting consumer preferences, enforcing environmental conservation, and prioritizing sustainability to drive the industry toward a prosperous future. The insights from this review serve as a crucial roadmap for various stakeholders in the industry, providing direction for decision-making, and fostering advancements in sustainable processing, quality enhancement, and safety assurance within the aquatic food industry.
... Many health benefits can arise from fatty acids, such as the prevention of coronary heart disease, cardiovascular disease, rheumatoid arthritis, depression, postpartum depression, cancers, diabetes, and anti-inflammatory action [4,8]. Fish has been widely accepted as the most significant and readily accessible source of health-promoting omega-3 long-chain PUFAs (LC-PUFAs) intended for human utilization [9][10][11]. Nevertheless, as a traditional source of fat required for the production of farmed fish high in n-3 LC-PUFAs, the aquaculture feed industry is increasingly viewing fish oil as an unsustainable and impractical practice from an environmental and economic perspective [12,13]. ...
High levels of nitrogen compounds can lead to acute toxicity in aquatic organisms. Ammonia, a by-product of protein breakdown, is the most prevalent contaminant in freshwater environments. Increasing salinity in water sources can cause fluctuations in salinity levels within breeding ponds. The interaction of these elements can occur in breeding ponds, significantly impacting the physiology and quality of the aquatic products. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between salinity and ammonia-N stress and their effects on the quality and fatty acid profile of tilapia fish (Oreochromis niloticus). The fish were divided into 12 distinct treatment groups, each characterized by varying salinity levels (0, 4, 8, and 12 ppt) and different concentrations of ammonia-N (0, 50% of 50% lethal concentration [LC50]-96 h, and 30% of LC50-96 h) arranged in a factorial design. The calculated LC50-96 h for ammonia-N was 0.86 mg/L. Significant increases were observed in cortisol and glucose levels associated with various salinity treatments and ammonia levels. The levels of carcass protein in the salinity treatments (4, 8, and 12 ppt) did not show any significant differences when compared to the control treatment. However, the protein percentage at 50% of LC50-96 h of ammonia-N was lower than that of the control treatment. In salinity treatments and ammonia levels (50% and 30% of LC50-96 h of ammonia-N), a significant increase in the percentage of lipid, highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) was observed. To draw the conclusion, our assessment indicates that a salinity concentration of 8 ppt over a 96-h period without feeding has produced positive effects on the quality of tilapia carcasses.
... However, use of non-marine ingredients in feed formulations has inevitably led to a reduction in the n − 3 LC-PUFA eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n − 3, EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n − 3, DHA). In addition to preventing deficiency symptoms in fish themselves (Sargent et al. 1995), n − 3 LC-PUFA have been widely acknowledged as having beneficial effects in a variety of human pathologies and disorders (Calder 2014(Calder , 2018 and consequently, the reduced levels of EPA and DHA in modern aquafeeds has negatively impacted the nutritional quality of farmed fish products (Sprague et al. 2016). Therefore, the aquaculture industry has high demand for sustainably sourced, high n − 3 LC-PUFA ingredients for feed formulation, which guarantee high growth rates of farmed fish and quality product (Tocher et al. 2019). ...
The rapid growth of aquaculture has prompted the exploration of alternative and sustainable feed ingredients. Polychaetes, such as Hediste diversicolor, offer promise in the circular economy due to their ability to recycle waste materials from bioindustries and convert low nutritional value fatty acids (FA) into eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and arachidonic (ARA) acids. This study explored the combined effect of temperature and salinity on growth and LC-PUFA biosynthesis in H. diversicolor fed on a side stream diet (33% sludge from salmon aquaculture (AS) and 66% solid-phase digestate from biogas production (SBD)). Polychaetes were cultured for 28 days along a 5-step temperature and salinity gradient ranging from 7.7 to 17.9 °C and 5 to 40 psu, respectively. Growth was highest at high temperatures (≥ 14.3 °C) and salinities (≥ 35 psu). The FA composition remained relatively stable across different culture temperatures, while salinity exhibited higher levels of n − 3 PUFA and n − 3 LC-PUFA at lower salinities (5 and 15 psu) compared to higher salinity (35 psu), mainly driven by EPA. This suggests that salinity may exert a more pronounced effect than temperature on the FA profiles of H. diversicolor. Despite low temperature and high salinity (40 psu) significantly upregulating the expression of elongase and desaturase genes, this was not translated into higher LC-PUFA. Remarkably, polychaetes exhibited high levels of n − 3 and n − 6 LC-PUFA, even when fed a diet deficient in such FA. These findings highlight the potential of H. diversicolor for LC-PUFA biosynthesis, positioning this species as a promising candidate for producing high-nutritional-value ingredients for aquafeeds.
... Year of baseline/ study data collection supplements may be a viable alternative or addition to fish and seafood consumption [83]. Further, overtime there are a variety of EPA+DHA sources available to consumer interested in n-3 supplements, and options other than fish oil include krill oil, algae oil or calanus finmarchius oil [85,86]. The data on mean eRBC EPA+DHA in the USA show that the omega-3 status is below the desirable range (>8%). ...
... Omega-3 (n3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n3)-are important for maintaining health (Djuricic & Calder, 2021). Higher blood levels of n3 PUFAs are associated with lower risk for cardiovascular disease and mortality Harris et al., 2021), reduced inflammatory status (Calder, 2014(Calder, , 2015, as well as Abbreviations: aLNA, alpha-linolenic acid; ARA, arachidonic acid; iAUC, incremental area under the curve; BMI, body mass index; CVD, cardiovascular disease; DHA, docosahexaenoic acid; DPAn3, docosapentaenoic acid n3; DPAn6, docosapentaenoic acid n6; EE, ethyl esters; EMA, european medicines agency; EPA, eicosapentaenoic acid; FA, fatty acid; FAME, fatty acid methyl esters; FID, flame ionization detector; FO, fish oil; GC, gas chromatography; LA, linoleic acid; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; LLOQ, lower limit of quantification; LC, long chain; MUFA, monounsaturated fatty acids; n3, omega-3; n6, omega-6; n.s., not significant; PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acids; rTAG, re-esterified triacylglycerol; SBP, systolic blood pressure; SD, standard deviation; SDA, stearidonic acid; SE, standard error; SFA, saturated fatty acids; TAG, triacylglycerol. slower angiogenesis, tumor growth, and metastasis (Zhang et al., 2013). ...
Omega‐3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n3 PUFA), specifically eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n3), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n3), are essential for maintaining health. To better understand their biology, it is important to define their bioavailability. The aim of this cross‐over study was to investigate and compare the acute effects on plasma EPA and DHA levels after single doses of EPA oil (99% pure) and DHA (97% pure) ethyl esters. Twelve men aged 20–40 years with a body‐mass‐index of 20–27 kg/m ² and low fish consumption were recruited. Several measures (e.g., 4‐week run‐in period, standardized diet, and blood collection protocols) were taken to reduce the inter‐individual variability of plasma fatty acids levels. Using a cross‐over design, the subjects received 2.2 g of EPA in the first test period and 2.3 g of DHA in the second. The test periods were separated by 2 weeks. Blood samples were taken before dosing and after 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24, 48, and 72 h. The mean ± SE maximum concentrations for EPA were higher than for DHA (115 ± 11 μg/mL vs. 86 ± 12 μg/mL; p = 0.05). The mean ± SE incremented area under the plasma concentration curve over 72 h for EPA (2461 ± 279 μg/mL) was 2.4 times higher ( p < 0.001) than that for DHA (1021 ± 170 μg/mL). The mean ± SE half‐life was for EPA and DHA was 45 ± 8 and 66 ± 12 h. Our results indicate that EPA administration in single doses leads to higher circulating plasma levels of EPA compared to an effect of an equivalent dose of DHA on DHA plasma levels.
... On the other hand, it has been observed that a reduced quantity of unsaturated fatty acids (UFA) in milk can positively impact human health. Specifically, the presence of Oleic acid (C 18:1c9 ) and linoleic acid (C 18:2c9t11 ) fatty acids in low concentrations has been linked to a decrease in plasma lipids and a hindrance in the development of cancer (Calder, 2014). Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) play a crucial role in facilitating the development of the nervous system in infants (Guesnet & Alessandri, 2011). ...
Major lipid fraction of milk fat is triacylglycerol (TAG) representing about 98% of total lipids. TAG contains a glycerol backbone and three fatty acids. These three fatty acids are positioned at sn-1, sn-2 & sn-3 position in glycerol backbone and the positioning is called as stereospecific positioning. This stereospecific positioning mainly effects the lipid metabolism of dietary lipids. During the digestion of TAG in human beings, lipase preferably attacks the TAG at sn-1 or sn-3 positions resulting in the release of free fatty acids along with sn-2 monoacylglycerol. It has been reported that saturated fatty acids are mainly esterified in sn-2 position whereas unsaturated fatty acids are esterified in sn-1 and 3 positions. The fatty acid distribution among the three sn-positions of the glycerol backbone is non-random. The non-random distribution is a result of the specificity of different enzymes during TAG biosynthesis. The distribution of fatty acids depends upon species, feed, season and lactation period. The stereospecific arrangement of fatty acids in fat also influences some physical properties of fats and oils like crystallization and melting properties. The stereospecific arrangement of milk fat is generally studied by using different lipases along with separation techniques and finally chromatography or spectroscopy. Understanding these aspects can aid in identifying the origin of the fat, detecting potential adulteration of different other species of milk, and predicting nutritional value of different species' milk based on differences in the form of sn-2-MAG and free fatty acids.
... Inclusion of FM and FO in aquafeed formulations guarantees provision of all essential nutrients including the long-chain (≥C 20 ) polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) arachidonic acid (ARA, 20:4n-6), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA,. In addition to ensuring normal growth and neural development of fish themselves (Tocher et al., 2019), inclusion of FO and, to a lesser extent FM, results in deposition of relatively high levels of n-3 LC-PUFA in the final product, thus securing high nutritional value for consumers associated to the health benefits of EPA and DHA in a variety of pathologies and disorders affecting humans (Calder, 2014(Calder, , 2018. While a growing proportion of globally produced FM and FO derives from recycling of fish by-products and trimmings from capture fisheries and aquaculture (Hamilton et al., 2020), a significant amount of FM and FO is still produced from small pelagic feed-grade fisheries that are often overexploited or, at best, at their sustainable exploitation limit (FAO, 2022). ...
Aquaculture of carnivorous fish species heavily relies on marine ingredients to guarantee the provision of essential nutrients, including long-chain (C 20-24) polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) such as arachidonic acid (ARA, 20:4n-6), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3). These nutrients are crucial for fish growth and neural development, offering significant health benefits to consumers. The rapid growth of global aquaculture production in recent decades, has driven the exploration of alternative and sustainable feeding sources that ensure n-3 LC-PUFA content. Within the context of circular economy, polychaete worms arise as promising candidates for aquafeed formulations, due to the enzymatic capacity for de novo LC-PUFA biosynthesis. The present study focused on the molecular and functional characterisation of elongases (Elovl) and front-end desaturases (Fed) involved in the LC-PUFA biosynthesis of the nereid polychaete Hediste diversicolor. The sequence and phylogenetic analysis established the orthology of three Elovl, identified as Elovl2/5, Elovl4 and Elovl1/7, that have putative functions in the LC-PUFA biosynthesis. Functional charac-terisation in yeast demonstrated their roles as PUFA elongases, exhibiting affinity towards C 18 and C 20 PUFA substrates (Elovl2/5) and towards C 18 , C 20 and C 22 (Elovl4 and Elovl1/7). Additionally, H. diversicolor possesses two front-end desaturases (Fed1 and Fed2) with Δ5 and Δ6/Δ8 desaturation activities, respectively, thus encompassing all the necessary desaturation reactions involved in the LC-PUFA biosynthesis pathways. These findings, along with the previously characterised methyl-end desaturases, show that H. diversicolor possesses the full enzymatic repertoire necessary to produce LC-PUFA like ARA and EPA. This highlights the potential of polychaetes and other annelids for producing nutrient-rich biomass suitable for aquaculture.
... Recent studies have shown that omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids can not only reduce the cardiovascular incidence rate, but also play an active role in the treatment of COVID-19 [41,42]. Studies have confirmed that DHA (Docosahexaenoic Acid) and EPA (Eicosapentaenoic Acid) have many functions, including benefiting cranial nerve development and reducing the risk of the risk of chronic illnesses such as cardiovascular diseases and diabetes, among others [43]. Sushchik et al. [44] have reported that the differences in living environment, food sources, seasons and activity spaces can affect the composition of fatty acids. ...
To investigate difference in the quality of the different parts (back, tail muscles, and fish skin) of Opsariichthys bidens from pond and rice field cultures, a comparative study was conducted in terms of nutritional composition, volatile flavor profiles and gut microbiota. In detail, the texture, free amino acids, fatty acids were further assessed. The results suggested that the moisture content, crude protein and crude fat content in the skin of O. bidens are higher than those in the back and tail muscles, regardless of breeding modes. The fish cultured in the rice field had a higher protein content than those from the pond culture, while the fat content of the rice field-cultured fish was significantly low compared to the fish from the pond culture, especially in the back and tail parts. A total of 43 volatile components were detected by Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), with a maximum of 18 types of aldehydes and the highest concentration being nonanal. Compared to pond cultures, the fish from the rice field cultures showed more abundant flavor composition and odor-active compounds. The total content of DHA (Docosahexaenoic Acid) and EPA (Eicosapentaenoic Acid) in the rice field-cultured fish was higher than that of the pond group, while no significant disparity in amino acid composition was observed (p > 0.05). Comparative and clustering analyses of gut microbiota revealed notable discrepancies in the gut microbiota of O. bidens from two aquaculture systems. However, an inherent correlation between the gut microbiome and meat quality would be further emphasized in further studies. This study can offer a theoretical reference for the development of high-quality aquatic products by selecting the appropriate aquaculture models.
... The fatty acid profile also influences the muscle quality and taste of fish, especially the unsaturated fatty acid content [31,32]. Among PUFAs, DHA and EPA are beneficial not only for the growth and reproduction of fish but also for human health [33,34]. Therefore, the composition and content of PUFA were crucial for estimating the nutritional value of fatty acids [35]. ...
Simple Summary
This study investigated the relationship between feed particle size and growth performance or nutritional composition of crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) larvae. Our results showed that appropriate feed particle size could promote the growth and improve the nutritional value of crayfish. The critical values of suitable particle sizes for SGR and FCR were achieved at 0.55 mm and 0.537 mm. When the particle size of the feed exceeded 0.55 mm and 0.588 mm, the growth of crayfish reached the highest value and the FCR was the lowest. Where the feed particle size exceeds 0.55 mm and 0.588 mm, the growth and feeding of crayfish are unaffected. Compared to other groups, group C has the highest nutritional value. Therefore, we recommend that the appropriate food size for juvenile crayfish is 0.71–0.85 mm (group C).
Abstract
A suitable feed size has a positive effect on animal feeding. For aquatic larvae, the correct feed size is very important for their growth. This experiment analyzed and compared the effect of different particle sizes of feed for larval stages on the growth performance, whole body composition, and muscle amino acid and fatty acid composition of crayfish. Five larval crayfish diets of different particle sizes, namely < 0.40 mm (Group A, control group), 0.40–0.50 mm (Group B), 0.71–0.85 mm (Group C), 0.90–1.00 mm (Group D) and 1.5 mm (Group E), were fed to 2000 crayfish (initial weight 0.0786 ± 0.0031 g) for 100 d. The results showed that as the particle size increased, final weight, weight gain (WG, p = 0.001) and specific growth rate (SGR, p = 0.000) of the crayfish tended to increase and then leveled off, with the control group being the lowest. The feed conversion ratio (FCR, p = 0.000) showed a decreasing and then equalizing trend with increasing particle size, but there was no significant difference between the groups except the control group. Broken-line regression analysis showed that the critical values for the appropriate particle feed size for crayfish larvae were 0.55 mm and 0.537 mm using SGR and FCR as indicators. Groups B, C and D had the highest crude protein content and were significantly higher than the control group (p = 0.001). Group E had the highest umami amino acid (UAA) and was significantly higher than the control group (p = 0.026). The content of isoleucine (Ile, p = 0.038) and phenylalanine (Phe, p = 0.038) was highest in group C and significantly higher than in the control group. Through principal component analysis, groups C and D were shown to contain leucine (Leu), glutamic (Glu), methionine (Met), valine (Val), histidine (His), Phe, and Ile levels significantly induced. The content of linoleic acid (C18:2n6, p = 0.000), linolenic acid (C18:3n3, p = 0.000), saturated fatty acid (SFA, p = 0.000), monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA, p = 0.001), polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA, p = 0.000) and n-6 PUFA (p = 0.000) in group C was the highest and significantly higher than the control group. Principal component analysis showed that group C significantly induced the levels of C18:2n6, C18:3n3, DHA, EPA, n-3 PUFA and n-6 PUFA in muscle. Therefore, our results suggest that appropriate feed particle size can improve the growth performance and nutrient composition of crayfish. Based on the broken-line regression analysis of SGR and FCR, the critical values of optimal particle size for crayfish are 0.55 mm and 0.537 mm, and when the particle size exceeds these critical values (not more than 1.5 mm commercial feed), growth performance and FCR of the crayfish are no longer changed. Nevertheless, group C has high protein and low lipid content, as well as better nutrition with amino acids and fatty acids. Overall, combined with growth performance and nutrient composition, it is recommended that the particle size of the diet at the larval stage for crayfish is between 0.71 and 0.85 mm.
... However, vegetable oils possess distinct fatty acid profiles compared to fish oils, and, consequently, when included at high levels in the fish diets, they alter the flesh fatty acid composition; most importantly, they reduce the concentration of the n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 20:6n-3) that characterize the marine fish oil. DHA and EPA are associated with beneficial health effects, and are considered essential components in the human diet [2]. Fish oil replacement does not only affect the nutritional quality of the farmed fish but also compromises the health and well-being of the fish themselves [3]. ...
The Actinopterygian and specifically the Teleostean peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) present an impressive variability and complexity in their structures, both at the gene and protein levels. These structural differences may also reflect functional divergence from their mammalian homologs, or even between fish species. This review, taking advantage of the data generated from the whole-genome sequencing of several fish species, highlights the differences in the primary structure of the receptors, while discussing results from the literature pertaining to the functions of fish PPARs and their activation by natural and synthetic compounds.
... LC-PUFA plays important complex physiological roles such as maintenance of cell membrane structure and fluidity, prostaglandin synthesis, plasma triglyceride transport, efficient intestinal absorption of fat soluble vitamins, transcription, cell regulation and signalling (Lee et al., 2016;Tocher, 2015: Khazrai et al., 2004. In humans, fish consumption as a source of EPA and DHA has been promoted due to their positive health effects (Shang et al., 2017), being associated with the prevention and treatment of certain chronic conditions, particularly cognitive impairment, inflammatory and cardiovascular diseases (Calder, 2014;Sinn et al., 2012;Mozaffarian and Wu, 2011). ...
... Our findings indicated that PE supplementation increased the contents of C18:0, C18:3n3, and C18:3n6 in the egg yolk. C18:3n3, as an important essential fatty acid and a precursor to the synthesis of n-3 PUFA, can promote brain and retina development (Calder, 2015). C18:3n6 can be converted to C20:4n6 by metabolic pathways and contributes to improving vision and memory, lowering plasma cholesterol, and regulating nerves (Masquio et al., 2015). ...
Introduction
Peppermint contains substantial bioactive ingredients belonging to the phytoestrogens, and its effects on the production of late-laying hens deserve more attention. This study evaluated the effects of dietary peppermint extract (PE) supplementation on egg production and quality, yolk fatty acid composition, antioxidant capacity, and cecal microbiota in late-phase laying hens.
Method
PE powder was identified by UPLC-MS/MS analysis. Two hundred and sixteen laying hens (60 weeks old) were randomly assigned to four treatments, each for 28 days: (i) basal diet (control group, CON); (ii) basal diet + 0.1% PE; (iii) basal diet + 0.2% PE; and (iv) basal diet + 0.4% PE. Egg, serum, and cecal samples were collected for analysis.
Results
Dietary PE supplementation increased the laying rate, serum triglyceride, immunoglobulin G, and total antioxidant capacity, while 0.2 and 0.4% PE supplementation increased eggshell thickness, serum total protein level, and superoxide dismutase activity of laying hens compared with the CON group (P < 0.05). PE addition in diets increased the C14:0, C18:3n3, C18:3n6, C23:0, C24:0, and C24:1n9 contents in the yolk. In addition, the egg yolk saturated fatty acid content was higher (P < 0.05) in the 0.2 and 0.4% PE groups compared with the CON and 0.1% PE groups. The microbiota analysis revealed that the cecal phylum Proteobacteria was decreased (P < 0.05) in the PE-supplemented groups. A total of 0.4% PE supplementation increased the cecal richness of gram-positive bacteria and decreased the richness of gram-negative and potentially pathogenic bacteria compared with the 0.1% PE group (P < 0.05). Microbial function prediction analysis showed that the cecal microbiota of the PE group was mainly enriched by fatty acid degradation, fatty acid metabolism, amino sugar metabolism, nucleotide sugar metabolism, and other pathways. Regression analysis suggested that 0.28–0.36% PE supplementation was the optimal level for improving egg production and quality, antioxidant capacity, and yolk fatty acid in late-phase laying hens.
Discussion
Dietary PE supplementation improved egg production and quality (including yolk fatty acid composition) by increasing serum IgG and antioxidant capacity and modulating the intestinal microbiota in late-phase laying hens.
... In addition to u-3 PUFAs, u-6 PUFAs are different types of polyunsaturated fatty acids, which are commonly found in various vegetable oils, including corn, soybean, and sunflower oils, as well as cereals [39,40]. These fatty acids are also essential to the body and play important roles in cell growth and maintenance, brain function, and hormone production [41]. However, it was reported that the Western diet typically tends to be relatively high in u-6 PUFAs while being low in u-3 PUFAs, which may lead to undesirable u-6/u-3 ratio of PUFAs exceeding 20:1 [42,43]. ...
Lyotropic non-lamellar liquid crystalline (LLC) nano-self-assemblies (including cubosomes and hexosomes) are attractive versatile platforms for encapsulation and delivery of drugs and nutritional molecules. This is due to their unique structural features and architectural arrangements that afford loading of small molecules and macromolecules having different physicochemical properties with high efficiency. Considering the reported health promoting effects of long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω-3 PUFAs) and their precursors ω-3 PUFA monoacylglycerols, here we focus on physicochemical and biological properties of
a new family of non-lamellar LLC nanoparticles assembled either from binary mixtures of phosphatidylglycerol and three types of ω-3 PUFAs, or from single ω-3 PUFA monoacylglycerols. We discuss recent progress in understanding their complexity, pH sensitivity, and structural tunability, and highlight their potential applications in health and medicine.
... Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) classified as n-3 and n-6, regulate a wide range of functions in the body, including blood pressure, blood clotting, and correct development and function of the brain and nervous system [1]. EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid; 20:5n-3) and DHA (docosahexanoic acid; 22:6n-3) are the predominant n-3 fatty acids in marine oils and their beneficial health effects are well documented [2]. The main n-3 fatty acid in vegetable oils is α-linolenic acid (ALA; 18:3n-3). ...
Plant-based food provides more ALA (α-linolenic acid) and less EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA (docosahexanoic acid) than marine food. Earlier studies indicate that cetoleic acid (22:1n-11) stimulates the n-3 pathway from ALA to EPA and DHA. The present study aimed to investigate the dietary effects of camelina oil (CA) high in ALA and sandeel oil (SA) high in cetoleic acid on the conversion of ALA to EPA and DHA. Male Zucker fa/fa rats were fed a diet of soybean oil (Ctrl) or diets of CA, SA, or a combination of CA and SA. Significantly higher levels of DPA (docosapentaenoic acid) and DHA in blood cells from the CA group compared to the Ctrl indicate an active conversion of ALA to DPA and DHA. Increasing the uptake and deposition of EPA and DHA meant that a trend towards a decrease in the liver gene expression of Elovl5, Fads1, and Fads2 along with an increase in the dietary content of SA was observed. However, 25% of the SA could be exchanged with CA without having a significant effect on EPA, DPA, or DHA in blood cells, indicating that bioactive components in SA, such as cetoleic acid, might counteract the inhibiting effect of the high dietary content of DHA on the n-3 biosynthetic pathway.
... The majority of functional foods, important part of healthy human nutrition, are rich in unsaturated omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids (Grashorn, 2005;Singh et al. 2011;Calder, 2014). Some of them, e.g. the alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) and linoleic acid are essential for the human body and have to be provided by the food (de Lorgeril et al. 2001). ...
Ivanova, P., Petrov, P. B., Gerzilov, V., Keranova, N., Petkova, Zh., Teneva, O., Antova, G., Hristakieva, P. & Penchev, I.G. (2022). Effect of flaxseed oil supplemented diets on growth performance and meat quality traits in broilers. The aim of the present study was to determine the effect of two flaxseed oil levels in the diet of male Ross 308 broilers on the growth performance, feed consumption, slaughter analysis, meat quality, chemical and fatty acid composition of breast and thigh muscles. A total of 180 one-day-old broiler chicks were weighed individually, randomly distributed in 3 groups (n=60 birds in each group; 4 replicates × 15 birds per replicate) and fed to 42 days of age with following diets containing: first group (G 1)-0%; second group (G 2)-1.5% and third group (G 3)-3.0% flaxseed oil. At the end of the experiment, chickens attained average body weight of 2485 ± 49 g (G 1), 2500 ± 49 g (G 2) and 2551 ± 47 g (G3) without statistically significant differences-Р > 0.05. Feed conversion ratio (FCR) for all periods was 1.74 kg/kg (G1), 1.58 kg/ kg (G2) and 1.57 kg/kg (G3). Higher water-holding capacity (WHC) was found for breast fillet in G 1 and G 2 compared to G 3-P < 0.05, and for thigh muscle in G 1 and G 3 compared to G 2-P < 0.05. No differences between the groups were found with regard to the tenderness of the meat-Р > 0.05. With regard to fatty acids, with increasing the amount of flaxseed oil in the diet, the content of oleic, palmitic and palmitoleic acids in the breast fillet decreased while the quantity of linoleic and linolenic acids increased drastically-from 4.60 ± 0.81 (G 1) to 5.80 ± 0.87 (G 2) and to 13.27 ± 0.15 (G 3), and from 0.07 ± 0.03 (G 1) to 0.80 ± 0.23 (G 2) and to 6.77 ± 0.55 (G 3). The tendency of changes in fatty acids in thigh meat was similar-palmitic and palmitoleic acids decreased, and linoleic and linolenic acids increased dramatically-from 6.47 ± 0.03 (G 1) to 10.20 ± 0.12 (G 2) and to 11.23 ± 1.59 (G 3), from 0.10 ± 0.06 (G 1) to 2.60 ± 0.23 (G 2) and to 5.67 ± 1.13 (G 3). The addition of flaxseed oil in the diet decreased the amount of SFA, increased UFA, and PUFA in particular, which once again was due to the increased content of linoleic and linolenic acid in the lipids. The diet supplemented with 3.0% flaxseed oil showed the highest influence on the lipid composition of the broiler's meat.
... FAO/WHO (8) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) recommend a seafood consumption of 100 g and up to 300 g of fish per week, respectively, accounting for at least two meals a week to cover the recommended intake. High amounts of important long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs) in fish are recognized for promoting overall human health due to their activities in physiological, molecular as well as cellular processes (9). Furthermore, marine proteins are recognized for their favorable nutritional value, due to high bioavailability and abundance of important peptides and essential amino acids. ...
Exploring and making use of underutilized marine resources can be a sustainable approach to achieve future demands of fish consumption by the ever-growing population. Five species, namely European plaice (Pleuronectes platessa), European flounder (Platichthys flesus), lemon sole (Microstomus kitt), megrim (Lepidorhombus whiffiagonis), and thornback ray (Raja clavate), often captured as by-catch in Norway, were characterized for their nutritional value and potential accumulation of hazardous components. The proximate composition, protein profile, fatty acid profile as well as essential and toxic trace elements and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were analyzed. Digestible indispensable amino acid (DIAA) ratios and scores (DIAAS) and contributions of omega-3 fatty acids to the diet were calculated. Analysis on proximate composition revealed low fat contents of 0.74 to 1.25% and sufficient protein contents between 16.9 and 24% in the five species. Results of DIAA indicate a profitable distribution, with contributions exceeding the daily intake recommendations for an adult person related to a 200 g fillet. Moreover, findings on the distribution of eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) showed remarkable results, considering that the investigated species are lean fish. All five investigated fish exceed the recommended average daily intake level (AI) of EPA + DHA in a 200 g portion. As to toxic trace elements and PCBs, no significantly elevated levels were found considering a portion size of 200 g. Consequently, the nutritional quality of the investigated fish can be regarded as profitable with overall low potential health risks.
D. huoshanense is a traditional Chinese medicine with antidiabetes effects, but the underlying metabolic regulatory mechanism remains unknown. Plasma metabolomic analysis was applied to assess the metabolic regulatory mechanism underlying the alleviation of streptozotocin-induced type 1 diabetes (STZ-T1D) by D. huoshanense. The successfully STZ-T1D model rats were assigned to the model group, the model + water extract of D. huoshanense (DHWE) group, and the model + metformin (MET) group. They were administered the corresponding medication by gavage. After 28 days, the plasma levels of glucose, malondialdehyde (MDA), C-reactive protein (CRP), and total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) were determined. Morphological changes in the pancreatic islet tissue were analyzed via hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining. The expression of occludin-1, zonula occludens protein 1 (ZO-1) and protein kinase RNA-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK) in the ileum tissue was determined via western blotting. Nontargeted metabolome analysis of the plasma was performed via ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography. The results revealed that DHWE reduced blood glucose, C-reactive protein, and MDA levels; increased plasma T-AOC; improved intestinal mucous integrity and pancreatic islet morphological structure; and alleviated intestinal endoplasmic reticulum stress. Plasma metabolomics revealed that DHWE significantly increased the levels of ascorbic acid 2-sulfate, L-thyroxine, phosphatidylcholine (PC) (14:0e/5:0), and PC (16:1e/4:0); decreased the levels of D-(-)-fructose and indole-3-lactic acid; and significantly affected ascorbate and aldarate metabolism and glyoxylate and dicarboxylate metabolism in STZ-T1D rats (p < 0.05), and the effects on the citric acid cycle and pyruvate metabolism tended to be significant (p < 0.1). This study confirmed that DHWE alleviated STZ-T1D by reducing oxidative stress and the inflammatory response, enhancing intestinal mucosa integrity and affecting mainly the energy metabolism and vitamin C metabolism of STZ-T1D rats.
n-3 long-chain (≥ C20) polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LC-PUFA), such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), are essential nutrients found in fish oils at high concentrations. While fish LC-PUFA synthesis enzymatic activity was examined using a yeast heterologous expression system, this does not necessarily reflect LC-PUFA synthesis de novo activity. In this study, n-3 LC-PUFA synthesis activity was evaluated for fish cell lines from marine, anadromous, catadromous, and freshwater habitats by combinatorial analysis using deuterium-labeled PUFA with liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI MS/MS). Each fish cell line converted deuterium-labeled PUFA to deuterium-labeled LC-PUFA depending on the activity of the available LC-PUFA synthetic enzymes. To further investigate de novo LC-PUFA synthesis activity in fish, enzymatic synthesis activity was confirmed between cell lines and fish tissues using fish hepatocytes. This approach is highly effective in evaluating and comparing LC-PUFA synthesis activities among cell lines and fish tissues.
With priority given to various-sized samples of market-available Hilsa (Tenualosa ilisha), human health consequences of trace metals along with total essential acids, including the fatty acid (FA) and amino acid (AA) profile
were measured and compared to different size groups (G I, G II, and G III) using chemometric approaches.
Essential amino acids were lower than nonessential amino acids. The G III contained the highest (97.55%)
saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. The highest concentrated metal was found in G1 among the groups and the
order of metal (mg/kg) was Zn (205.01) > Mn (37.37) > Fe (69.39) > Cu (1.47) > Cr (1.31) > Ni (0.42) > Pb
(0.017) > Cd (0.005). Even though the adult group showed no health hazards for Hilsa consumption, noncarcinogenic risks have been identified for G1 fish consumption by children. Continued monitoring is recommended to overcome the health consequences caused by fish consumption.
The immune system is highly toned and efficiently dedicated to maintaining health by protecting against a tremendous array of invaders. A possible explanation may be that mice with the mycobacterium tuberculosis induced rheumatoid arthritis may be better primed for improved n-3-LCPUFA utilization due to their prior deficiency status. The authors showed that EPA/DHA supplementation in mice with sufficient n-3-PUFA status did not interfere with the TB drug treatment when co-administered as an adjunct therapy. A similar trend was observed when mice with low n-3-PUFA status were supplemented with EPA/DHA, suggesting that the coadministration of EPA/DHA together with the currently used TB antibiotics has no observable adverse effects. Abnormal bone remodeling destroys the microstructure of subchondral bone which results in articular cartilage degeneration. It was investigated that DHA was able to protect articular cartilage by preserving the microstructure of subchondral bone. Activation of Wnt/β catenin pathway promotes differentiation into osteoclasts, promoting osteoblast proliferation.
Edible vegetable oils are sources of polyunsaturated fatty acids, necessary for a balanced diet capable of providing elements that act on the energetic, structural, and hormonal composition of humans. The growing consumption of these foods has encouraged the search for techniques capable of characterizing their compositions and transformations when subjected to industrial processes or during domestic use. We propose to analyze the transformations undergone by edible vegetable oils originating from different plants due to thermal oxidation. For this, dynamic viscosity, oxidative stability index, fatty acid profile, and infrared spectra determined before and after being subjected to thermal oxidation. The results from infrared spectroscopy were improved through Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Among other results, it was possible to establish correlations between the FTIR spectra, dynamic viscosity, and the profile of fatty acids, allowing the prediction of the concentration of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) after thermal oxidation by measuring the spectrum of samples before the thermal oxidation process. Furthermore, it is observed that the dynamic viscosity is strongly altered by thermal oxidation, which is directly related to the decrease in PUFA content. The results obtained can be used to predict quality factors of edible vegetable oils, helping to choose the right type of oil for each industrial or domestic process.
Practical Applications : This research holds significant practical implications, particularly in detecting adulteration and fraud of edible vegetable oils. The developed method uses physicochemical properties and infrared spectroscopy with principal component analysis to characterize oils and to determine the oil stability index.
Striped catfish are one of the main aquaculture species in Asia. However, the low level of omega‐3 fatty acids in its body makes this species less attractive compared with marine fish. This study aimed to investigate the effect of different oils on growth performance, body composition, and fatty acids in striped catfish juveniles. A basal diet (T0) was formulated to contain no oil, while four other diets (T1, T2, T3, and T4) were supplemented at 4% with different oils, including salmon oil (SALO), soybean oil (SBO), linseed oil (LSO), and rapeseed oil (RSO). Catfish juveniles with initial body weight (23–24 g/fish) were randomly stocked in 500‐L fiberglass tanks, divided into five treatments, three replicates for each, and fed the experimental diets for 60 days. Results from this study revealed that fish fed the LSO‐supplemented diet had significantly (p < 0.05) improved whole body omega‐3 (alpha‐linoleic acid, 18:3n3) fatty acid levels (7.86%), total n‐3 fatty acids (9.12%), and higher growth than those fed the other diets. In conclusion, the findings suggest that linseed oil can be used to improve growth, omega‐3 fatty acid, C18:3–3 (ALA), and total n‐3 PUFA deposition in the whole body of striped catfish juveniles.
The effects of long-term omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-3 PUFA) supplementation during endurance training on tryptophan (Trp) metabolism and mental state of healthy individuals have not been evaluated so far. Concentrations of plasma Trp, its metabolites and IL-6 were assessed in 26 male runners before and after a 12-week training program combined with supplementation of n-3 PUFAs (O-3 + TRAIN group) or medium chain triglycerides (MCTs; TRAIN group). After the 12-week program participants' mood before and after stress induction was also assessed. The effects of the same supplementation protocol were evaluated also in 14 inactive subjects (O-3 + SEDEN group). Concentrations of 3-hydroxykynurenine (3-HK) and picolinic acid (PA) significantly increased only in the O-3 + TRAIN group ( p = 0.01; η p 2 = 0.22 and p = 0.01; η p 2 = 0.26). Favorable, but not statistically significant changes in the concentrations of kynurenic acid (KYNA) ( p = 0.06; η p 2 = 0.14), xanthurenic acid (XA) ( p = 0.07; η p 2 = 0.13) and 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid (3-HAA) ( p = 0.06; η p 2 = 0.15) and in the ratio of neurotoxic to neuroprotective metabolites were seen also only in the O-3 + TRAIN group. No changes in mood and IL-6 concentrations were observed in either group. Supplementation with n-3 PUFAs during endurance training has beneficial effects on Trp's neuroprotective metabolites.
Trial registry : This study was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov with identifier NCT05520437 (14/07/2021 first trial registration and 2018/31/N/NZ7/02962 second trial registration).
Fats highly contribute to the food quality in terms of taste, smell, texture, and nutrition. Fats and oils consist mainly of triacylglycerols and other acylglycerols, where fatty acids are esterified with glycerol. This chapter discusses how all dietary fats and oils are made up of saturated fatty acids (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in different proportions and affecting both melting point and nutritional value. The dietary guidelines for fat are presented and the scientific support for this advice is discussed.
The meat yield, and chemical and nutrients composition of the pond, rice-field and wild-caught crayfish meat were investigated. The results showed that the meat yield of pond crayfish (10.52%) was significantly higher than that of rice-field (10.05%) and wild-caught (10.32%) crayfish. The rice-field crayfish meat had the highest moisture contents (81.43%) and the lowest protein content (15.50%). The higher lipid contents were found in the rice-field and pond crayfish meat (1.10% and 1.19%, respectively). While, the pond crayfish meat had the highest essential amino acids (6.09 g/100 g) and total amino acids (16.21 g/100 g) content, and the Σn-3/Σn-6 PUFA ratio (1.78). The essential amino acid index in the pond and rice-field crayfish meat was higher than 70 which indicated that they were high-quality protein. The pond crayfish meat contained more macro-minerals, but less micro-minerals. While, the trace minerals were rich in the rice-field crayfish meat. The heavy metals contents in the crayfish meat were under limit. Overall, the pond, rice-field and wild-caught crayfish meat all exhibited good nutritional quality, and the pond crayfish meat showed better in terms of amino acids and fatty acids composition. For the rice-field crayfish, most of its nutritional quality were similar with the wild-caught crayfish.
The quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) technique gives promising opportunities to detect and quantify RNA targets and is commonly used in many research fields. This study aimed to identify suitable reference genes for physical exercise and omega-3 fatty acids supplementation intervention. Forty healthy, physically active men were exposed to a 12-week eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) supplementation and standardized endurance training protocol. Blood samples were collected before and after the intervention and mRNA levels of six potential reference genes were tested in the leukocytes of 18 eligible participants using the qRT-PCR method: GAPDH (Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase), ACTB (Beta actin), TUBB (Tubulin Beta Class I), RPS18 (Ribosomal Protein S18), UBE2D2 (Ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2 D2), and HPRT1 (Hypoxanthine Phosphoribosyltransferase 1). The raw quantification cycle (Cq) values were then analyzed using RefFinder, an online tool that incorporates four different algorithms: NormFinder, geNorm, BestKeeper, and the comparative delta-Ct method. Delta-Ct, NormFinder, BestKeeper, and RefFinder comprehensive ranking have found GAPDH to be the most stably expressed gene. geNorm has identified TUBB and HPRT as the most stable genes. All algorithms have found ACTB to be the least stably expressed gene. A combination of the three most stably expressed genes, namely GAPDH, TUBB, and HPRT, is suggested for obtaining the most reliable results.
Tasmanian-farmed Atlantic salmon populations exhibit starvation followed by a reduced growth rate alongside reduced flesh pigmentation in response to elevated summer temperatures, which at times can exceed their optimum threshold. Here we investigated fatty acids and carotenoids of Atlantic salmon displaying three different flesh color phenotypes, using metabolomic and chemical analyses of lipids and pigments in six key tissues. Astaxanthin is mainly responsible for flesh pigmentation, while canthaxanthin is associated with carotenoid catabolism in the liver, as our findings indicate. Reduced flesh pigmentation correlated with lower levels of carotenoids across all tested tissues and clear evidence of a correlation between carotenoid and fatty acid levels in all detected fatty acid classes was observed. The reduced growth performance and flesh pigmentation are most likely due to the impact of varying levels of starvation on fatty acids and carotenoid profiles supporting the link between carotenoids and fatty acid metabolic processes.
BACKGROUND: Evidence from observational studies suggests that diets high in omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) may protect people from cognitive decline and dementia. The strength of this potential protective effect has recently been tested in randomized controlled trials. OBJECTIVES: To assess the effects of omega-3 PUFA supplementation for the prevention of dementia and cognitive decline in cognitively healthy older people. METHODS: Search: We searched ALOIS - the Cochrane Dementia and Cognitive Improvement Group's Specialized Register on - 6 April 2012 using the terms: "omega 3", PUFA, "fatty acids", "fatty acid", fish, linseed, eicosapentaenoic, docosahexaenoic. Selection criteria: Randomised controlled trials of an omega-3 PUFA intervention which was provided for a minimum of six months to participants aged 60 years and over who were free from dementia or cognitive impairment at the beginning of the study. Two review authors independently assessed all trials. Data collection and analysis: The review authors sought and extracted data on incident dementia, cognitive function, safety and adherence, either from published reports or by contacting the investigators for original data. Data were extracted by two review authors. We calculated mean difference (MD) or standardised mean differences (SMD) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) on an intention-to-treat basis, and summarized narratively information on safety and adherence. MAIN RESULTS: Information on cognitive function at the start of a study was available on 4080 participants randomised in three trials. Cognitive function data were available on 3536 participants at final follow-up. In two studies participants received gel capsules containing either omega-3 PUFA (the intervention) or olive or sunflower oil (placebo) for six or 24 months. In one study, participants received margarine spread for 40 months; the margarine for the intervention group contained omega-3 PUFA. Two studies had cognitive health as their primary outcome; one study of cardiovascular disease included cognitive health as an additional outcome. None of the studies examined the effect of omega-3 PUFA on incident dementia. In two studies involving 3221 participants there was no difference between the omega-3 and placebo group in mini-mental state examination score at final follow-up (following 24 or 40 months of intervention); MD-0.07 (95% CI -0.25 to 0.10). In two studies involving 1043 participants, other tests of cognitive function such as word learning, digit span and verbal fluency showed no beneficial effect of omega-3 PUFA supplementation. Participants in both the intervention and control groups experienced either small or no cognitive declines during the studies. The main reported side-effect of omega-3 PUFA supplementation was mild gastrointestinal problems. Overall, minor adverse events were reported by fewer than 15% of participants, and reports were balanced between intervention groups. Adherence to the intervention was on average over 90% among people who completed the trials. All three studies included in this review are of high methodological quality. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Direct evidence on the effect of omega-3 PUFA on incident dementia is lacking. The available trials showed no benefit of omega-3 PUFA supplementation on cognitive function in cognitively healthy older people. Omega-3 PUFA supplementation is generally well tolerated with the most commonly reported side-effect being mild gastrointestinal problems. Further studies of longer duration are required. Longer-term studies may identify greater change in cognitive function in study participants which may enhance the ability to detect the possible effects of omega-3 PUFA supplementation in preventing cognitive decline in older people.
Palm oil is the major oil produced, with annual world production in excess of 50 million tonnes. About 85% of global palm oil produced is used in food applications. Over the past three decades, research on nutritional benefits of palm oil have demonstrated the nutritional adequacy of palm oil and its products, and have resulted in transitions in the understanding these attributes. Numerous studies have demonstrated that palm oil was similar to unsaturated oils with regards to effects on blood lipids. Palm oil provides a healthy alternative to trans‐fatty acid containing hydrogenated fats that have been demonstrated to have serious deleterious effects on health. The similar effects of palm oil on blood lipids, comparable to other vegetable oils could very well be due to the structure of the major triglycerides in palm oil, which has an unsaturated fatty acid in the stereospecific numbers ( sn) ‐2 position of the glycerol backbone. In addition, palm oil is well endowed with a bouquet of phytonutrients beneficial to health, such as tocotrienols, carotenoids, and phytosterols. This review will provide an overview of studies that have established palm oil as a balanced and nutritious oil.
Numerous studies in human and animal on nutritional attributes of palm oil have shown that: Palm olein is comparable to monounsaturated oils (e.g. olive oil) in its effect on lipid profile. Palm oil is well endowed with a bouquet of phytonutrients beneficial to health.
In the present study, salmon products available from UK retailers were analysed to determine the levels of n-3 long-chain PUFA (LC-PUFA), a key determinant of nutritional quality. There was a wide variation in the proportions and absolute contents of EPA and DHA in the products. Relatively high contents of 18 : 1n-9, 18 : 2n-6 and 18 : 3n-3, characteristic of vegetable oils (VO), were found in several farmed salmon products, which also had generally lower proportions of EPA and DHA. In contrast, farmed salmon products with higher levels of 16 : 0 and 22 : 1, characteristic of fish oil (FO), had higher proportions of EPA and DHA. Therefore, there was a clear correlation between the levels of VO and FO in feeds and the proportions of n-3 LC-PUFA in products. Although wild salmon products were characterised by higher proportions of n-3 LC-PUFA (20-40 %) compared with farmed fish (9-26 %), they contained lower total lipid contents (1-6 % compared with 7-17 % in farmed salmon products). As a result, farmed salmon products invariably had higher levels of n-3 LC-PUFA in absolute terms (g/100 g fillet) and, therefore, delivered a higher 'dose' of EPA and DHA per portion. Overall, despite the finite and limiting supply of FO and increasing use of VO, farmed salmon continue to be an excellent source of and delivery system for n-3 LC-PUFA to consumers.
Background:
Guidelines advocate changes in fatty acid consumption to promote cardiovascular health.
Purpose:
To summarize evidence about associations between fatty acids and coronary disease.
Data sources:
MEDLINE, Science Citation Index, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials through July 2013.
Study selection:
Prospective, observational studies and randomized, controlled trials.
Data extraction:
Investigators extracted data about study characteristics and assessed study biases.
Data synthesis:
There were 32 observational studies (530,525 participants) of fatty acids from dietary intake; 17 observational studies (25,721 participants) of fatty acid biomarkers; and 27 randomized, controlled trials (103,052 participants) of fatty acid supplementation. In observational studies, relative risks for coronary disease were 1.02 (95% CI, 0.97 to 1.07) for saturated, 0.99 (CI, 0.89 to 1.09) for monounsaturated, 0.93 (CI, 0.84 to 1.02) for long-chain ω-3 polyunsaturated, 1.01 (CI, 0.96 to 1.07) for ω-6 polyunsaturated, and 1.16 (CI, 1.06 to 1.27) for trans fatty acids when the top and bottom thirds of baseline dietary fatty acid intake were compared. Corresponding estimates for circulating fatty acids were 1.06 (CI, 0.86 to 1.30), 1.06 (CI, 0.97 to 1.17), 0.84 (CI, 0.63 to 1.11), 0.94 (CI, 0.84 to 1.06), and 1.05 (CI, 0.76 to 1.44), respectively. There was heterogeneity of the associations among individual circulating fatty acids and coronary disease. In randomized, controlled trials, relative risks for coronary disease were 0.97 (CI, 0.69 to 1.36) for α-linolenic, 0.94 (CI, 0.86 to 1.03) for long-chain ω-3 polyunsaturated, and 0.89 (CI, 0.71 to 1.12) for ω-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementations.
Limitation:
Potential biases from preferential publication and selective reporting.
Conclusion:
Current evidence does not clearly support cardiovascular guidelines that encourage high consumption of polyunsaturated fatty acids and low consumption of total saturated fats.
Primary funding source:
British Heart Foundation, Medical Research Council, Cambridge National Institute for Health Research Biomedical Research Centre, and Gates Cambridge.
Optimal functioning of the immune system is crucial to human health, and nutrition is one of the major exogenous factors modulating different aspects of immune function. Currently, no single marker is available to predict the effect of a dietary intervention on different aspects of immune function. To provide further guidance on the assessment and interpretation of the modulation of immune functions due to nutrition in the general population, International Life Sciences Institute Europe commissioned a group of experts from academia, government and the food industry to prepare a guidance document. A draft of this paper was refined at a workshop involving additional experts. First, the expert group defined criteria to evaluate the usefulness of immune function markers. Over seventy-five markers were scored within the context of three distinct immune system functions: defence against pathogens; avoidance or mitigation of allergy; control of low-grade (metabolic) inflammation. The most useful markers were subsequently classified depending on whether they by themselves signify clinical relevance and/or involvement of immune function. Next, five theoretical scenarios were drafted describing potential changes in the values of markers compared with a relevant reference range. Finally, all elements were combined, providing a framework to aid the design and interpretation of studies assessing the effects of nutrition on immune function. This stepwise approach offers a clear rationale for selecting markers for future trials and provides a framework for the interpretation of outcomes. A similar stepwise approach may also be useful to rationalise the selection and interpretation of markers for other physiological processes critical to the maintenance of health and well-being.
To monitor inflammation in a meaningful way, the markers used must be valid: they must reflect the inflammatory process under study and they must be predictive of future health status. In 2009, the Nutrition and Immunity Task Force of the International Life Sciences Institute, European Branch, organized an expert group to attempt to identify robust and predictive markers, or patterns or clusters of markers, which can be used to assess inflammation in human nutrition studies in the general population. Inflammation is a normal process and there are a number of cells and mediators involved. These markers are involved in, or are produced as a result of, the inflammatory process irrespective of its trigger and its location and are common to all inflammatory situations. Currently, there is no consensus as to which markers of inflammation best represent low-grade inflammation or differentiate between acute and chronic inflammation or between the various phases of inflammatory responses. There are a number of modifying factors that affect the concentration of an inflammatory marker at a given time, including age, diet and body fatness, among others. Measuring the concentration of inflammatory markers in the bloodstream under basal conditions is probably less informative compared with data related to the concentration change in response to a challenge. A number of inflammatory challenges have been described. However, many of these challenges are poorly standardised. Patterns and clusters may be important as robust biomarkers of inflammation. Therefore, it is likely that a combination of multiple inflammatory markers and integrated readouts based upon kinetic analysis following defined challenges will be the most informative biomarker of inflammation.
Retinal function was assessed by electroretinogram in 32 neonates randomly assigned to formulas of different omega-3 fatty acid content and in 10 infants fed human milk. All neonates had a birth weight of 1000-1500 g and were fed study diets from d 10 to 45 or discharge. Group A received formula containing predominantly 18:2 omega-6. Group B received a balanced mix of 18:2 omega-6 and 18:3 omega-3. Group C was given a formula containing both essential fatty acids and supplemented with marine oil to provide 22:6 omega-3 content similar to that of human milk. The fatty acid composition of plasma and red blood cell (RBC) lipids were similar for all groups on entry but marked diet-induced differences were found after feeding the study diets. Group C was comparable to the human milk-fed group, but group A had lower 22:6 omega-3 and omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) in plasma and RBC membranes. Cone function was not affected by dietary essential fatty acids. Rod electroretinogram thresholds were significantly higher for group A relative to the human milk-fed group and group C and significantly correlated with RBC omega-3 LCPUFA (r = -0.63, p less than 0.0001); 44% of the variance could be explained by RBC and plasma omega-3 LCPUFA content.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
ω -3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), mainly present in fish oil, are part of the human diet. Among PUFAs, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) has received particular attention for its anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, proapoptotic, antiangiogenetic, anti-invasion, and antimetastatic properties. These data suggest that DHA can exert antitumor activity potentially representing an effective adjuvant in cancer chemotherapy. This review is focused on current knowledge supporting the potential use of DHA for the enhancement of the efficacy of anticancer treatments in relation to its ability to enhance the uptake of anticancer drugs, regulate the oxidative status of tumor cells, and inhibit tumor cell invasion and metastasis.
Resolution of inflammation is now held to be an active process where autacoids promote homeostasis. Using functional-metabololipidomics and in vivo systems, herein we report that endogenous n-3 docosapentaenoic (DPA) acid is converted during inflammation-resolution in mice and by human leukocytes to novel n-3 products congenerous to D-series resolvins (Rv), protectins (PD) and maresins (MaR), termed specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPM). The new n-3 DPA structures include 7,8,17-trihydroxy-9,11,13,15E,19Z-docosapentaenoic acid (RvD1n-3 DPA), 7,14-dihydroxy-8,10,12,16Z,19Z-docosapentaenoic acid (MaR1n-3 DPA) and related bioactive products. Each n-3 DPA-SPM displayed protective actions from second organ injury and reduced systemic inflammation in ischemia-reperfusion. The n-3 DPA-SPM, including RvD1n-3 DPA and MaR1n-3 DPA, each exerted potent leukocyte directed actions in vivo. With human leukocytes each n-3 DPA-SPM reduced neutrophil chemotaxis, adhesion and enhanced macrophage phagocytosis. Together, these findings demonstrate that n-3 DPA is converted to novel immunoresolvents with actions comparable to resolvins and are likely produced in humans when n-3 DPA is elevated.
Breast-fed infants score better on visual and developmental tests than do formula-fed infants and this has been related to higher concentrations of erythrocyte docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6 omega 3). This prompted an investigation into the relationship between brain, retina, and erythrocyte fatty acids and diet in infancy. Total lipids of erythrocytes, retina, and brain cortex from 35 term infants were analyzed by capillary gas chromatography. Breast-fed infants had a greater proportion of DHA in their erythrocytes and brain cortex relative to those fed formula (P < 0.005) but differences were not observed in retina. Cortex DHA increased in breast-fed (but not formula-fed) infants with age (r2 = 0.72, P < 0.01, n = 15), largely an effect of length of feeding (r2 = 0.62, P < 0.01, n = 35). There was an association between age at death and erythrocyte DHA with cortex DHA (r2 = 0.50, P < 0.01). In contrast, accretion of cortex arachidonic acid was dependent on age but not diet. The higher concentration of DHA in brains of breast-fed infants may explain the improved neurodevelopment reported in breast-fed compared with formula-fed infants.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) modulate the rate of gene transcription for a number of different genes including hepatic lipogenic and glycolytic genes, adipose Glut-4 and stearoyl-CoA desaturase and interleukins. Some of the transcriptional effects of PUFA appear to be mediated by eicosanoids, but the PUFA suppression of lipogenic and glycolytic genes is independent of eicosanoid synthesis and appears to involve a nuclear mechanism directly modified by PUFA. With the recent cloning of a fatty acid-activated nuclear factor termed peroxisome-proliferator-acitivated receptor (PPAR) has come the suggestion that PPAR may be the PUFA response factor. However, this review presents several lines of evidence that indicate that the PPAR and PUFA regulation of gene transcription involves separate and independent mechanisms, and the PPAR is not the PUFA response factor.
The immune system acts to protect the host from infectious agents that exist in the environment and from other noxious insults. It is constantly active, acting to discriminate “nonself” from “self.” The immune system has 2 functional divisions: the innate and the acquired. Both involve various blood-borne factors and cells. A number of methodologies exist to assess aspects of immune function; many of these rely on studying cells in culture ex vivo. There are large interindividual variations in many immune functions even among the healthy. Many factors, including genetics, gender, age, nutrient status, and gut flora, contribute to the observed variation. Individuals with immune responses significantly below “normal” are more susceptible to infectious agents and exhibit increased infectious morbidity and mortality. However, it is not clear how the variation in immune function among healthy individuals relates to variation in susceptibility to infection.
The evidence that omega-3 fatty acids are essential for human development and most helpful to achieve good health throughout life is clearly documented by Dr. Joyce Nettleton in her new book Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Health. Omega 3 fatty acids are produced by the plants of the land and sea. The tissues of the body require the omega-3 fatty acids for their proper functioning just as they also need the omega-6 essential fatty acids. It is probable in man's evolutionary development that there has always been the proper balance between these two groups of essential fatty acids, but in the modern era with the provision of inexpensive vegetable oils it is possible that the pendulum for increased dietary omega-6 fatty acids in the form of linoleic acid has swung too far and the intake ofomega-3 fatty acids has actualIy declined. In particular, the 22 carbon omega 3 fatty acid, docosahexaenoic acid, which has six double bonds, is important in the membranes of brain cells, heart muscle cells, the rods and cones of the retina and spermatozoa. Docosahexaenoic acid is found only in foods such as fish and other sea life, having been synthesized by the phytoplankton of the waters. An outright deficiency of omega-3 fatty acids has led to a number of distur bances in animals and human infants such as impaired vision, abnormalities of the electroretinogram, of the eye and various behavioral aberrations.
The mortality and predictive factors of coronary heart disease among men of Japanese ancestry in Japan and Hawaii were compared on the basis of 12 years follow-up data using comparable methods of case ascertainment and risk factor measurements. Among 1,687 men (Japan) and 7,536 men (Hawaii) who were free of coronary heart disease and aged 45–69 at baseline examination In 1965–1968, 20 (Japan) and 123 (Hawaii) cases of fatal coronary heart disease were identified. The age-adjusted mortality rate was 40% higher in Hawaii than in Japan. The difference was not statistically significant, but consistent with earlier studies. More than half of this difference in mortality rate was attributed to different levels of known risk factors in the two cohorts. In multivarlate analysis using the combined population, age, blood pressure, serum cholesterol, serum glucose, cigarette smoking, and alcohol intake (inversely) remained as significant predictors of coronary heart disease mortality. Although the associations of risk factors wtth coronary heart disease tended to be stronger in Hawaii than in Japan, there was no statistically significant difference in regression coefficient for any of the risk factors studied. These findings cannot be claimed to be definitive because of the small number of cases, especially in Japan.
There may be a causal relationship between n-6 PUFA intake and allergic disease and there are biologically plausible mechanisms, involving eicosanoid mediators of the n-6 PUFA arachidonic acid, that could explain this. There is some evidence that high linoleic acid intake is linked with increased risk of atopic sensitisation and allergic manifestations. Fish and fish oils are sources of long-chain n-3 PUFA and these fatty acids act to oppose the actions of n-6 PUFA. It is considered that n-3 PUFA will protect against atopic sensitisation and against the clinical manifestations of atopy. All five epidemiological studies investigating the effect of maternal fish intake during pregnancy on atopic or allergic outcomes in infants/children of those pregnancies concluded protective associations. Epidemiological studies investigating the effects of fish intake during infancy and childhood on atopic outcomes in those infants or children are inconsistent, although the majority of the studies (9/14) showed a protective effect of fish. Fish oil provision to pregnant women is associated with immunologic changes in cord blood. Provision of fish oil during pregnancy may reduce sensitisation to common food allergens and reduce the prevalence and severity of atopic dermatitis in the first year of life. This effect may persist until adolescence with a reduction in prevalence and/or severity of eczema, hayfever and asthma. Fish oil supplementation in infancy may decrease the risk of developing some manifestations of allergic disease, but whether this benefit persists as other factors come into play remains to be determined
Objective: Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids have a significant impact on the activity and abundance of key transcription factors controlling the expression of proteins involved in major metabolic pathways. The primary objective of this review is to provide an overview of our understanding of how dietary PUFA effects on gene expression lead to changes in hepatic metabolism. Design: Narrative review. This review will focus on how dietary PUFA control hepatic lipid synthesis and oxidation through the regulation of specific transcription factors. Research articles that address critical issues in fatty acid regulation of gene expression were identified. Information from these papers is summarized. Results: Four families of hepatic transcription factors have been identified that are regulated by changes in dietary lipid intake or by treating cultured cells with specific fatty acids. These families include: peroxisome proliferator activated receptors (PPARa, b, g1, g2
), liver X receptors (LXRa and b), hepatic nuclear factor-4 a (HNF-4a) and sterol regulatory element binding protein (SREBP-1a, -1c and –2). Together, these factors control carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, cholesterol and bile acid metabolism and apolipoproteins production. Conclusions: These studies reveal a complex interaction between dietary lipid, specific transcription factors and hepatic carbohydrate, lipid, cholesterol and bile acid metabolism. Keywords: PPAR, LXR, HNF4, SREBP, PUFA, Transcription
The use of n-3 fatty acids may prevent cardiovascular events in patients with recent myocardial infarction or heart failure. Their effects in patients with (or at risk for) type 2 diabetes mellitus are unknown.
METHODS:
In this double-blind study with a 2-by-2 factorial design, we randomly assigned 12,536 patients who were at high risk for cardiovascular events and had impaired fasting glucose, impaired glucose tolerance, or diabetes to receive a 1-g capsule containing at least 900 mg (90% or more) of ethyl esters of n-3 fatty acids or placebo daily and to receive either insulin glargine or standard care. The primary outcome was death from cardiovascular causes. The results of the comparison between n-3 fatty acids and placebo are reported here.
RESULTS:
During a median follow up of 6.2 years, the incidence of the primary outcome was not significantly decreased among patients receiving n-3 fatty acids, as compared with those receiving placebo (574 patients [9.1%] vs. 581 patients [9.3%]; hazard ratio, 0.98; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.87 to 1.10; P=0.72). The use of n-3 fatty acids also had no significant effect on the rates of major vascular events (1034 patients [16.5%] vs. 1017 patients [16.3%]; hazard ratio, 1.01; 95% CI, 0.93 to 1.10; P=0.81), death from any cause (951 [15.1%] vs. 964 [15.4%]; hazard ratio, 0.98; 95% CI, 0.89 to 1.07; P=0.63), or death from arrhythmia (288 [4.6%] vs. 259 [4.1%]; hazard ratio, 1.10; 95% CI, 0.93 to 1.30; P=0.26). Triglyceride levels were reduced by 14.5 mg per deciliter (0.16 mmol per liter) more among patients receiving n-3 fatty acids than among those receiving placebo (P<0.001), without a significant effect on other lipids. Adverse effects were similar in the two groups.
CONCLUSIONS:
Daily supplementation with 1 g of n-3 fatty acids did not reduce the rate of cardiovascular events in patients at high risk for cardiovascular events. (Funded by Sanofi; ORIGIN ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT00069784.).
With the sustained publicity given to ω3Fa in seafood and fish oils during the 1980s, it is startling to think that less than 20 years ago, few people were aware of these substances. However, early fatty acid analyses had uncovered them and there were isolated reports in the medical literature of their effectiveness in lowering blood lipids (Burr 1942; Bronte-Stewart et al. 1956; Keys, Anderson, and Grande 1957; Ahrens et al. 1959). Why did they remain obscure until the 1970s?
... Nilsen DW, Harris WS. n – 3 Fatty acids and cardiovascular disease. ... Raitt MH, Connor WE, Morris C , et al. Fish oil supplementation and risk of ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation in patients with implantable defibrillators. A randomized controlled trial. ...
Background There is conflicting evidence on the benefits of foods rich in vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol), n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), and their pharmacological substitutes. We investigated the effects of these substances as supplements in patients who had myocardial infarction. Methods From October, 1993, to September, 1995, 11324 patients surviving recent (less than or equal to 3 months) myocardial infarction were randomly assigned supplements of n-3 PUFA (Ig daily, n=2836), vitamin E (300 mg daily, n=2830), both (n=2830), or none (control, n=2828) for 3.5 years. The primary combined efficacy endpoint was death, non-fatal myocardial infarction, and stroke. Intention-to-treat analyses were done according to a factorial design (two-way) and by treatment group (four-way). Findings Treatment with n-3 PUFA, but not vitamin E, significantly lowered the risk of the primary endpoint (relative risk decrease 10% [95% CI 1-18] by two-way analysis, 15% [2-26] by four-way analysis). Benefit was attributable to a decrease in the risk of death (14% [3-24] two-way, 20% [6-33] four-way) and cardiovascular death (17% [3-29] two-way, 30% [13-44] four-way). The effect of the combined treatment was similar to that for n-3 PUFA for the primary endpoint (14% [1-26]) and for fatal events (20% [5-33]). Interpretation Dietary supplementation with n-3 PUFA led to a clinically important and satistically significant benefit. Vitamin E had no benefit. Its effects on fatal cardiovascular events require further exploration.
Background
ω3 Fatty acids may inhibit neuronal signal transduction pathways in a manner similar to that of lithium carbonate and valproate, 2 effective treatments for bipolar disorder. The present study was performed to examine whether ω3 fatty acids also exhibit mood-stabilizing properties in bipolar disorder.
Methods
A 4-month, double-blind, placebo-controlled study, comparing ω3 fatty acids (9.6 g/d) vs placebo (olive oil), in addition to usual treatment, in 30 patients with bipolar disorder.
Results
A Kaplan-Meier survival analysis of the cohort found that the ω3 fatty acid patient group had a significantly longer period of remission than the placebo group (P=.002; Mantel-Cox). In addition, for nearly every other outcome measure, the ω3 fatty acid group performed better than the placebo group.
Conclusion
ω3 Fatty acids were well tolerated and improved the short-term course of illness in this preliminary study of patients with bipolar disorder.
The aim of the new Joint British Societies’ guidelines (JBS 2) developed by the British Cardiac Society, British Hypertension Society, Diabetes UK, HEART UK, Primary Care Cardiovascular Society and The Stroke Association is to promote a consistent multidisciplinary approach to the management of people with established atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (CVD) and those at high risk of developing symptomatic atherosclerotic disease (British Cardiac Society et al, 2005).
Acyl lipids are essential constituents found in every plant cell, where they fulfill diverse biological functions. Requirements for acyl chains depend on the cell type considered and vary greatly, implying a tight regulation of de novo fatty acid production in the plastids so that supply fits demand. Data generated by extensive transcriptome analyses carried out in various plant species and the characterization of the WRINKLED1 transcription factor in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana have first established the importance of transcriptional regulation for modulating the rate of fatty acid production. The fatty acid biosynthetic pathway is indeed subjected to a system of global transcriptional control that coordinates the expression of most genes encoding enzymes of the pathway. Although much remains to be elucidated, the framework of the regulatory system controlling fatty acid biosynthesis in plants is coming into focus.
Practical applications: Fatty acids constitute the most abundant form of reduced carbon chains available from nature and plant oils represent the main renewable resource of these fatty acids. Plant oils therefore represent a highly valuable agricultural commodity, the demand for which is increasing rapidly. They are primarily used for food and feed, but they are increasingly being utilized as renewable sources of industrial feedstock and fuel. Knowledge regarding the regulation of fatty production is extensively exploited in the frame of genetic engineering for oilseed crop improvement.
Fatty acids constitute the most abundant form of reduced carbon chains available from nature and plant oils represent the main renewable resource of these fatty acids. Plant oils therefore represent a highly valuable agricultural commodity, the demand for which is increasing rapidly. They are primarily used for food and feed, but they are increasingly being utilized as renewable sources of industrial feedstock and fuel. Knowledge regarding the regulation of fatty production is extensively exploited in the frame of genetic engineering for oilseed crop improvement. Data generated by extensive transcriptome analyses carried out in various plant species and the characterization of the WRINKLED1 transcription factor in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana have established the importance of transcriptional regulation for modulating the rate of fatty acid production. The fatty acid biosynthetic pathway is indeed subjected to a system of global transcriptional control that coordinates the expression of most genes encoding enzymes of the pathway. Recent advance suggest that WRINKLED1 activity may be modulated at the post‐translational level through homo‐dimerization, phosphorylation, and/or ubiquitination.
As an undergraduate student of Medical Biochemistry, I was unsure what I wanted to do with my life after graduating. Then, one day, I had a lecture about membrane lipids. It turned out that not only were they far from the inert structural compounds that they were often portrayed to be but they turned over quite rapidly. But there was one class of lipids—the higher inositides (PtdIns4P, PtdIns (4, 5) P2)—that had a T½ of only a few minutes! I found this fascinating and was inspired not only to do my post‐graduate work with J. N. (Tim) Hawthorne on inositides but to continue work on lipids ever since. I have no regrets for it has been a fascinating journey. The great French scientist Chevreul made contributions to several different areas of science so, in humble appreciation of his seminal discoveries, I will discuss some diverse lipid topics that I have worked on.
Argan oil is nowadays a major and internationally well‐established actor on the edible‐oil as well as cosmetic‐oil markets. Nevertheless, argan oil fame is quite recent. Indeed, due to important quality matters, argan oil had remained ignored for years. During all this time, argan oil's numerous pharmacological properties have provided benefit only to the population of the Essaouira and Sous Massa Draa regions, the part of the world where argan oil is exclusively produced. Argan oil's world‐wide success is principally the result of a vast multidisciplinary program initiated by the government of Morocco almost 35 years ago. This program, which began by the chemical characterization of argan oil and argan metabolites, has subsequently allowed the establishment of an official, and internationally recognized, argan oil quality norm, together with good preparation pratice guidelines. Because of this norm and these stringent guidelines argan oil has got the trust of customers. This has led to the triggering of its international recognition. Concomittantly, private, governmental and non‐governmental organizations have taken great care to ensure that a large part of argan‐oil derived wealth was redistributed to the Sous Massa Draa population, principally through the building of woman‐managed argan oil preparation cooperatives. This paper relates the major steps of the argan oil saga.
Going from the argan tree to high quality argan oil in 35 years.
TO THE EDITOR: We appreciate that Chowdhury and colleagues (1) have corrected some of the gross errors in their original paper. Of note, the inverse association of intake of long-chain -3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) with cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk is now significant. We also appreciate the sensitivity analysis showing that with exclusion of the outlying SDHS (Sydney Diet Heart Study), the included randomized, controlled trials (RCTs) show benefit of replacing saturated fatty acids (SFAs) with PUFAs. The extreme diet used in that study was never recommended or consumed in the United States. It included a trans fat‐based margarine and probably very little -3 PUFAs, because sunflower oil was used to replace other fats as much as possible. However, other serious problems with Chowdhury and colleagues’ analysis remain. They report that the nonsignificant findings for biomarkers of long-chain -3 fatty acid intake are based on total long-chain -3 PUFAs in only 4 studies. However, in the Supplement Tables, long-chain -3 PUFAs were actually examined in 13 studies, and findings for the specific long-chain PUFAs (eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids) were robustly and significantly inverse. Thus, the results for both intake and biomarkers for long-chain -3 fatty acids support benefit. Although the findings for RCTs vary, these results would be expected because many of the populations studied had relatively high intake of -3 fatty acids and most individuals would likely experience little benefit. The analysis for -6 PUFAs still includes only 8 studies and omits others included in Jakobsen and coauthors’ (2) pooled analysis of original data and other published papers. The data on intake of -6 PUFAs from the Kuopio Heart Study (3), the study with the most positive association, are erroneous because the denominator is almost double the number of healthy participants. Contrary to what Chowdhury and colleagues state, they apparently included persons with prevalent CVD at baseline instead of limiting the analysis to healthy persons. The original study reported a relative risk (RR) of 0.38 (95% CI, 0.20 to 0.70) for fatal CVD among those with higher intake of PUFAs. Chowdhury and colleagues still do not acknowledge the earlier pooled analysis of primary data based on a larger number of studies, which allowed direct comparisons among different types of fats. In that analysis, substitution of SFAs with PUFAs was associated with lower risks for coronary heart disease (CHD) (2). The large body of data showing that replacing SFAs with monosaturated fatty acids (MUFAs) or PUFAs reduces low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol is still not recognized. Although Chowdhury and colleagues say that their conclusions did not change, a more inclusive and correct review of available evidence would support the replacement of SFAs with PUFAs.
In this minireview, the application of enzymes for the modification of fats and oils is covered with special emphasis on lipase‐catalyzed synthesis of structured triglycerides. Furthermore, protein engineering methods to alter the fatty acid chain‐length or the trans ‐fatty acid selectivity of lipase A from Candida antarctica and an enzymatic two‐step method to remove the contaminant 3‐monochloro‐1,2‐propane diol are presented. Also the combination of several enzymes enables cascade reactions to obtain products such as ω‐hydroxycarboxylic acids useful for oleochemistry and recently published achievements to produce valuable compounds by metabolic engineering of microorganisms as exemplified for PUFA or fatty acid esters starting from sugars as renewable resources are covered. Special emphasis is given on achievements made in the authors group.
This review highlights developments in the field of enzymatic lipid modification covering the use of commercial enzymes, the design of lipases via protein engineering as well as recently established enzyme cascade reactions and examples for metabolic engineering to yield fatty acids and their derivatives.
The oxidative stability of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in micelles and in liposomes is dramatically different from that observed in the bulk phase and in organic solvents. In aqueous micelles, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n‐3) is oxidatively most stable followed by EPA (20:5n‐3), arachidonic acid (AA, 20:4n‐6), α‐linolenic acid (18:3n‐3), γ‐linolenic acid (18:3n‐6), and linoleic acid (LA, 18:2n‐6), respectively. In phosphatidylcholine (PC) liposomes, DHA‐PC showed the highest oxidative stability followed by AA‐PC and LA‐PC in that order. This order was completely opposite to that found in bulk and in organic solvent systems. NMR and GC‐MS analysis and a computer modelling approach to hydroperoxide isomer composition suggest that the physical and stereochemical characteristics of DHA molecules in the aqueous phase are related to its unusually high oxidative stability. The possible mechanisms are a tight packing conformation of DHA molecules and the presence of water molecule near the double bonds of DHA, which may inhibit hydrogen abstraction from the bis‐allylic positions of DHA.
Effect of the relative location of the substrates and antioxidants and/or prooxidants on the lipid oxidation.
Background-Our purpose was to assess the time course of the benefit of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) on mortality documented by the GISSI-Prevenzione trial in patients surviving a recent (<3 months) myocardial infarction. Methods and Results-In this study, 11 323 patients were randomly assigned to supplements of n-3 PUFAs, vitamin E (300 mg/d), both, or no treatment (control) on top of optimal pharmacological treatment and lifestyle advice. Intention-to-treat analysis adjusted for interaction between treatments was carried out. Early efficacy of n-3 PUFA treatment for total, cardiovascular, cardiac, coronary, and sudden death; nonfatal myocardial infarction; total coronary heart disease; and cerebrovascular events was assessed by right-censoring follow-up data 12 times from the first month after randomization up to 12 months. Survival curves for n-3 PUFA treatment diverged early after randomization, and total mortality was significantly lowered after 3 months of treatment (relative risk [RR] 0.59; 95% CI 0.36 to 0.97; P=0.037). The reduction in risk of sudden death was specifically relevant and statistically significant already at 4 months (RR 0.47; 95% CI 0.219 to 0.995; P=0.048). A similarly significant, although delayed, pattern after 6 to 8 months of treatment was observed for cardiovascular, cardiac, and coronary deaths. Conclusions-The early effect of low-dose ( I g/d) n-3 PUFAs on total mortality and sudden death supports the hypothesis of an antiarrhythmic effect of this drug. Such a result is consistent with the wealth of evidence coming from laboratory experiments on isolated myocytes, animal models, and epidemiological and clinical studies.
The aim of this study was to examine changes in the lipid profile of red blood cells and muscle tissue along with muscle expression of anabolic signalling proteins in human skeletal muscle. Following a 2-week control period ten healthy male participants consumed 5 g d−1 of fish oil (FO) for 4-weeks. Muscle biopsies and venous blood samples were collected in the fasted state 2-weeks prior (W-2) and immediately before (W0) the initiation of FO supplementation for internal control. Muscle biopsies and venous blood samples were again obtained at week 1 (W1), 2 (W2) and 4 (W4) during FO supplementation for assessment of changes in lipid composition and expression of anabolic signalling proteins. There was no change in the composition of any lipid class between W-2 and W0 confirming control. Following FO supplementation n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-3 PUFA) muscle lipid composition was increased from W0 to W2 and continued to rise at W4. n-3 PUFA blood lipid composition was increased from W0 to W1 and remained elevated for the remaining time points. Total protein content of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) increased from W0 to W4 whereas total mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) was increased from W0 at W1 with no further significant increases at W2 and W4. These data show that FO supplementation results in discordant changes in the n-3 PUFA composition of skeletal muscle compared to blood that is associated with increases in total FAK content.
Aim
There is considerable discrepancy regarding the protective effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (Omega-3 PUFAs) in patients with coronary heart disease (CHD) from the early-phase clinical randomized controlled trials (RCTs). We conducted a meta-analysis of RCTs to address this issue.
Data synthesis
Pubmed, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and EMBASE databases (∼ May 2013) were systematically searched. Odds ratios (OR) and associated 95% CI were retrieved by using random-effect model according to the heterogeneity. A total of 14 RCTs involving 16,338 individuals in the Omega-3 PUFAs group and 16,318 in the control one were identified. Patients assigned to Omega-3 PUFAs did not demonstrate a satisfactory improvements on major cardiovascular events (OR, 0.93; 95% CI, 0.86 to 1.01; P = .08; I2 = 46%). By contrast, the reduced risks of death from cardiac causes, sudden cardiac death and death from all causes (OR, 0.88; 95% CI, 0.80 to 0.96; P = .003; I2 = 0%; OR, 0.86; 95% CI, 0.76 to 0.98; P = .03; I2 = 29%; and OR, 0.92; 95% CI, 0.85 to 0.99; P=.02; I2 = 6%; respectively) were shown.
Conclusions
Supplement of Omega-3 PUFAs in patients with CHD is not associated with a protective effect on major cardiovascular events, while it do exert beneficial effects in reducing death from cardiac causes, sudden cardiac death and death from all causes. However, with contemporary cardio-protective therapies, whether dietary supplementation with Omega-3 PUFAs should be still considered in patients with CHD is under debating.
Background
Several epidemiological and experimental studies suggest that n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) can exert favourable effects on atherothrombotic cardiovascular disease, including arrhythmias. We investigated whether n-3 PUFA could improve morbidity and mortality in a large population of patients with symptomatic heart failure of any cause.
Methods
We undertook a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in 326 cardiology and 31 internal medicine centres in Italy. We enrolled patients with chronic heart failure of New York Heart Association class II–IV, irrespective of cause and left ventricular ejection fraction, and randomly assigned them to n-3 PUFA 1 g daily (n=3494) or placebo (n=3481) by a concealed, computerised telephone randomisation system. Patients were followed up for a median of 3·9 years (IQR 3·0–4·5). Primary endpoints were time to death, and time to death or admission to hospital for cardiovascular reasons. Analysis was by intention to treat. This study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT00336336.
Findings
We analysed all randomised patients. 955 (27%) patients died from any cause in the n-3 PUFA group and 1014 (29%) in the placebo group (adjusted hazard ratio [HR] 0·91 [95·5% CI 0·833–0·998], p=0·041). 1981 (57%) patients in the n-3 PUFA group and 2053 (59%) in the placebo group died or were admitted to hospital for cardiovascular reasons (adjusted HR 0·92 [99% CI 0·849–0·999], p=0·009). In absolute terms, 56 patients needed to be treated for a median duration of 3·9 years to avoid one death or 44 to avoid one event like death or admission to hospital for cardiovascular reasons. In both groups, gastrointestinal disorders were the most frequent adverse reaction (96 [3%] n-3 PUFA group vs 92 [3%] placebo group).
Interpretation
A simple and safe treatment with n-3 PUFA can provide a small beneficial advantage in terms of mortality and admission to hospital for cardiovascular reasons in patients with heart failure in a context of usual care.
Funding
Società Prodotti Antibiotici (SPA; Italy), Pfizer, Sigma Tau, and AstraZeneca.
Although omega-3 fatty acids have well documented properties which would reduce the cardiovascular (CV) disease risk, the evidence from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) remains inconclusive. We performed a meta-analysis of the available RCTs for investigating the CV preventive effect of administrating at least 1 gram/day, and for at least 1 year, omega-3 fatty acid supplements to patients with existing CV disease.
RCTs published up to March 2013 were searched from PubMed, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Library. Two of us independently reviewed and selected eligible trials.
Of 360 articles retrieved, 11 randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled trials fulfilling inclusion criteria, overall involving 15,348 patients with a history of CV disease, were considered in the final analyses. No statistically significant association was observed for all-cause mortality (RR, 0.89; 95% CI, 0.78 to 1.02) and stroke (RR, 1.31; 95% CI, 0.90 to 1.90). Conversely, statistically significant protective effects were observed for cardiac death (RR, 0.68; 95% CI, 0.56 to 0.83), sudden death (RR, 0.67; 95% CI, 0.52 to 0.87), and myocardial infarction (RR, 0.75; 95% CI, 0.63 to 0.88).
Overall, our results supply evidence that long-term effect of high dose omega-3 fatty acid supplementation may be beneficial for the onset of cardiac death, sudden death and myocardial infarction among patients with a history of cardiovascular disease.
Secondary analysis of the 2007 Australian National Children's Nutrition and Physical Activity survey was undertaken to assess the intake and food sources of EPA, DPA and DHA (excluding supplements) in 4,487 children aged 2-16 years. An average of two 24-h dietary recalls was analysed for each child and food sources of EPA, DPA and DHA were assessed using the Australian nutrient composition database called AUSNUT 2007. Median (inter quartile range, IQR) for EPA, DPA and DHA intakes (mg/day) for 2-3, 4-8, 9-13, 14-16 year were: EPA 5.3 (1.5-14), 6.7 (1.8-18), 8.7 (2.6-23), 9.8 (2.7-28) respectively; DPA 6.2 (2.2-14), 8.2 (3.3-18), 10.8 (4.3-24), 12.2 (5-29) respectively; and DHA 3.9 (0.6-24), 5.1 (0.9-26), 6.8 (1.1-27), 7.8 (1.5-33) respectively. Energy-adjusted intakes of EPA, DPA and DHA in children who ate fish were 7.5, 2 and 16-fold higher, respectively (P < 0.001) compared to those who did not eat fish during the 2 days of the survey. Intake of total long chain n-3 PUFA was compared to the energy adjusted suggested dietary target (SDT) for Australian children and 20 % of children who ate fish during the 2 days of the survey met the SDT. Fish and seafood products were the largest contributors to DHA (76 %) and EPA (59 %) intake, while meat, poultry and game contributed to 56 % DPA. Meat consumption was 8.5 times greater than that for fish/seafood. Australian children do not consume the recommended amounts of long chain omega-3 fatty acids, especially DHA, which could be explained by low fish consumption.
The Workshop on the Essentiality of and Recommended Dietary Intakes (RDIs) for Omega-6 and Omega-3 Fatty Acids was held at The Cloisters, National Institutes of Health (NIH) in Bethesda, Md., USA, April 7–9, 1999. The workshop was sponsored by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism-NIH, the Office of Dietary Supplements-NIH, The Center for Genetics, Nutrition and Health, and the International Society for the Study of Fatty Acids and Lipids, and cosponsored by several industry groups1.
The advanced lesions of atherosclerosis represent the culmination of a specialized form of chronic inflammation followed by a fibroproliferative process that takes place within the intima of the affected artery. Proliferation of smooth muscle cells and generation of connective tissue occur. Proliferation results from interactions between arterial smooth muscle, monocyte-derived macrophages, T lymphocytes, and endothelium. The initial lesion of atherosclerosis, the fatty streak, begins as an accumulation of monocytederived macrophages and T lymphocytes, which adhere and migrate into the intima of the affected artery. Smooth muscle cells, which are present in the intima or which migrate into the intima from the media, then replicate. Monocyte-derived macrophages and T cells also replicate during lesion formation and progression due to the production of cytokines and growth-regulatory molecules. These molecules determine whether there is proliferation and lesion progression or inhibition of proliferation and lesion regression. Several growthregulatory molecules may play critical roles in this process, including platelet-derived growth factor (PGDF), transforming growth factor beta, fibroblast growth factor, heparinbinding epidermal growth factor-like growth factor, and others. PDGF may be one of the principal components in this process because protein containing the PDGF B-chain has been demonstrated within activated lesion macrophages during every phase of atherogenesis. The presence of this growth factor and its receptors on lesion smooth muscle cells creates opportunities for smooth muscle chemotaxis and replication. Smooth muscle proliferation depends upon a series of complex signals based upon cellular interactions in the local microenvironment of the artery. The intracellular signalling pathways for mitogenesis versus chemotaxis are being investigated for smooth muscle. The roles of the cytokines and growth-regulatory peptides involved in these cellular interactions represent critical points of departure for intervention and the development of new diagnostic methods. In addition, magnetic resonance imaging has been developed to demonstrate the fine structure of lesions of atherosclerosis in peripheral arteries not subject to cardiac motion. This noninvasive methodology holds great promise for the future of these approaches.
Objective: Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) supplementation appears to reduce body weight loss in advanced pancreatic cancer patients. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the influence of an EPA-enriched, energy-dense oral supplement on inflammatory and nutritional status, as well as on the quality of life of lung cancer patients. Patients and methods: Malnourished lung cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy (n=46) were enrolled and randomly assigned to the study or the control group. The study group (n=26) received 2 cans a day of an EPA-enriched oral supplement (ProSure®, Abbott) for 60 days. The control group (n=20) received 2 cans a day of an isocaloric, isonitrogenous, non-EPA-enriched oral supplement. At the beginning of chemotherapy (T0), after 30 days (T1) and after 60 days (T2), biochemical and anthropometric parameters were measured in both groups. Results: Only patients in the study group showed significant increases in body weight, energy and protein intakes, quality of life, appetite, prealbumin, and transferrin, as well as a significant re- duction of circulating C-reactive protein levels. Conclusion: Administration of an EPA-enriched oral supplement seems effective in improving the nutritional status and quality of life of lung cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy. (Nutrition- al Therapy & Metabolism 2007; 25: 25-30)
Background:
The purpose of the study was to examine whether a preoperative supplement with ω-3 fatty acids (FAs) leads to their incorporation into colonic tissue in patients scheduled for colorectal cancer surgery. This would be of interest because ω-3 FAs have potential beneficial (local) immunological effects that might benefit these patients.
Methods:
In a randomized, double-blind, prospective, placebo-controlled, single-center intervention trial, patients referred for elective colorectal cancer surgery received either an ω-3 FA-enriched oral nutrition supplement (ONS) (200 mL twice daily) providing 2.0 g of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and 1.0 g of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) per day or a standard ONS for 7 days before surgery. Tissue samples from healthy colonic tissue (mucosa and muscular layer) were obtained during surgery, and tissue fatty acid composition was analyzed by gas chromatography.
Results:
EPA was significantly higher in colonic mucosa (P = .001) and in the colonic muscular layer (P = .004) in the ω-3 FA group compared with controls. Patients in the ω-3 FA group also tended to have higher docosapentaenoic acid and DHA levels in colonic tissue.
Conclusions:
EPA is incorporated rapidly into colonic mucosa and colonic muscular layer in patients given 3 g of ω-3 FA daily for 7 days before surgery for colorectal cancer. This may lead to potential beneficially effects on (local) immune function, which might benefit these patients.
Patients with depression have been extensively reported to be associated with the abnormality of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), including significantly low eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid in cell tissue contents (red blood cell membrane, plasma, etc.) and dietary intake. However, more evidence is needed to support its relation. In this study, we conducted an 8-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, comparing omega-3 PUFAs (9.6 g/day) with placebo, on the top of the usual treatment, in 28 patients with major depressive disorder. Patients in the omega-3 PUFA group had a significantly decreased score on the 21-item Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression than those in the placebo group (P
Objective:
Studies have reported that countries with high rates of fish oil consumption have low rates of depressive disorder. The authors studied a specific omega-3 fatty acid, the ethyl ester of eicosapentaenoic acid (E-EPA), as an adjunct to treatment for depressive episodes occurring in patients with recurrent unipolar depressive disorder who were receiving maintenance antidepressant therapy.
Method:
Twenty patients with a current diagnosis of major depressive disorder participated in a 4-week, parallel-group, double-blind addition of either placebo or E-EPA to ongoing antidepressant therapy. Seventeen of the patients were women, and three were men.
Results:
Highly significant benefits of the addition of the omega-3 fatty acid compared with placebo were found by week 3 of treatment.
Conclusions:
It is not possible to distinguish whether E-EPA augments antidepressant action in the manner of lithium or has independent antidepressant properties of its own.