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The Predictability of Adierian Lifestyle Themes Com-
pared to Demographic Variables Associated with
College Student Drinking
Todd F. Lewis and Richard E. Watts
Abstract
Responding to calls in the literature for more theory-driven research, this study
examined the predictability of Adierian lifestyle themes compared to other variables
found to be associated with college alcohol consumption. Two hundred and seventy-
three undergraduate students completed the BASIS-A Inventory (Curlette, Wheeler, &
Kern,
1997) and items from the Alcohol and Other Drug Survey (Thombs, 1999).
Results from stepwise multiple regression analyses indicated that Adierian lifestyle
combinations accounted for more variance in alcohol related behaviors than other
variables commonly found to be predictive of alcohol consumption
(i.e.,
grade of first
drinking experience, gender, fraternity/sorority membership, and religious participa-
tion).
In general, combined Adierian lifestyle themes accounted for more variability
in frequency of binge drinking and frequency of alcohol consumption than the
addi-
tional variables. Implications for Adierian counselors are discussed.
Heavy drinking among college students is considered by far the most
serious public health problem currently facing colleges and universities in
the United States (Wechsler, Dowdall, Maenner, Gledhill-Hoyt, & Lee,
1998). Excessive alcohol consumption can lead to serious, acute problems
that can manifest as chronic problems later in life. It is perhaps the conse-
quences of drinking that concern college health officials the most. Alcohol
abuse and the consequences related to drinking escalated in the 1997-
1998 academic year, leading to an increase in such serious problems as
death by overdose, arrests, violence, and campus riots (Syre, Pesa, &
Cockley, 1999). Despite many campus programs and interventions across
the country, the proportion of students who use alcohol, the levels v^ith
which they use it, and the number of negative consequences experienced
all remain high (Prendergast, 1994).
There is a significant body of literature examining alcohol consump-
tion and associated consequences among college students. Research ranges
from large national surveys (Douglas et al., 1997; O'Malley & Johnston,
2002;
Wechsler, Lee, Kuo, & Lee, 2000) to single state campus investiga-
tions (Haberman, 1994; Miller,Toscova, Miller, & Sanchez, 2000; Robinson,
Gloria,
Roth, & Schuetter, 1993). In general, many of these studies have
journal of Individual
Psychology,
Vol. 60, No. 3, Fall 2004
O2004 by the University of
Texas
Press, P.O. Box 7819, Austin, TX 78713-7819
Editorial office located in the College of Education at Georgia State University.
246 Todd F. Lewis and Richard E. Watts
advanced our knowledge by (a) raising awareness of the seriousness of
problem drinking on college campuses; (b) giving estimates of prevalence,
patterns, and consequences of drinking behavior among college students;
and (c) identifying correlates of drinking behavior, which range from de-
mographic variables
(e.g.,
one's gender, race, place of residence, and type
of school attended) to cognitive, behavioral, and personality characteris-
tics of those who consume alcohol and those who do not.
Calls in the literature, however, have recently suggested that more
theory-driven research on college alcohol consumption is needed, research
that could offer a more comprehensive picture of drinking problems among
college students. As Durkin, Wolfe, and Clark (1999) noted, "regardless of
which theory is used, it is imperative that theory-driven research is con-
ducted on this topic [college alcohol consumption]" (p. 461).
Adierian personality theory has not been adequately examined em-
pirically
as
a potential explanatory system for college alcohol consumption.
Building on a paucity of studies addressing this issue, Lewis (2002) found
that certain Adierian lifestyle themes were predictive, albeit modestly,
of alcohol related behaviors in a sample of college students from the
midwestern United States. However, research has not examined if Adie-
rian personality theory is any more predictive than other variables known
to be associated with college drinking. In this investigation, we sought to
determine the relative contribution of Adierian lifestyle themes, compared
to demographic variables commonly associated with college drinking (grade
of first drinking experience, fraternity/sorority membership, religious par-
ticipation,
and gender), to the prediction of alcohol-related behaviors among
college students. As such, the following research question was addressed:
Do Adierian lifestyle themes account for more variance in alcohol related
behaviors than other variables previously found to be related to drinking?
Given the importance of lifestyle as a theoretical construct and perhaps
the most important clinical application principle developed by Adler (Kern,
Wheeler, & Curlette, 1997), we hypothesized that lifestyle themes would
account for more variance in alcohol-related behaviors than variables un-
related to theory. Such information could assist Adierian counselors as to
the relative importance of lifestyle investigation as a focus when working
with college students who manifest drinking problems.
Theoretical Background
The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler affirms that all behavior is
purposive and goal-directed (Mosak & Maniacci, 2000). Human beings strive
toward goals they perceive as necessary to find their place, in the world.
Furthermore, Adierian theory assumes that a basic dynamic force fuels all
Predictability of Adierian Themes 247
human activity (Ansbacher & Ansbacher,
1956).
This force involves a striving
from a perceived minus situation toward a perceived plus situation, or from a
feeling of inferiority to a feeling of superiority, and is always oriented toward
goals created by the individual. Based on this idea, Adierian theory has been
suggested as a model for understanding personality, as well as maladjust-
ment (Keene & Wheeler, 1994). Maladjustment occurs when one's personal
goals are inconsistent with social interest (AdIer as cited in Ansbacher &
Ansbacher, 1956); that
is,
when people strive for personal superiority without
regard for the welfare of others (Keene & Wheeler, 1994).
Personal lifestyles—or characteristic ways of perceiving
self,
others,
and the world—largely determine how people strive toward life goals
(Mosak & Maniacci, 2000). In Adierian terms, useful lifestyle patterns are
those that involve movement toward others and endorse the common good.
Conversely, useless lifestyles involve movement away from others in the
pursuit of selfish interests (Manaster & Corsini, 1982).
According to Ansbacher and Ansbacher (1956), AdIer variously equated
lifestyle with terms such as
self,
ego, individuality, the whole attitude to-
ward life, and, most notably, personality. It refers to a series of conclusions
that individuals create about themselves, others, and the world (Manaster
& Corsini, 1982). Believing in the unity of the individual, AdIer (as cited in
Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956) stated that the lifestyle was self-consistent,
meaning that individuals express their thinking, feeling, and acting in con-
sistent ways according to their life goals.
Adierians believe that the lifestyle is unique for each individual; how-
ever, lifestyles often cluster around various behavioral tendencies or patterns.
That is, whereas each individual has his or her own idiosyncratic way of
being in the world, there are commonalities among human beings. In Adie-
rian vernacular, such commonalities are called typological systems or themes,
which facilitate the prediction of behavior (Mosak & Maniacci, 2000).
The lifestyle themes examined in this investigation were strongly
influ-
enced by the work of Harold Mosak (1971). In his original typology, Mosak
proposed 14 lifestyle themes and corresponding behaviors. Typical themes
included the "getter," the "pleaser," the "driver," and the "controller." Recent
research,
however, has suggested that there may be fewer themes than Mosak
had originally proposed. Specifically, Kern et al. (1997) proposed five Adie-
rian lifestyle themes: Belonging/Social Interest, Going
Along,
Taking Charge,
Wanting Recognition, and Being Cautious. These themes are reflected in the
Basic Adierian Scales for Interpersonal Success—Adult Form (BASIS-A Inven-
tory),
a relatively new scale designed to measure Adierian lifestyle themes.
According to Kern et al. (1997), individuals who manifest Belonging/
Social /nferesf probably enjoyed playing in groups with other children while
growing up. Their family life was most likely pleasant, comfortable, and a
place where they felt a strong sense of belonging. They are described as
248 Todd F. Lewis and Richard E. Watts
individuals who are supportive and respectful of others in social situa-
tions.
Furthermore, they are believed to have
a
strong capacity to empathize
with others and enjoy being in their company.
Going Along describes persons who prefer the role of follower rather
than leader, especially in the work environment. These individuals are be-
lieved to be rule-driven, conservative and become uncomfortable around
those who want to "shake up" the status quo. They often seek to avoid
conflict in intimate relationships and are inclined to be overly concerned
about hurting the feelings of others. In extreme cases, these individuals
may compromise their own happiness and well-being in the service of
their partner's needs (Kern et al., 1997).
The Taking Charge theme is closely aligned with Adier's (as cited by
Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956) "ruling" type, or someone who likes to
dominate and be in control (Wheeler & Acheson, 1993). Taking charge
individuals could be described as strong and forceful, always striving to
have the "last word." They have a propensity to draw attention to them-
selves and are often described as outgoing, persuasive, and the "life of the
party." In their desire to gain attention, however, they may be poor listen-
ers,
and, if taken to extreme, can be domineering, self-centered, and easily
angered (Kern
etal.,
1997).
Wanting Recognition describes those who are comfortable in environ-
ments where they receive praise and attention for their successes. They are
people who are willing to praise others because they know how important
praise is to them. Situations in which they are not recognized as important
or successful become uncomfortable. If recognition does not occur, these
individuals may become discouraged and impatient because their motiva-
tion in life comes from the accolades of others (Kern et al., 1997).
Individuals who manifest Being Cautious are believed to manifest one
of two different styles (Kern et
al.,
1997). The first involves an overly sensi-
tive approach to the world, characterized by a cautious and mistrusting
attitude toward self, others, and the environment. The second style repre-
sents an impulsive pattern of behavior, characterized by reckless
decision-making, high-risk behavior, and unpredictable reactions to emo-
tional situations. According to Kern et al., individuals who experience
extremely stressful and burdensome childhoods are more likely to mani-
fest the impulsive style.
Reisearch on Adierian Lifestyle Themes and Alcohol Consumption
Boynton (1989) was one of the first investigators to examine lifestyle
themes among substance abusers. Specifically, Boynton compared the
Predictability of Adierian Themes 249
Lifestyle Personality Inventory profiles of cocaine and heroin addicts with
the profiles of nonaddicted individuals
(i.e.,
college students and
nonaddicted individuals). Boynton's findings indicated that the addicted
individuals scored significantly higher on lifestyle themes that emphasized
immediate gratification and satisfying personal need for significance. They
also were inclined to use exploitive, antisocial behaviors to a greater de-
gree,
and they scored significantly lower on the social interest theme.
Keene and Wheeler (1994) evaluated the relationships between Adierian
themes and substance use among beginning college students. Subjects were
classified as "high risk"
(i.e.,
use of marijuana, cocaine, or hallucinogens) or
"low risk"
(i.e.,
alcohol use
only).
Those who manifested a passive-aggressive
theme were more likely to use high-risk substances. No correlation emerged
for this theme and alcohol consumption. Furthermore, themes involving
the tendency to hurt others or seek revenge correlated positively with
high-risk drug use as well as alcohol use. The social interest theme, to the
surprise of the researchers, did not correlate with either high-risk drug use
or alcohol use.
Lewis (2002) expanded on research by Keene and Wheeler (1994) by
using
a
larger sample of college students and administering
a
current,
well-
researched scale to assess Adierian lifestyle themes (the BASIS-A Inventory).
Findings suggested that Belonging/Social Interest, Going Along, and
Taking Charge were significant predictors of several alcohol-related
behaviors
(e.g.,
frequency of binge drinking, frequency of alcohol con-
sumption,
quantity of alcohol consumption, and total consequences of
alcohol consumption) across the overall sample.
Although few studies are involved, theevidencesuggests that Adierian
lifestyle themes may, in and of themselves, adequately predict drinking
behavior among college students. What is not known is whether their pre-
dictive ability is superior to other variables commonly associated with
college alcohol consumption.
Common Variables Associated with Drinking Behavior
Although college alcohol consumption has many correlates, research
suggests that four variables, in particular, are commonly associated with
alcohol consumption: grade of first drinking experience, fraternity/sorority
membership, religious participation, andgender. A brief description of each
variable is provided below.
Grade
of first drinking experience. Research demonstrates that the ear-
lier a person begins consumption of alcohol, the more he or she consumes
in college. Gonzalez (1989), for example, found that subjects whose first
250 Todd F. Lewis and Richard E. Watts
experience with alcohol was in middle school reported significantly more
involvement with alcohol in college than those whose first alcohol experi-
ence was in college. Korcuska (2000) found, among other variables, that
age of first drinking experience was negatively associated with alcohol
problems, time spent partying, and drinking intensity
(i.e.,
quantity of al-
cohol consumption and frequency of alcohol consumption) among
a
sample
of college men. Lewis (2002) discovered that binge drinkers
(i.e.,
men who
had five or more drinks in a row or women who had four or more drinks in
a row during the previous two weeks) began alcohol consumption signifi-
cantly earlier than abstainers and non-binge-drinkers.
These
findings suggest
that the earlier one consumes alcohol, the more likely he or she is to en-
gage in more intense drinking behavior and experience more problems
related to drinking.
Fraternity/sorority membership. According to Thombs (1999), Greek-
letter social organizations are at the center of
the
"alcohol abuse subculture"
on university campuses. A well-established finding is that members of fra-
ternities and sororities consume considerably more alcohol than other
students (Cashin, Presley, & Meilman, 1998). Related to this is the ten-
dency on many campuses for social fraternities or sororities to resemble
"alcohol dispensing outlets" (Thombs) or "functional saloons" (Wechsler
et al., 2000). The use of such terms seems consistent with current prac-
tices,
often organized by fraternity/sorority members, such as binge drinking,
"keg standing," and drinking game participation (Thombs).
Building on the well-established link between fraternity/sorority mem-
bership and alcohol consumption, Sher, Bartholow, and Nanda (2001), in
a five-year longitudinal study, found that throughout the college years,
fraternity/sorority students consistently drank more heavily than other
students. Larimer, Anderson, Baer, and Marlatt (2000) found that students'
residence in fraternities, as compared with living in residence halls, was
related to frequent alcohol consumption and greater negative consequences.
Clearly, considerable evidence supports the strong link between member-
ship in Greek-letter social organizations and alcohol consumption.
Religious participation. Participation in a religious organization and a
strong sense of spirituality have been found to be associated with lower
alcohol consumption levels. Stewart (2001), for example, explored the
relationship between spirituality and religious beliefs and decisions to use
substances among 337 university students. Findings suggested that
reli-
gious beliefs and spirituality played a significant role in one's decision not
to engage in risky drinking behavior. In an innovative study exploring
reasons for not engaging in alcohol consumption. Slicker (1997) found
that light-drinking students endorsed religious-moral reasons significantly
more often than moderate- or heavy-drinking students. Endorsement of
Predictability of Adierian Themes 251
religious beliefs appears to be a buffer against deleterious drinking pat-
terns,
at least among college students.
Gender.
Although not all studies report alcohol consumption differ-
ences between college men and women, the majority of investigations
have demonstrated that college men tend to drink, to engage in binge drink-
ing,
and to experience negative consequences associated with drinking
more often than college women (Engs, Diebold, & Hanson, 1996; Kozicki,
1982;
Lewis, 2002; Schall, Kemeny, & Maltzman, 1992; Wechsler et al.,
2000;
Wechsler & Rohman, 1981; Wright, 1983). Consistently, gender is
found to be a strong predictor of alcohol consumption patterns, with male-
ness being associated with greater alcohol involvement. For example, Lewis
(2002) found that men engaged in more frequent alcohol consumption,
drank more alcohol per occasion, and experienced more negative conse-
quences than women. The robustness of this finding makes gender a
formidable predictor variable related to excessive alcohol consumption
and related behaviors.
The inclusion of these four variables in the current study is based on
previous research that has found grade of first drinking experience, frater-
nity/sorority membership, religious participation, and gender to be
associated with drinking behaviors. The primary goal of this study was to
examine the relative predictability of Adierian lifestyle themes compared
to these other variables.
Method
Procedures
and
Participants.
The first author (Lewis) approached under-
graduate classes and informal student gatherings for potential participants.
All participants were given packets of information containing an informed
consent
form,
a demographics sheet, and the BASIS-A Inventory. Participants
were told that the investigation was anonymous, that participation was vol-
untary, and that they could withdraw from the study at any time, without
repercussion. The researcher orally provided a brief description of the study.
Participants were informed that the contents of the packet would take ap-
proximately 15 to 20 minutes to complete and were encouraged to complete
all items. A brief description of how to complete the BASIS-A Inventory was
provided because of its more complex nature. The Human Subjects Review
Board at Kent State University approved this project.
Participants were 273 undergraduate men and women (ages 18 to 24;
M = 20.6, SD = 1.4) enrolled in two universities in the midwestern United
States. The majority of participants were women (63%). Racial/ethnic rep-
resentation was predominantly Caucasian (91%), followed by African
252 Todd F. Lewis and Richard E. Watts
American (5%), Asian (1.5%), "Other" (2%), Spanish/Hispanic/Latino
(0.7%),
and Pacific Islander (0.3%). Participants were in varying stages of
their college studies: 15% were freshmen, 23% were sophomores, 30%
were juniors, and 30% were seniors.
Instrumentation. Derived from Adierian theory, the BASIS-A Inventory
(Curlette, Wheeler, & Kern, 1997) is a 65-item inventory that assesses five
lifestyle themes, each representing a factor or subscale: Belonging/Social
Interest (BSI; 9 items). Going Along (GA; 9 items). Taking Charge (TC; 8
items). Wanting Recognition (WR; 11 items), and Being Cautious (BC; 8
items). All items are in the form of statements that follow the sentence
stem:
"When I was a
child,
1
..."
(e.g.,
"bossed the other children" [item 8]
and "fit in well with a group" [item 16]). Response selection ranges from 1
{strongly disagree) to 5 {strongly agree) with the mid-point
(i.e.,
3) repre-
senting indifferent. Seventeen items are negatively phrased statements and
thus reverse-scored. The BASIS-A Inventory generates five factor scores re-
lating to the five lifestyle themes; there is no overall lifestyle score. The
higher the score on a particular lifestyle theme, the more the participant is
believed to manifest characteristics related to that theme.
In general, the construct, convergent, and discriminant validities of
the BASIS-A Inventory have been supported (Curlette et al., 1997). The
BASIS-A Inventory also appears to be a stable instrument, with scales dem-
onstrating good test-retest reliabilities. In studies assessing the internal
consistency of the BASIS-A Inventory, alpha values ranged from .82 to .87,
indicating acceptable structural coherence and a moderate to high degree
of accuracy among the items comprising each lifestyle theme.
Five alcohol-related items were used from the Alcohol and Other Drug
Survey (Thombs, 1999), an instrument designed to assess college student
attitudes and behaviors regarding alcohol consumption and other drug use.
Items used included quantity of consumption (1 question), frequency of
consumption (1 question), frequency of binge drinking (2 questions, one
for men, one for women), and alcohol-related consequences
(1
question).
Instructions define a "drink" as one 12-oz. bottle or can of beer, one 4-oz.
glass of wine, one 12-oz. bottle or can of wine cooler, or one shot of li-
quor, either straight or in a mixed drink. To assess quantity of alcohol
consumption for
self,
the researcher selected the item, "How many drinks
do you usually have on
a
typical occasion?" Scores for this question ranged
from 1 (/ do not drink alcohol) to 9 {12 drinks or more). Frequency of
consumption for self was assessed by the question, "On average, how of-
ten do you drink?" Scores for this question also ranged from
1
{Never) to 9
(7 times a week).
Because of sex differences in the metabolism of alcohol and body mass
(Wechsler et al., 2000), two questions (one for men and one for women)
Predictability of Adierian Themes 253
were posed to examine frequency of binge drinking. For men, frequency of
binge drinking was assessed by the question, "Think back over the last two
weeks. How many times have you had FIVE or more drinks in a row?" For
women,
frequency of binge drinkirig was assessed by the question, "Think
back over the last two weeks, hlow many times have you had FOUR or
more drinks in a row?" Scores on these questions ranged from
1
(None) to
6
(Ten
or more times), with higher scores reflecting greater frequency of
binge drinking.
Alcohol-related consequences were assessed by the
question,
"Since the
beginning of the school year, how many times have you experienced any of
the following because of drinking alcohol?" Seven consequences were listed:
(a) "Had a hangover," (b) "Missed class," (c) "Forgot what I did," (d) "Got
behind in school work," (e) "Had unplanned sexual activity," (f) "Got hurt or
injured,"
and (g) "Damaged property on campus." For each consequence,
respondents had the option of selecting among four choices, reflecting how
often they experienced the specific consequence. Scores for each conse-
quence ranged from
1
{None) to 4 (4 or more
times).
Participants were given
an overall consequence score ranging from 0 to
21,
with higher scores
indi-
cating the experience of more consequences due to drinking alcohol.
Grade of first drinking experience was assessed by the question, "What
grade were you in when you first started drinking alcohol on an occasional
basis?"
Nine responses were provided, ranging from "seventh grade" to
"second year of college or later in life." The response "I do not consume
alcohol"
was also provided. Participants were further asked whether they
belonged to a Greek-letter social organization, participated in a religious
organization, or were male or female.
Analytic Strategy
The first author conducted a series of four multiple regression analyses
predicting frequency of binge drinking, quantity of alcohol consumption,
frequency of alcohol consumption, and total consequences of alcohol con-
sumption for the overall sample. In these analyses, grade of first drinking
experience, fraternity/sorority membership, gender, and identification with
a religious organization were entered as a "block" of predictor variables.
Adierian lifestyle themes were then entered together as a second "block"
of predictor variables. The goal of these procedures was to see how much
variability the second block of predictor variables (lifestyle themes) could
explain above and beyond the first block of predictor variables (additional
variables). Stepwise multiple regressions were run on the first block of
vari-
ables to determine which variables from that block contributed significantly
254 Todd F. Lewis and Richard E. Watts
Table 1
Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis of Additional Variables and
Adierian Lifestyle Themes Predicting Frequency of Binge Drinking for the
Overall Sample (N = 273)
Variables
Block 1
CFD
GL
Block 2
BSI
GA
TC
WR
-.249
-.174
.232
-.251
-.163
.165
f
-4.11**
-2.98**
3.96**
-3.79**
-2.47**
2.65**
R
.272
.312
.376
.411
.450
.427
Overall
R'
.074
.097
.142
.169
.182
.203
Model
AR' F
.023*
.044**
.027**
.020*
.014*
10.13**
Note. Block
1
(Additional Variables): GFD—Grade of First Drinking
experience; GL—Fraternity/sorority membership. Block 2 (Adierian
lifestyle themes): BSI—Belonging/Social Interest; GA—Going
Along;
WR—Wanting Recognition; TC—Taking Charge. *p < .05.
**p<.01.
to the prediction of the relevant criterion variable. The same stepwise pro-
cedures were run on the second block of predictor variables to determine
which variables from this block contributed significantly to the prediction
of the criterion variable, after accounting for variables in the first block.
Although stepwise procedures in multiple regression have been
criti-
cized on a number of points (Cohen & Cohen, 1983; Myers & Well, 1995),
the exploratory nature of the current study, as well as the relatively high
sample size, lessened the impact of these drawbacks (Cohen & Cohen).
Furthermore, Cohen and Cohen pointed out that when the sequence of
selecting variables in a block is stepwise estimation, the type of analysis is
actually hierarchical between the blocks of independent variables and only
incidentally stepwise (within blocks of independent variables).
Predictability of Adierian Themes 255
Table 2
Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis of Additional Variables and
Adierian Lifestyle Themes Predicting Quantity of Alcohol Consumption
for the Overall Sample (N = 273)
Variables
Block 1
GFD
Gender
Block 2 ,
BSI
GA
P
-.227
-.141
.217
-.147
f
-3.76**
-2.36**
3.63**
-2.40*
R
.276
.318
.374
.400
Overall
R'
.076
.101
.140
.160
Model
AR'
.025*
.038**
.020*
F
11.46**
Note. Block
1
(Additional Variables): GFD—Grade of First Drinking experi-
ence;
Gender. Block 2 (Adierian lifestyle
themes):
BSI—Belonging/
Social Interest; GA—Going
Along.
Square root transformations were
performed on Being Cautious.*p < .05. **p <
.01.
Results ,
Table 1 displays the results of the multiple regression analysis of the
additional variables and Adierian lifestyle themes predicting frequency
of binge drinking. Belonging/Social Interest (BSI), Going Along (GA),
Wanting Recognition (WR), and Taking Charge (TC) were all significant
predictors, and the combination of these themes accounted for 10.5% of
the variance in frequency of binge drinking above what was accounted for
by two of the additional variables, grade of first drinking experience and
fraternity/sorority membership. These additional predictors—grade of first
drinking experience and fraternity/sorority membership—accounted for
a slightly lower percentage (9.7%) of the variance in frequency of binge
drinking.
Comparing beta weights, grade of first drinking experience sur-
faced as the strongest individual predictor in the overall regression model.
Examination of Table
1
suggests that it is possible to determine asso-
ciations between lifestyle profiles of college students and frequency of binge
256 Todd F. Lewis and Richard E. Watts
Table 3
Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis of Additional Variables and
Adierian Lifestyle Themes Predicting Frequency of Alcohol Consumption
for the Overall Sample (N = 273)
Variables
Block 1
GFD
GL
Block 2
BSl
GA
-.195
-.159
.255
-.181
f
-3.23**
-2.67**
4.25**
-2.97**
R
.239
.276
.358
.399
Overall
R'
.057
.076
.128
.159
Model
AR'
.019*
.052**
.031**
F
11.34**
Note. Block
1
(Additional Variables): GFD—Grade of First Drinking expe-
rience; GL—Fraternity/sorority membership. Block
2
(Adierian lifestyle
themes): BSl—Belonging/Social Interest; GA—Going Along.*p< .05.
**p< .01.
drinking.
For example, students who are outgoing (BSl; positive associa-
tion with frequency of binge drinking [FBD]), rebellious (GA; negative
association with FBD), followers (TC; negative association with FBD), and
pursuers of attention (WR; positive association with FBD) tend to engage
in binge drinking more often, and, combined, these lifestyle themes ex-
plained frequency of binge drinking better than grade of first drinking
experience and fraternity/sorority membership.
Table
2
reveals that BSl and GA were the only significant lifestyle theme
predictors of quantity of alcohol consumption, accounting for 5.8% of the
variance in quantity of alcohol consumption above what was explained
by the variables, grade of first drinking experience and gender. These
additional variables accounted for more variance (10.1%) in quantity of
alcohol consumption than Adierian lifestyle themes. Grade of first drink-
ing experience emerged as the best individual predictor in this regression
model.
This model suggests that the lifestyle profile of students who are
outgoing (BSl; positive association with quantity of alcohol consumption
Predictability of Adierian Themes 257
[QAC]) and rebellious (GA; negative association with QAC) is secondary
to grade of first drinking experience and gender in predicting how much
students drink on a typical occasion.
Table 3 demonstrates that BSI and CA were again the only significant
Adierian lifestyle theme predictors for frequency of alcohol consumption,
and they accounted for 8.3% of the variance in this criterion variable above
that accounted for by grade of first drinking experience and fraternity/
sorority membership. A lower percentage (7.6%) of variance was accounted
for by these additional variables. Grade of first drinking experience was
again the strongest individual predictor variable in this regression model.
An examination of
Table
3 suggests that lifestyle themes were stronger
predictorsof frequency of alcohol consumption. For example, students who
are outgoing
(BSI;
positive association with frequency of alcohol consump-
tion [FAC]) and rebellious (GA; negative association with FAC) tend to drink
more frequently, and the combination of these lifestyle themes was supe-
rior to grade of first drinking experience and fraternity/sorority membership
in predicting this criterion variable.
Table 4 reveals that GA, BSI, and WR were significant predictors of
total consequences of alcohol consumption. The combination of these
lifestyle themes accounted for 8.5% of the variance in this criterion
vari-
able above that explained by the additional variables, grade of first drinking
experience and fraternity/sorority membership. These additional predic-
tors accounted for more variance (12.1%) than lifestyle themes. As with
the other three models, grade of first drinking experience was the strongest
individual predictor variable in the regression model.
This model suggests that consequences of alcohol consumption are
determined more by age of first drinking experience and fratfRNity/sorority
membership than by an individual's lifestyle profile. Nonetheless, the
results suggest that students who tend to be rebellious, outgoing, and at-
tention-seeking engage in more consequences related to drinking behavior
than less outgoing and less attention-seeking individuals.
Discussion
The main purpose of this study was to compare the predictability of
Adierian lifestyle themes to other variables known to be associated with
alcohol consumption among college students
(i.e.,
grade of first drinking
experience, gender, fraternity/sorority membership, and level of religious
participation). Results provided partial support for our hypothesis that Adier-
ian lifestyle themes, in combination, would account for variation in
alcohol-related behaviors above and beyond what was accounted for by
258 Todd F. Lewis and Richard E. Watts
Table 4
Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis of Additional Variables and
Adierian Lifestyle Themes Predicting Total Consequences of Alcohol
Consumption for the Overall Sample (N = 273)
Variables
Block 1
GFD
GL
Block 2
GA
BSI
WR
-.308
-.141
-.233
.174
.134
t
-5.12**
-2.43*
-3.92**
2.98**
2.25*
R
.325
.348
.396
.435
.454
Overall
R'
.106
.121
.157
.189
.206
Model
AR' F
.015*
.036**
.032**
.017*
12.43**
Note. Block
1
(Additional Variables): GFD—Grade of First Drinking expe-
rience;
GL—Fraternity/sorority membership. Block
2
(Adierian lifestyle
themes): GA—Going Along; BSI—Belonging/Social Interest; WR—
Wanting Recognition.*p < .05. **p < .01.
other variables. In general, Adierian lifestyle themes accounted for more
variance in frequency of binge drinking and frequency of alcohol con-
sumption than the additional variables. The amount of unique variance
attributed to Adierian lifestyle themes in all regression models ranged from
5.8% to 10.5%.
Grade of first drinking experience proved to be the best individual
predictor across all alcohol-related behaviors. The variance accounted for
by this variable ranged from 5% to 10%. These relationships were nega-
tive,
suggesting that the earlier one engages in drinking behavior, the more
likely he or she is to participate in alcohol-related behaviors in college.
This finding is consistent with Gonzalez (1989). Other significant predic-
tor variables not associated with Adierian lifestyle themes included
fraternity/sorority membership and gender.
Predictability of Adierian Themes 259
Lifestyle themes were superior in predicting two alcohol-related be-
haviors: frequency of binge drinking and frequency of alcohol consumption.
These findings suggest
that,
at least among college
students,
Adierian lifestyle
themes hold up well compared to other variables in explaining some drink-
ing behaviors. Although the amount of total variation accounted for by
lifestyle themes was small, researchers may wish to consider including an
individual's lifestyle or personality pattern in addition to other established
predictors of drinking when exploring alcohol-related behaviors.
Several reasons have been postulated as to why alcohol prevention
and intervention programs on college campuses have had limited success.
Most of these, however, focus on broad, campus-wide explanations. For
example, Wechsler and Wuethrich (2003) proposed that denial of alcohol
problems by the schools, lack of administrative support, failure to involve
the local community, lack of consistent disciplinary action, and relaxing
standards on Fridays are reasons colleges and universities have not been
successful in curbing harmful drinking. Although these reasons are
valid,
there is a noticeable lack of emphasis on personality issues that can play
an equally important role in drinking behavior. We surmise that many "pre-
vention seminars" fail because there is too much focus on campus-wide,
"surface" issues and too much neglect of how an individual's lifestyle con-
tributes to problem behaviors, including excessive drinking. Indeed, making
referrals to on-campus counseling services for problem drinking students
should be a part of any prevention or intervention strategy. Ideally, a com-
prehensive campaign that addresses campus policy issues as well as
characterological issues, supported by a "top down" strategy where all
campus personnel from university administrators to campus counselors are
involved,
could go a long way in reducing problematic drinking.
Addressing personality issues would most likely occur in the confines
of individual or group counseling. Theoretically, the centrality of one's
lifestyle in determining behavior (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956; Watts &
Shulman,
2003) suggests that lifestyle investigation should be a primary
focus in counseling students with drinking problems. The findings of this
study support this suggestion. As such, Adier's comprehensive formulation
of lif^estyle would seem to be an effective avenue to explore charactero-
logical motives for excessive drinking.
For example, the lifestyle themes found predictiveof frequency of binge
drinking in the current study were Belonging/Social Interest (positive asso-
ciation). Going Along (negative association). Taking Charge (negative
association), and Wanting Recognition (positive association; see Table 1).
According to Wheeler, Curlette, and Kern (1994), this pattern suggests a
lifestyle profile of individuals who tend to be sociable (BSI), somewhat
rebellious and against rules and regulations (GA), followers (TC), and pur-
260 Todd F. Lewis and Richard E. Watts
suers of recognition and attention (WR). Working with this formulation,
Adierian counselors could explore how this lifestyle pattern might contrib-
ute to behaviors inconsistent with social interest, such as excessive alcohol
consumption. That is, counselors could encourage heavy drinking students
to pursue social activities that do not involve alcohol, express negative
feelings related to institutional mandates, take charge of their own behav-
ior, and achieve recognition in ways that are not harmful to self or others.
Keeping consistent with Adierian theory, such an exploration would also
address the basic mistakes and cognitive distortions that underlie this
lifestyle pattern and its relation to drinking behavior.
College students who develop biased ways of perceiving self, others,
and the environment may turn to excessive alcohol consumption as a way
to work through interpersonal, school, or other kinds of difficulties. As an
example, the negative relationships among Going Along and all alcohol-
related behaviors in this study suggest that some college students might
harbor negative attitudes toward authority and experience drinking behav-
iors as a way to put forth their newly discovered freedom. Such an
explanation seems consistent with Adier (1931/1998), who theorized that
those who construe a private meaning to life, as with convictions that they
are superior to societal standards and rules, experience more problems
related to their behavior. More specifically, AdIer (as cited in Ansbacher &
Ansbacher, 1956) referred to problematic behavior in adolescence as
adolescent negativism, which occurs in response to perceived authorita-
tive control
(e.g.,
parents, teachers). From an Adierian perspective, many
expressions of adolescence stem from the goals of asserting independence,
demonstrating equality with adults, and proving one is no longer a
child.
Older adolescents
(i.e.,
college students) may hold faulty convictions that
"being independent means free from control at all costs" and thus will
oppose restrictions against their
freedom.
These convictions, as part of their
lifestyle patterns, may lead to drinking behavior
as a
sign of rebellion against
authority figures. Adierian clinicians are encouraged to explore perceptual
biases and underlying convictions, as part of
an
individual's lifestyle, which
can lead to problematic drinking.
As Kern et al. (1997) noted,
greater understanding of lifestyle patterns provides
a
person with more choices
on how to perceive current situations and the possibility of more cooperative
behavior. With increased choices comes increased opportunity for change and
increased possibility for interpersonal success, (p. 2)
Specific to college students, we would also add that with increased choices
comes an increased opportunity for movement toward more responsible
behavior that does not involve deleterious drinking.
Predictability of Adierian Themes 261
Although Adier's notion of lifestyle is theoretically comprehensive, more
empirical work is needed as it applies to this prevalent problem on college
campuses today. Future researchers may want to explore in more depth the
associations between specific lifestyle themes and college alcohol consump-
tion patterns. Knowledge of
general
lifestyle patterns of heavy binge drinkers,
for example, could provide clinicians a starting point when counseling such
students. Future research could also determine if lifestyle patterns among
students who consume alcohol are consistent across
gender.
The
goal of these
studies would be to construct intervention programs grounded in Adierian
theory and designed to help students gain insight into their drinking patterns,
to increase choice, and to reduce heavy, destructive drinking.
Several limitations of the current study need mention. First, the par-
ticipants in this study were a convenience sample of college students.
The lack of a randomly selected sample from a broader population pre-
cludes generalizability to all college students in the United States and
comparability to other alcohol studies. In addition, the measures used
rely on self-report. As with any self-report instrument, particularly one
measuring sensitive behaviors such as alcohol use, some participants may
not have responded in a manner reflective of their behavior. However,
previous research (Barbor, Stephens, & Marlatt, 1987; Calhoun et
al.,
2000;
Embree & Whitehead,
1991;
Williams, Aitken, & Malin, 1985) has demon-
strated that self-report measures of alcohol consumption tend to be valid
and reliable, especially when anonymity is
stressed.
Thirdly, this investiga-
tion was correlational in nature and designed to assess relationships among
several variables. As such, one cannot assume that the findings offer
evidence of causality among the variables of interest. Finally, across all
regression models, demographic variables and Adierian lifestyle themes
only explained between 16% and 20% of the variability in alcohol-related
behaviors. FHowever, it is remarkable that Adierian themes explained
more variance in two alcohol-related behaviors than demographic
vari-
ables.
This was a rigid "test" for lifestyle themes to pass, given the strength
of associations between the other variables and college drinking outlined
in the literature.
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