Educational Design Research

Abstract

Educational design research is a genre of research in which the iterative development of solutions to practical and complex educational problems provides the setting for scientific inquiry. The solutions can be educational products, processes, programs, or policies. Educational design research not only targets solving significant problems facing educational practitioners but at the same time seeks to discover new knowledge that can inform the work of others facing similar problems. Working systematically and simultaneously toward these dual goals is perhaps the most defining feature of educational design research. This chapter seeks to clarify the nature of educational design research by distinguishing it from other types of inquiry conducted in the field of educational communications and technology. Examples of design research conducted by different researchers working in the field of educational communications and technology are described. The chapter concludes with a discussion of several important issues facing educational design researchers as they pursue future work using this innovative research approach.

Full text

Chapter 9: Educational Design Research
Susan McKenney
Open University & University of Twente, the Netherlands
Thomas C. Reeves
The University of Georgia, USA
Abstract
Educational design research is a genre of research in which the iterative development of
solutions to practical and complex educational problems provides the setting for scientific
inquiry. The solutions can be educational products, processes, programs or policies.
Educational design research not only targets solving significant problems facing
educational practitioners, but at the same time it seeks to discover new knowledge that
can inform the work of others facing similar problems. Working systematically and
simultaneously toward these dual goals is perhaps the most defining feature of
educational design research. This chapter seeks to clarify the nature of educational design
research by distinguishing it from other types of inquiry conducted in the field of
educational communications and technology. Examples of design research conducted by
different researchers working in the field of educational communications and technology
are described. The chapter concludes with a discussion of several important issues facing
educational design researchers as they pursue future work using this innovative research
approach.
Keywords
Design research; design-based research; formative research; design experiments

McKenney & Reeves

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Chapter 9: Educational Design Research
Introduction
Educational design research is a genre of research in which the iterative development of
solutions to complex educational problems provides the setting for scientific inquiry. The
solutions that result from educational design research can be educational products (e.g. a
multiuser virtual world learning game), processes (e.g. a strategy for scaffolding student
learning in online courses), programs (e.g. a series of workshops intended to help
teachers develop more effective questioning strategies), or policies (e.g. year-round
schooling). Educational design researchers attempt to solve significant real world
problems while at the same time they seek to discover new knowledge that can inform
the work of others facing similar problems. This chapter summarizes arguments and
evidence presented by Barab and Squire (2004), Burkhardt, (2009), Reeves, (2011),
Schoenfeld (2009); van den Akker, Gravemeijer, McKenney, and Nieveen (2006a), and
others that educational design research is an innovative and exceptionally promising
approach to improving the quality and impact of educational research in general, and
educational communications and technology research in particular.
Educational design research origins
“Design research is not defined by its methods but by the goals of those who pursue it.
Design research is constituted within communities of practice that have certain
characteristics of innovativeness, responsiveness to evidence, connectivity to basic
science, and dedication to continual improvement.” - Bereiter (2002) p. 321.

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What has prompted scholars around the globe sharing the above-mentioned
characteristics of “innovativeness, responsiveness to evidence, connectivity to basic
science, and dedication to continual improvement” to come together in the pursuit of
educational design research? At least two main motives can be identified. Interestingly,
both perspectives have strong historical ties to educational psychology, and both
perspectives are concerned with making a contribution to educational practice. The first
motive is driven more by what society needs while the second has more to do with
finding adequate methods to meet those needs.
First, stemming from the notion that scientific understanding should be used to solve or at
least gain a better understanding of practical problems, the call for scientific inquiry to
yield what Lagemann (2002) refers to as ‘usable knowledge’ has been present for over a
century. Although this focus on demonstrable impact may be ignored by some who
recommend that educational researchers should emulate the methods of the so-called
“hard sciences” (e.g. physics) that seek knowledge without expectation of practical
application, the expectation for social science research to connect fundamental
understanding with applied use dates back to Münsterberg (1899) and Dewey (1900), if
not earlier. Both of these former American Psychological Association presidents
expressed the need for a linking science, which would use empirical insights and
theoretical advancements to inform problem-solving and improvement initiatives in
practice. This call has been taken up gradually within the fields of education and
psychology, for example in the work of Robert Glaser (1976) who laid out the elements
of a psychology of instruction and called for a science of design in education. Donald
Stokes (1997), an American political scientist, provided a fresh look at the goals of
science and their relation to application to real world problems, in his highly-acclaimed
book titled, Pasteur’s Quadrant: Basic Science and Technological Innovation. Stokes

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promoted more “use-inspired basic research” akin to work of the French chemist and
microbiologist, Louis Pasteur. He contrasted Pasteur’s pragmatic research approach with
that of the basic science goals of Danish physicist, Niels Bohr, and the applied research
aims of the American inventor, Thomas A. Edison.
Second, educational researchers have been searching for adequate methods to yield the
kinds of empirical insights and theoretical advancements that could be used to address
real concerns in educational practice. Acknowledging the limitations of laboratory
settings, the value of relinquishing control of variables in return for increased ecological
validity of the findings has been gaining support over the last 30 years. In 1992, two
landmark papers were published which are often credited with launching educational
design research as a specific genre of scientific inquiry. Brown’s (1992) article in the
Journal of the Learning Sciences discussed tensions between laboratory studies of
educational innovations and challenges inherent in integrating these innovations into real
world classrooms as background to describing her own design experiments. That same
year, Collins (1992) published a book chapter arguing that education should be viewed as
a design science akin to aeronautics, as opposed on an analytical science similar to
physics, emphasizing the fact that laboratory conditions could rarely approximate
conditions in real classrooms.
By the turn of the millennium, support was increasing for innovative research approaches
that might yield the kind of knowledge that can be put to use for the improvement of
education. Advocates for these new approaches accepted that the kinds of knowledge
needed would have to be constructed in the complex ‘laboratories’ of everyday learning
environments such as classrooms or online courses. The establishment of educational
design research is growing steadily. This momentum became apparent through several

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special issues of highly respected journals, including Educational Researcher (2003,
31(1)), Journal of the Learning Sciences (2004, 13(1)), and Educational Psychologist
(2004, 39(4)). Since then, several books have been written about educational design
research. Books have focused on conceptualization (van den Akker, Gravemeijer,
McKenney, & Nieveen, 2006a) methodological considerations (Kelly, Lesh, & Baek,
2008), and the details of conducting design studies (McKenney & Reeves, in press)
across educational fields. Related volumes have appeared specifically in the domains of
literacy (Reinking & Bradley, 2008) and instructional design (Richey & Klein, 2007). In
addition to special issues and books about educational design research, numerous reports
of educational design research initiatives have been published in research journals such as
Instructional Science (cf. Xie & Sharma, 2011), the Journal of the Learning Sciences
(e.g. Schwarz & Asterhan, 2011), the Journal of Research on Technology in Education
(e.g. Basham, Meyer, & Perry, 2010), and Educational Technology Research and
Development (e.g. Reynolds & Caperton, 2011). In addition, doctoral dissertations using
educational design research have been completed at multiple institutions such as the
University of California, Berkeley (e.g. Brar, 2010), Unversity of Florida (e.g. Drexler,
2010), the University of Georgia (e.g. Oh, 2011), the Pennsylvania State University (e.g.
Lee, 2009), and the University of Twente (e.g. Raval, 2010).
Today we see many sectors within education that seem to embrace educational design
research, including: learning sciences, instructional design, curriculum development and
teacher professional development. While educational design research is not inherently
tied to any specific subject area, much of the work published so far has been related to
science or mathematics, perhaps because more funding has been available for research
related to STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) disciplines than for
other areas (Kelly et al., 2008). However, educational design research is also being

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increasingly used in language and literacy research (Reinking & Bradley, 2008), as well
as other disciplines. A wide variety is present across educational design study literature, a
development that is partly accounted for by the methodological traditions within the
various educational sectors, individual researcher preferences and the resources available
for specific projects. In addition, variance across the twofold motives driving educational
design research plays a large role in explaining the diversity of these kinds of studies.
While pursuing both goals simultaneously remains a defining feature of educational
design research, one goal may feature more prominently than the other. For example,
relating more to the motive of improving practice, educational design research may be
conducted primarily to:
- Solve a problem (e.g. increase the participation of women and other minorities in
engineering and science careers),
- Put knowledge to innovative use (e.g. use the affordances of smart phones to
enable mobile learning), and/or
- Increase robustness and systematic nature of design practices (e.g. establish a set
of design principles for implementing inquiry-based learning in middle school
science).
Or, relating more to the motive of enhancing the quality of research findings, educational
design research may be conducted primarily to:
- Generate new knowledge (e.g., develop a theory of game-based learning),
- Generate different types of knowledge (e.g. enhance and extend knowledge
related to professional development for scaffolding strategies for math teachers),
and/or
- Increase the ecological validity of research-based knowledge (e.g. increase the
likelihood that educational innovations will be used to transform educational
practice).

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Clarifying the nature of educational design research
What is educational design research?
While studies do differ in terms of which motives are more powerful determinants in
shaping the inquiry, educational design research in general distinguishes itself from other
forms of inquiry by attending to both solving problems by putting knowledge to use, and
through that process, generating new knowledge. As stated elsewhere (McKenney &
Reeves, in press), educational design research is a genre of research in which the iterative
development of solutions (e.g. educational products, processes, programs or policies) to
practical and complex educational problems, provides the setting for scientific inquiry,
and yields new knowledge that can inform the work of others. Working systematically
and simultaneously toward these dual goals may be considered the most defining feature
of educational design research.
Educational design research is not a methodology. It uses quantitative, qualitative and –
probably most often – mixed methods to answer research questions. In so doing,
educational design research is held to the same standards as other scientific work when it
comes to providing transparency of the process and adequate warrants for the knowledge
claims it yields (cf. Shavelson, Phillips, Towne, & Feuer, 2003). In addition to the
knowledge generated, the value of educational design research is measured in terms of its
ability to improve educational practice (Design-Based Research Collective, 2003).
How does educational design research compare to other approaches?
While both are concerned with developing new knowledge and are connected to design
processes, educational design research has commonalities but also differences from the

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instructional design focused design and development research described by Richey and
Klein (2007, and in this volume). If considered as a Venn diagram, educational design
research and design and development research would overlap in projects that are
concerned with actively solving problems in educational practice (e.g. design and testing
of software to help plan lessons). The area that would be unique to design and
development research would be those projects that are concerned with developing tools
or models to support education in the long run, but that do not function as educational
interventions (e.g. retrospective analysis of how instructional designers carry out their
tasks). Design research projects that would not overlap with design and development
research would be those not specifically concerned with advancing the field of
instructional design (e.g. design and testing of a learning sequence for early literacy).
Educational design research is also different from evaluation research (Clarke, 1999),
although formative and summative evaluation methods are among the main vehicles used
to study and fine-tune interventions in both cases. First, problem definition and solution
design are rarely featured in evaluation research. Second, a key difference is that
evaluation research is primarily concerned with evaluating and possibly improving the
qualities of a particular intervention. The broader scientific orientation of generating
usable knowledge (e.g. in the form of models to underpin design, theories about how
teachers learn, descriptions of what engages learners, etc.) is not as overtly present in
evaluation research as in educational design research.
Educational design research also entails more than research-based educational design.
They are both forms of scientific inquiry, and often, each values a rational approach.
They both embrace systems thinking and are both shaped by iterative, data-driven
processes to reach successive approximations of a desired intervention. However,

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research-based educational design focuses solely on intervention development, whereas
design research strives explicitly to make a scientific contribution – of value to others
outside the research/design setting – in addition to the intervention development. This has
important implications for the entire process. Additional information on these differences
is available in (McKenney & Reeves, in press; Oh & Reeves, 2010). Similarly, action
research (cf. Mills, 2002) also lacks the emphasis on finding robust public knowledge
that is a hallmark of educational design research.
Distinguishing educational design research from other forms of inquiry in education is
made more difficult because it has been referenced in the literature by a number of
different terms such as “design-based research” (cf. Barab & Squire, 2004), “design
experiments” (cf. Brown, 1992), “development research” (cf. van den Akker, 1999),
“formative experiments” (cf. Reinking & Bradley, 2008), “formative research” (cf.
Newman, 1990), and simply “design research” (cf. Kelly et al., 2008). There are subtle
differences in how these terms are used by various researchers as delineated in
McKenney and Reeves (in press). The term “educational design research” is used in this
chapter and elsewhere (cf. Plomp & Nieveen, 2009; van den Akker et al., 2006) because
including the word “educational” in the term helps to avoid confusion with design
research as used in other fields. For example, Laurel’s (2003) book simply titled Design
Research concerns the field of human computer interface design and industrial
engineering rather than education.

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Conducting educational design research
Characteristics
Characteristics of educational design research have been offered in the literature (Kelly,
2003; Reinking & Bradley, 2008; van den Akker, Gravemeijer, McKenney, & Nieveen,
2006a; Wang & Hannafin, 2005). Common descriptors include: pragmatic, grounded,
interventionist, iterative, collaborative, adaptive and theory-oriented. Educational design
research is pragmatic because it is concerned with generating usable knowledge, and
usable solutions to problems in practice. It is grounded because it uses theory, empirical
findings and craft wisdom to guide the work. It is interventionist because it is undertaken
to make a change in a particular educational context. Educational design research is
iterative because it generally evolves through multiple cycles of design, development,
testing and revision. It is collaborative because it requires the expertise of
multidisciplinary partnerships, including researchers and practitioners, but also often
others (e.g. subject matter specialists, software programmers or facilitators). Educational
design research is adaptive because the intervention design and sometimes also the
research design are often modified in accordance with emerging insights. Finally, it is
theory-oriented not only because it uses theory to ground design, but also because the
design and development work is undertaken to contribute to a broader scientific
understanding.
Process
There is no set process for conducting the ‘manifold enterprise’ (Bell, 2004, p. 245) of
educational design research. This approach to inquiry is rich with variation in terms of

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models and frameworks that describe, and in a few cases, guide the process. Across that
variation, some similarities can be identified:
- Educational design research uses scientific knowledge (and to varying degrees,
also other kinds of knowledge such as craft wisdom) to ground design work;
- Educational design research produces scientific knowledge (and in some cases,
also craft wisdom among the participants);
- Though the terminology and contents differ, three phases can be distinguished in
educational design research: an analysis/orientation phase; a design/development
phase; and an evaluation/retrospective phase; these are often revisited in the
lifespan of a project; and
- Educational design research strives to develop both interventions in practice and
reusable knowledge.
Rich variation
Thought-provoking differences in design research are also present. Some of the
differences stem from the units of analysis, scope of implementation, nature of the
subject areas addressed, or from the research domains and methodological traditions in
which studies originate. As mentioned earlier, the relative emphasis on each motive
(solution development, new knowledge or equally on both) can also wield strong
influence on the design research process. But other differences stem from the concerns of
those interpreting the concept and conducting the studies.
McKenney and Reeves (in press) surveyed models for educational design research and, in
addition to highlighting similarities like those mentioned above, noted unique
contributions each one has to offer. The Osmotic Model, offered by Eljersbo et al. (2008),
depicts the parallels of the design cycle and the research cycle. The authors point out that

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both cycles originate from the problem and would ideally run simultaneously, but state
that this ideal is often not the case. Bannan-Ritland and Baek (2008) developed the
Integrated Learning Design Framework, which depicts four main stages and across those,
14 steps, in a combined approach to research and development. Along with the process
model, guiding questions for research and examples of applicable methods for each main
phase are given. Reeves (2000) presented a minimalist model that highlights four main
phases of design research: problem analysis; solution development; iterative refinement;
and reflection to produce design principles. He compared these phases to the four phases
of predictive research. In contrast to the aforementioned three models, McKenney, van
den Akker and Nieveen (2006) offered a model which is more conceptually-oriented than
process-oriented. This model depicts tenets guiding a research and development cycle,
situated in a particular context, yielding three main outcomes: professional development
of the participants; the designed intervention; and design principles.
In addition to these visual models, Gravemeijer and Cobb (2006) described important
steps in the three main phases of their work: preparing for a design experiment;
conducting a design experiment; and retrospective analysis. Based on a review of
literature, Wang and Hannafin (2005) delineated and argued for nine principles of design-
based research. Finally, Reinking and Bradley (2008) posed six questions as a guide for
conducting formative experiments, relating to: pedagogical goals; classroom intervention;
factors affecting the intervention; modifications to the intervention; unpredicted effects of
the intervention; and changes in the instructional environment due to the intervention.
Based on their survey and analysis of existing models and frameworks for design
research, McKenney and Reeves (in press) created a generic model for design research
(see Figure 1). Through this basic visualization, this model shows only the core elements

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of a flexible process that features the three main stages described earlier, taking place in
interaction with practice and yielding the dual outputs of knowledge and intervention.
Figure 1. Generic model for conducting educational design research (McKenney & Reeves, 2012)
Scientific outputs
Different terms have been used to describe the kinds of theoretical knowledge that are
produced by educational design research (cf. Edelson, 2002; McKenney & Reeves, in
press; van Aken, 2004; van den Akker, 1999). Descriptive, substantive or declarative
knowledge is generated to describe certain phenomena (e.g. what learner behaviors are
triggered by certain prompts). Prescriptive or procedural knowledge is generated to help
inform interventions in practice (e.g. how to facilitate learning through the strategic use
of certain prompt types under certain circumstances). Some projects may develop a
research agenda more attuned to one type of knowledge over another, though eventually
attending to both types seems to be the case more often than not.
Implementation & Spread
Analysis
Design
Evaluation
Maturing
Intervention
Exploration
Construction
Reflection
Theoretical
Understanding

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Different terms have been used in literature to describe the kind of integrated procedural
and declarative knowledge that comes out of design research, but design principles is
probably the most prevalent (cf. Kali, 2008; Kim & Hannafin, 2008; Mishra & Koehler,
2006; Quintana et al., 2004; van den Akker, 1999). Bell, Hoadley, and Linn (2004)
describe design-principles as:
“…an intermediate step between scientific findings, which must be generalized and
replicable, and local experiences or examples that come up in practice. Because of the
need to interpret design-principles, they are not as readily falsifiable as scientific laws.
The principles are generated inductively from prior examples of success and are subject
to refinement over time as others try to adapt them to their own experiences.” (p. 83).
On the other hand, Van den Akker (1999) suggests that the knowledge encompassed in
design principles can be conveyed through heuristic statements, such as, “If you want to
design intervention X [for purpose/function Y in context Z]; then you are best advised to
give that intervention the characteristics C1, C2, …, Cm [substantive emphasis]; and do
that via procedures P1, P2, …, Pn [procedural emphasis]; because of theoretical
arguments T1, T2, …, Tp; and empirical arguments E1, E2, … Eq.” (p. 9).
Complementing these perspectives on design principles, Linn and Elyon (2006) also
describe design patterns, which illustrate promising instructional sequences, and may be
guided or fine-tuned by design principles.
Practical outputs
In educational design research, research and development are integrated to create
educational interventions that address practical problems. In early stages, this involves
analysis of the problem to be addressed. Using the findings from a needs and context
analysis, together with a clarified problem statement, design work commences.

McKenney & Reeves
Depending on the scope of the project, (re-)design work can last from several weeks to
several years. Especially the revisions are fed by field investigations using a range of
strategies and methods to study either the intervention itself (e.g. as a type of intervention
for which guidelines or design frameworks are needed); or phenomena that are
engendered by the interventions (e.g. learner reactions).
Examples
Different research reports are used here (Thomas, Barab, & Tuzun, 2009; Klopfer &
Squire, 2008; Oh, 2011) to illustrate the variety of educational design research conducted
within the field of educational communications and technology. One study (Thomas et
al., 2009) was conducted by a research team led by Sasha Barab, one of the most highly
respected senior professors in the field, with substantial funding from the National
Science Foundation and other sources; one study was co-led by an at-the-time early
career assistant professor, Kurt Squire, with start-up funding from Microsoft and other
sources; and the last was carried out by a doctoral student, Eunjung Oh, working with one
other doctoral student and a practitioner with no funding beyond a graduate teaching
assistantship. For each one, the problem addressed, the primary focus of the research, the
intervention that was developed, the theoretical contributions, the methods used, the
scope of the intervention involved as well as its practical contribution are summarized in
Table 1.
Table 1. Three examples demonstrating educational design research variation
Thomas, Barab, &
Tuzun, 2009
Klopfer & Squire,
2008
Oh, 2011
Problem
Middle school students
were relatively
unengaged in
meaningful scientific
inquiry.
High school and
college students were
frequent users of
handheld devices such
as smart phones, but
Graduate student
collaboration in online
learning course was
superficial and
unproductive.

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were not using them to
learn.
Main focus
Investigating the
implementation of a
technology-rich
educational innovation
in a public elementary
school in the USA
Developing innovative
applications for mobile
computing for
environmental science
education
To optimize
collaborative group
work and student
learning in an online
higher education
learning environment
Intervention
developed
Quest Atlantis: A 3D
Multiplayer Virtual
Environment
A series of games that
can be played on
handheld devices such
as PDA and smart
phones
“E-learning
Evaluation” course
based on authentic
tasks for online
delivery
Knowledge
created Theory of
Transformational Play
Theoretical framework
called ‘‘augmented
reality educational
gaming”
Thirty design
principles and
associated strategies to
enhance group work in
online courses
Research
methods used
Observations
Interviews
Surveys
Document analyses
Three qualitative case
studies
Observations
Interviews
Focus groups
Discourse analysis
Case Studies
Design narratives
Participant
observations
Questionnaires
Interviews
Three sequential case
studies
Research scope
This design research
initiative has been
underway for more
than a decade with
substantial funding
from NSF and other
sources.
The design research
study has been
underway since 20011
with initial funding
from Microsoft and
other sources.
This study lasted two
years with no direct
funding.
Primary
practical
contribution
As of 2010, Quest
Atlantis had been used
by 50,000 students in
more than a dozen
countries.
atlantis.crlt.indiana.edu
The work started with
this project is now part
of the Games,
Learning, and Society
group at the University
of Wisconsin where
numerous learning
games can be found.
www.gameslearning
society.org
An online course
design for a graduate
level course based
around authentic tasks
was developed with
substantial support for
group work.
www.authentictasks.
uow.edu.au

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The three examples described here illustrate how different types of research reports are
published as sub-components of larger educational design research projects. Published in
the Journal of Educational Computing Research, Thomas, Barab, and Tuzun (2009) is
one of a series of journal papers in which Barab and his colleagues have described their
efforts to refine a theory of transformational play while at the same time seeking to
develop advanced forms of interactive learning games. This paper summarizes the results
of three qualitative studies focused on the challenges and successes involved in
implementing Quest Atlantis, a 3D multiplayer virtual environment (MUVE), which
serves as the primary vehicle for instantiating Barab’s transformational play learning
theory and for allowing it to be refined through iterative design-based research.
Published in the Educational Technology Research and Development Journal, Klopfer
and Squire (2008) describe a multi-year project to enhance student learning related to
environmental science through the development and refinement of learning games that
are accessed with handheld devices such as PDAs and smart phones. In addition to
developing an array of learning games, the project has sought to develop and refine a
theoretical framework called ‘augmented reality educational gaming’ that can be applied
by other games designers. The paper provides considerable detail about the development
of the learning games using a unique ‘design narrative’ approach. This particular paper
focuses on iterative design cycles based on five case studies conducted in real high school
classrooms.
Oh (2011) reports the findings of a doctoral dissertation that pursued two primary goals:
1) optimizing collaborative group work in an online graduate level course focused on ‘E-
Learning Evaluation,’ and 2) developing a refined model of group work in online courses
and identifying design principles for supporting online collaborative group work among

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adult learners The dissertation provides a comprehensive portrayal of a two-year design
research project using what Boote and Beile (2005) called the “compilation of research
articles” (p. 10) format for dissertations. The dissertation includes one published article,
three submitted papers, one detailed methodology chapter, and one detailed results
chapter. Oh (2011) documents how mixed methods were applied across several semester-
length iterations of an online course to yield 30 distinct design principles for supporting
group work by adults.
Addressing inherent challenges
Inspired by van den Akker’s (1999) design research challenges, this section briefly
touches on several important issues that often crop up in educational design research,
how they may be attended to, and areas that require further consideration.
Information richness and efficiency: Seeking a productive balance
When conducting educational design research, it is necessary to address questions about
appropriate tactics for increasing the information richness and efficiency of data
collection procedures and instruments without being over-whelmed with data. Design
researchers should not be driven by the misconception that ‘more is better.’ This notion is
aptly conveyed by Dede, (2004, p. 7) who noted in reference to a design study that
“everything that moved within a 15-foot radius of the phenomenon was repeatedly
interviewed, videotaped, surveyed and so-forth – this elephantine effort resulted in the
birth of mouse-like insights in their contribution to educational knowledge.”

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Optimizing processes: Stacking smaller studies together
Other questions arise around the linkages among design, prototyping, implementation,
data collection, processing, analysis and re-design. Managing the process of
communicating evaluation findings and subsequently utilizing them for improvement of
interventions is difficult. Realistic timelines must be established with allowances for
flexibility. Educational design research projects must inevitably be divided into smaller,
more manageable chunks. These chunks and the smaller studies involved in them can
function as ‘bricks’ in a larger structure that forms both the evolving intervention and the
refined knowledge. Emerging insights can be shared through shorter (e.g. article-sized)
reports of smaller chunks, whereas books or other media might be more appropriate for
sharing new knowledge derived from the whole of long-term efforts. Often, the interim
(i.e. smaller chunk) reporting stands on its own and does not (need to) mention the larger
study; also, interim reporting for an external audience can be a timely vehicle for
fostering reflection among design research team members.
Measuring impact: Powerful examples needed
Ultimately, educational design researchers must address questions regarding the most
relevant indicators of quality, success and impact of the interventions and knowledge
advances that result from their efforts. Burkhardt (2006) writes about what is needed to
bring about greater acceptance of educational design research. He describes several
Nobel Prize winners for design and development in other fields and concludes that
educational design research candidates should be assessed on the basis of their: impact on
practice; contribution to theory and/or knowledge; and improvement in either research
and/or design methodology. While it is surely too early to be expecting Nobel Prizes for
educational design researchers, this approach will only gain wide acceptance when it can

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be shown to make the much-needed gains in demonstrating the impact educational
research (cf. Kaestle, 1999).
Generalizability: Toward uptake and use of new knowledge
The main conceptual vehicle through which new knowledge is transferred outside of the
research context, generalizability means different things to different researchers. All
researchers must seek to identify promising approaches to enable uptake and use of
research findings. Because educational design research takes place in natural settings
where more variables are present than can be controlled for, the findings from these
studies cannot yield immutable rules, easily transferred without consideration. But they
can yield useful insights to inform the work of others (design work or otherwise). For
example, when designs are tested in multiple settings and under varying conditions, or
when design features are systematically varied under similar conditions, theory
development can occur through analytic generalization. According to Yin (1989, p. 44),
analytic generalization is a process through which "the investigator is striving to
generalize a particular set of results to a broader theory” which can be of use to others.
Alternatively, knowledge produced through design research can be shared and used
through case-to-case generalization. Firestone (1993) refers to case-to-case generalization
as the transfer of ideas that takes place when a person in one setting considers adopting
an intervention, or its underlying propositions and frameworks in another setting. To do
this, the knowledge producer is obligated to explicate how the specific instance studied
compares to other instantiations of the phenomenon. In so doing, description of salient
characteristics of both the intervention and the context in which it is enacted are essential.
Clearly, when it comes to putting the knowledge of design research to use, the knowledge
producer must portray the work well enough. This could mean, for example, adhering to

McKenney & Reeves
Lincoln and Guba’s (1985) criteria for naturalistic inquiry: credibility, transferability,
dependability and confirmability (parallel to internal validity, external validity, reliability
and objectivity, respectively). At the same time, knowledge consumers are obliged to
critically assess the applicability of certain ideas for their own specific contexts.
On the horizon
Educational design researchers and arguably all educational researchers must seek to
balance rigor and relevance (Reeves, 2011). To find this balance, educational design
researchers might do well to learn from sister fields. For example, engineering and
product design tend to embrace creativity more than most educational researchers (e.g.
Laurel, 2003). Another perspective can be found in appreciative inquiry in health care
(e.g. Carter, Ruhe, Weyer, Litaker, Fry, & Stange, 2007) that emphasizes design based on
opportunity, as opposed to patching gaps uncovered by reductionist problem diagnostics.
Since the landmark design research articles in 1992, a growing appreciation for
educational design research in a wide variety of contexts has been evident. Gradually, the
design research literature is beginning to show more consideration of factors that affect
implementation. Instead of tossing innovations over the metaphorical walls of classrooms
and online learning environments, educational design researchers are working hand in
hand with practitioners to conduct design and research in ways that make substantive
change possible. The importance of collaborative approaches and on-the-ground
understanding of implementation issues, which were privileged topics of research in the
1970s (cf. Fullan & Pomfret, 1977; Hall, Wallace & Dossett, 1973; Havelock, 1971)
seem relatively new – but also quite dear – to many of those currently practicing design
research. Some researchers emphasize this perspective by referring to their work as
design-based implementation research (e.g. Penuel, Fishman, Cheng & Sabelli, 2011).

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We embrace the surge of interest in these concerns, and express our hope for a
renaissance of scholarship that brings researcher and practitioner expertise together to
bear on substantial educational issues. Educational design research is one of several
genres of inquiry that can lead the way in contributing to scientific understanding in the
long term through its study of meaningful implementation in the here and now.
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Author Information
Complete name: Susan McKenney
Institutional affiliation: Open University & University of Twente

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Institutional address: OWK/GW/UTwente; PO Box 217; 7500AE Enschede; the
Netherlands
Permanent address: Beldershoekweg 22; 7548PZ Enschede; the Netherlands
Telephone number: +31 53 489 2890
Fax number: +31 53 489 3759
Email address: susan.mckenney@utwente.nl
Website:
http://www.utwente.nl/gw/co/en/Employees/Scientific%20staff/McKenney_ENG.doc/
Short biographical sketch: Dr. McKenney is Associate Professor in the Centre for
Learning Sciences and Technologies at the Open University and also within the
Education Department of the Faculty of Behavioral Sciences at the University of Twente.
Her research focuses on understanding and supporting the interplay between curriculum
development and teacher professional development. In various settings, she has
extensively studied the supportive role of technology in curriculum development. Dr.
McKenney is committed to exploring how educational research can serve the
development of scientific understanding while also creating sustainable solutions to real
problems in educational practice. Since educational design research lends itself to these
dual aims, she also works on developing and explicating ways to conduct this exciting
form of inquiry. In addition to authoring numerous journal articles, she co-edited the
book, Educational Design Research in 2006 and, together with Tom Reeves, wrote the
book, Conducting Educational Design Research in 2012. Dr. McKenney and is current
editor of Educational Designer, the journal of the International Society for Design and
Development in Education. Dr. McKenney has received multiple merit-based
scholarships from both the University of Twente and the Dutch Science Foundation
(NWO), as well as from other organizations. Professional organizations in which she is
active include: AERA, EARLI, ICO, ISDDE, ISLS and VOR. Dr. McKenney has taught

McKenney & Reeves
preschool and middle school, as well as bachelor, master and doctorate courses. In
addition to regular conference participation around the globe, she has given invited
speeches in Belgium, China, India, Italy, the Netherlands, South Africa and the USA.
Author Information
Complete name: Reeves, Thomas, C.
Institutional affiliation: The University of Georgia
Institutional address: Dept. of Educational Psychology and Instructional Technology
(EPIT), College of Education, The University of Georgia
Complete mailing address: 604 Aderhold Hall, The University of Georgia Athens, GA
30602-7144
Telephone number: 706-542-3849
Fax number (optional):
Email address: treeves@uga.edu
Website (optional): http://it.coe.uga.edu/~treeves
Short biographical sketch: Professor Emeritus Thomas C. Reeves taught in the Learning,
Design, and Technology (formerly Instructional Technology) program for nearly 30
years. He continues to work as a consultant and he is a frequent invited speaker around
the globe. He designed, developed and evaluated numerous interactive learning programs
for education and training. He is a past president of the Association for the Development
of Computer-based Instructional Systems (ADCIS) and a former Fulbright Lecturer.
From 1997-2000, he was the editor of the Journal of Interactive Learning Research. He
served as a member of the Scientific Panel on Interactive Consumer Health Information
for the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and the National Visiting
Committee for the National Science Digital Library. In 2003, he was the first person to
receive the AACE Fellowship Award from the Association for the Advancement of

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Computing in Education. His Interactive Learning Systems Evaluation book (with John
Hedberg) was published in 2003; his A Guide to Authentic E-Learning book (with Jan
Herrington and Ron Oliver) was published in 2010; and his Conducting Educational
Design Research book (with Susan McKenney) was published in 2012. In 2010, Reeves
was made a Fellow of the Australasian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary
Education (ASCILITE). His current research interests include: 1) evaluation of
educational technology, 2) authentic learning tasks, 3) socially responsible research in
education, 4) educational design research, and 5) applications of instructional technology
in developing countries.