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Could an Aging Brain Contribute to Subjective Well-Being?
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SocialNeuroscience:TowardUnderstandingthe
UnderpinningsoftheSocialMind
AlexanderTodorov,SusanFiske ,andDeborahPrentice
Printpublicationdate:2011
PrintISBN-13:9780195316872
PublishedtoOxfordScholarshipOnline:May2011
DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195316872.001.0001
CouldanAgingBrainContributetoSubjectiveWell-Being?
TheValueAddedbyaSocialNeurosciencePerspective
JohnT.Cacioppo
GaryG.Berntson
AntoineBechara
DanielTranel
LouiseC.Hawkley
DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195316872.003.0017
AbstractandKeywords
Carstensenandcolleaguesreportedthatatleastuntilverylateinlife,healthyolder
adultsreportedlowerlevelsofdepressivesymptomatologyandhigherlevelsof
subjectivewell-being.Thesefindingsweresurprisingnotonlybecausetheywentagainst
socialstereotypesofthemiseryofoldage,butbecausecognitivedeclineswerealso
evidentinolderadults.Carstensenetal.'simportantworkhasledtoeffortstodetermine
theunderlyingcauseoftheage-relateddeclineindepressivefeelingsinthehopesof
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improvingtreatmentsfordepressivesymptomatologyacrosstheagerange.Earlywor k
focusedonthetemporalperspectiveandself-regulatorystrategiesthatcharacterize
healthyolder adults,butattentiontoage-relatedchangesinbrainfunctionprovidean
alternativeexplanationforthesefindings.Thischaptercontraststhesetwoperspectives
toexaminehowaneuroscientificapproachtoasocialproblemcanproduceinsightsthat
wouldnotbediscerniblefromasocialorbehavioralperspectivealone.Italsoillustrates
thecomplementarynatureofresearchusingfMRIandlesionpatients.
Keywords:aging,socialstereotypes,well-being,depression,oldage,age-relateddecline
WethankHannaDamasioforherassistanceintheanatomicalanalysesoftheneural
lesions.Fu ndingwasprovidedbytheNationalInstituteofAgingGrantNo.PO1
AG18911andtheJohnTempletonFoundation.Corr espondencemaybeaddressed
toJohnT.Cacioppo,CenterforCognitiveandSocialNeuroscience,Universityof
Chicago,5848S.UniversityAvenue,Chicago,IL60637,or
Cacioppo@uchicago.edu.
People’smoodsmodulatesocialcognition,interpersonalinteractions,andsocial
relationships.Forexample,negativemoodscanaltertheperceivedlikelihoodof
occurrenceforconsequencespresentedwhenformingimpressionsorattitudes
(Wegener,Petty,&Klein,1994),andnegativemoodscanhaveadverseeffectson
interper sonalinteractions(Hawkley,Preacher,&Cacioppo,2007).Whenfeelingsof
dysphoriaextendbeyondminutesandhour stoweeksandmonths,theindividual
transitionsfromnegativemoodstodepressivesymptomatology,theconsequencesof
whichcanbedev astating.
Individualswithelevateddepressivesymptomsareatriskforahostofproblems,
includingcardiovasculardisease(e.g.,Barefoot&Schroll,1996;Barth,Schumacher,&
Herr mann-Lingen,2004;Carney&Sheps,2004),functionalimpairments(Mehta,Yaffe,&
Covinsky,2002),diminishedimmunosurveillance(Hawkley,Bosch,Engeland,Marucha,&
Cacioppo,2007),higherhealth-careresourceutilization(Wellsetal.,1989;Wygaard&
Albreksten,1992),socialdisruptions(Cacioppoetal.,2006),andfeelingsofsocialisolation
(Cacioppoetal.,2006).Eventreatmentsfordepressivesymptomscarry significantrisks.
Selectiveserotoninreuptakeinhibitors(SSRIs)areaclassofanti-depressantmedications
thathelpalleviatedepressivesymptomsinmanyindividuals,butthesedrugsadversely
affectosteob lasts(cellsfrombones),resultinginmorebrittlebonesandincreasedriskof
bonefracturesanddisabilityintheelderly(Richard setal.,2007).Whentotaled,the
estimatedannualeconomiccostofdepressivesymptomatologyexceeds$43billion
(Greenber g,Stiglin,Finkelstein,&Berndt,1993).
Depressivesymptomatologyissurprisinglyprevalentinindustrializedcountries.Analyses
fromthefirstwaveoftheHealthandRetirementSurvey(HRS),anationally
representativelongitudinalsurvey,indicatedthatapproximatelyone-thirdofadults
(33.6%ofthoseages51–55yearsand31.2%ofthoseages56–61years)reported
moderatetohighlevelsofdepressivesymptoms(Steffick,2000,Table22).Datafromthe
secondandthirdwaveoftheHRSandthefirsttwowavesoftheAssetsandHealth
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DynamicsStudyoftheOldestOld,inwhichtheCenterforEpidemiologicStudies
DepressionScale(CES-D;Radloff,1977)wasused,indicatedthatfrom14%to19%
respondedthatthey“feltdepressed,”21%to25%respondedthat“everythingwasan
effort,”and17%to23%r espondedthatthey“cou ldnotgetgoing”(Steffick,2000,Table
9).Thesedatasuggestthatdepressive(p.250) symptomatologyhasreachedepidemic
propor tionsandplaysasignificantroleinsocialcognition,interpersonalrelationships,and
socialbehaviorinindustrializednations.Indeed,theFederalInteragencyF or umon
AgingRelatedStatistics(2004)usesdepressivesymptomatologyasanimportantindicator
ofgeneralwell-beingandhealthamongadults.
Withtheagingofindustrializednations,concernsaroseaboutacorrespondingincrease
indepressivesymptomatologyandacompoundingofthehealth-carecostsassociated
withanolderpopulation.Itcameasasurprise,then,whenCarstensenandcolleagues
reportedthatatleastuntilverylateinlife,healthyolder adultsreportedlowerlevelsof
depressivesymptomatologyandhigherlevelsofsubjectivewell-being(e.g.,Carstensen,
Isaacowitz,&Charles,1999).Thesefindingsweresurprisingnotonlybecausetheywent
againstsocialstereotypesofthemiseryofoldage,butbecausecognitivedeclineswere
alsoevidentinolderadults(e.g.,Petersen,Doody,Kurzetal.,2001).Age-r elated
changesincognitionincludeareductioninprocessingspeed,episodicmemory,and
executivefunctioning,includingproblemsolvingandinhibitorycontrol(e.g.,Hasher&
Zacks,1988;Salthouse,2001;Stern&Carstensen,2000;vonHippel&Dunlop,2005).
Moreover,5%oftheUnitedStatespopulationages65to69yearsshowsmoderateor
severememoryimpairment,and32%ofthose85yearsandoldershowmoderateor
severememoryimpairment(FederalInteragencyForumonAging-RelatedStatistics,
2004).
Carstensenetal.’s(1999)importantworkhasledtoeffortstodeterminetheunderlying
causeoftheage-r elateddeclineindepressivefeelingsinthehopesofimproving
treatmentsfordepressivesymptomatologyacrosstheagerange.Earlyworkfocusedon
thetemporalperspectiveandself-regulatorystrategiesthatcharacterizehealthyolder
adults,butattentiontoage-relatedchangesinbrainfunctionprovideanalternative
explanationforthesefindings.Ourgoalinthischapteristocontrastthesetwo
perspectivestoexaminehowaneuroscientificapproachtoasocialproblemcanproduce
insightsthatwouldnotbediscerniblefromasocialorbehavioralperspectivealone.We
alsoillustratethecomplementarynatureofresearchusingfMRI andlesionpatients.
Age-relatedpsychologicalchanges
Cognitivedeclinesareviewedgenerallyastheconsequenceofanagingbrain(e.g.,
McArdleetal.,2004),whereastheimprovedaffectassociatedwithaginghasbeen
attributedtochangesinmotivationderivedfromdifferencesintimeperspective(e.g.,
Carstensen,Fung,&Charles,2003).Accord ingtoCarstensen’ssocio-emotionalselective
theory,peoplehaveasenseoftheirtimeleftinlife,andperceivedboundariesontime
leadstoattentionbedirectedtoemotionallymeaningfulaspectsoflife.Whentimeis
perceivedasabundant,anindividual’smotivationandgoalscenteronacquiringnew
information,expandinghorizons,andpur suingachievements.Whentimeisperceivedto
Could an Aging Brain Contribute to Subjective Well-Being?
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belimited,positiveemotionalexperiencebecomesthepreeminentmotivation,andthe
individualtunesattentional,cognitive,andsocialinvestmentstoenhanceemotional
closenessandpositiveaffect.
Thereisconsider ableevidenceconsistentwiththepredictionsofsocio-emotional
selectivity.Inanillustrativestudy,Nolen-HoeksemaandAhrens(2002)investigatedthe
levelsofdepressivesymptomsin25-to35-year-old,45-to55-year-old ,and65-to75-
year-oldadults.Thesegroupswereselectedtorepresentdifferentlifecircumstances
andsocialhistories.Resultsindicatedthatasagroup,theolderadultsrepor tedthe
lowestlevelsofdepressivesymptomatology.
Werecentlyexaminedthedeter minantsofsubjectivewell-beinginourpopulation-based
stud yof50-to67-year-oldsintheChicagoHealth,Aging,andSocialRelationsStudy
(CHASRS;Cacioppoetal.,2006).Consistentwithpriorresearch,ourcross-sectional
analysesindicatedthatdispositionalvariables,suchasemotionalstability,relationship
satisfaction,and self-esteem,wer eassociatedwithsubjectivewell-being.Cross-sectional
analysesmayprovideusefulinformationondispositionalcharacteristicsofhappypeople
aswellasriskfactors;(p.251) longitudinalanalysesaremoreusefultoinvestigatelikely
causalinfluences.Longitudinalanalysesofdatafromthefirst3yearsofCHASRSr evealed
aneffectofageonchangesinsubjectivewell-being,aspredictedbysocio-emotional
selectivitytheory.
Giventhereplicabilityofage-relateddecreasesindepressivesymptomatologyand
increasesinsubjectivewell-being,investigationshavetur nedfromdeterminingthe
associationtoexplicatingtheunderlyingmechanism.Socio-emotionalselectivitytheory
predictsthatolderadultswillself-regulatetheirownaffectivestatesbychoosingto
attendtoandthinkmoreaboutpositive,incontrasttonegative,stimuliandeventsin
their dailylives.Consistentwiththishypothesis,Carstensenandcolleagues(Char les,
Mather,&Carstensen,2003)demonstratedthatage-relateddecrementsinmemory
performancearegreaterfornegativethanpositivestimuli.Recallandr ecognition
memoryforpositive,neutral,andnegativepicturesweremeasuredinyoung(ages18–
29years),middle-aged(ages41–53years),andolderadults(ages76–80years).Results
confirmedthatyoungadultsrecalledcomparablenumber sofpositiveandnegative
stimuli,whereasmiddle-agedandolderadultsrecalledmor epositivethannegative.
However,analternativetosocio-emotionalselectivitytheoryissuggestedbythework
onage-relatedchangesinadrenergicandamygdalafunctioning.Accordingtoanaging-
brainmodel(ABM):(1)theamygdalaactivationinresponsetonegativestimulidecreases
withagewhereasamygdalaactivationtopositivestimuliismaintainedacrossage;(2)the
decreasedamygdalaactivationisassociatedwiththediminutioninemotionalarousalto
negativestimuli;and(3)thediminutionofemotionalarousaltonegativestimulithatis
associatedwithagingcorr espondinglyreducesthememorialadvantageconferredto
emotionallyarousingeventsandelevatessubjectivewell-being.AccordingtotheABM,
thesechangescarryanadditionalcost:themaintenanceoffeltarousaltopositive
emotionaloutcomesandthediminutionoffeltarousaltonegativeemotionaloutcomescan
alsoimpairdecisionmakinginsituationsinwhichweightingnegativefeedbackisessential
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(e.g.,gambling).
TheneuroscientificallyinspiredABMdiffersfromsocio-emotionalselectivitytheoryin
severalrespects.Socio-emotionaltheorypositsthatthegreaterpriorityplacedon
emotionalgoalsbyolderadultsleadsthemtochoosetoattendtoandallocatecognitive
resourcestowardpositive,ratherthannegative,stimuli(e.g.,people,events)asameans
ofmoodregulationandmaintainingemotionalcloseness.AccordingtotheABM,age-
relatedchangesinbrainfunctionincludeimpairmentsinamygdalafunction,whichresults
inreductionsinemotionalimpactofnegative,butnotpositive,stimuli.Bothmodels
predictthatamygdalaactivationwillbecomparabletopositivestimuliinyoungadultsand
willbesmallertonegativethantopositivestimuliinolderadults.Howev er ,socio-
emotionalselectivitytheorypredictsthattheseamygdalachangesaretheconsequenceof
thereducedattentiontoandcognitiveemphasisonnegativeinformationinolder adults
thatcomesfromtheirincreasedfocusonemotionalgoalsandemotionalregulatory
strategies(Carstensenetal.,2003).ABMpred ictsthattheseamygdalachangesarethe
causeofthereducedimpactofnegativestimuliand,consequently,diminisheddepressive
symptomatologyandimprovedsubjectivewell-b eing.
Imagingresearchhasconfirmedthepatternofamygdalaactivationpredictedbysocio-
emotionalselectivitytheoryandbytheABM.Matheretal.(2004)usedevent-related
fMRIinastudyof17healthyyoungadults(ages18–29years)and17olderhealthy
adults(ages70–90years).Theparticipantsviewed192randomlyorderednegative,
neutral,andpositivepicturesfromtheInternationalAffectivePictur eSystem(Lang,
Bradley,&Cuthber t,1999)inadditionto64fixationtrials(alargecrossonthecenterfor
thescreen).Eachofthese256stimuliwerepresentedfor3seconds,andaftereachthe
participantsrated“howexcitedorcalmyoufeelwhenyouvieweachpicture”usinga
scalefrom1to4,with1labeled“completelyr elaxed,calm,sluggish,dull,sleepy,
unaroused”and 4labeled“stimulated,excited,frenzied,jittery,wide-awake,aroused.”
Forold er adults,theaverage(p.252) signalchangeintheamygdalawaslargerfor
positivethannegativepictures,whereasforyoungadultstheaver agesignalchangein
theamy gdalawascomparablylargetopositiv eandnegativepictures.Thatis,young
adultsshowedamygdalaactivationtopositiveandnegativepictures,whereasolder
adultsshowedamygdalaactivationonly inresponsetothepositivepictures.
Furthermore,Matheretal.(2004)foundthatyoungandolderadultsratedthepositive
picturesascomparablyemotionallyarousing,butolderadultsratedthenegative
picturesaslessarousingthandidtheyoungadults.
TheresultsofMatheretal.(2004)andCharlesetal.(2003)areconsistentwith
Carstensen’ssocio-emotionalselectivitytheorywhereinolderadultspreferemotionally
meaningfulexperiences,andthisincreasedfocusonemotionalgoalsandemotional
regulator ystrategiesleadstoareducedcognitiv efocusonnegativeinformation.Their
resultsarealsoconsistentwiththeABM,whereinthereducedamygdalaactivationin
older,comparedtoyoung,adultsfoundinresponsetonegativ e(butnotpositive)stimuli
isanage-relatedchangeinbrainfu nctionandiscausal:theloweramygdalaactivation
shownselectivelytonegativestimulidrainsthemofemotionalarousal,which,asCahilland
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colleagues(1994,1995)haveshown,eliminatesthememorialadvantageusuallyfoundfor
emotionalstimuli.
Socio-emotionalselectivitytheoryandABMdifferintheirpredictionsaboutattentionto
negativeversuspositivestimuli.Basedontheformer ,Charlesetal.(2003,Study2)
hypothesizedthat“olderadults,comparedwithyoungeradults,wouldspendlesstime
viewingthenegativeimagesthanpositiveimages”(p.319)intheirworkofagingand
emotionalmemory.Contrarytosocio-emotionalselectivitytheoryandconsistentwiththe
ABM,however,Charlesetal.(2003)foundthatbothyoungandoldadultsspentmore
timeviewingnegativethanpositivestimuli,andnodifferencesbetweenyoungandold
adultswerefoundinthetimespentviewingnegative(or positive)images.
Theextantdataareallcorrelationalinnature,andtheydonotaddr esswhethertheage-
relatedchangesinamygdalafunctionobser vedintheliteratur e:(1)aretheconsequence
ofchangesintheperceivedtimeleftinlife,whichmotivateschangesintheattentionto
andcognitiveoperationsonpositiveandnegativeinformation(thesocio-emotional
selectivityprocess-hypothesis),or(2)lessentheemotionalar ousalelicited specificallyby
negativestimuli,which,inturn,producesaneffectivelandscapeinwhichpositiveand
negativestimuliarerecognizedassuchbu tinwhichpositivestimuliareassociatedwith
greateremotionalarousal(andgreatermemorialandgeneralaffectiveimpact)than
negativestimuli(theABMprocess-hypothesis).OneofthefundamentaltenetsoftheABM
isthatpatientswithamygdala/anter iortemporallesions,evenyoungpatientswithsuch
lesions,willbeselectivelyimpairedinthearousalresponsetonegativestimuli.This,of
course,isbecauseamygdalafunctionisseenascauseratherthanconsequence.The
investigationofpatientswithselectivelesionsoftheamygdala/anteriortemporalregions
ratherthanfMRIstudiesofyoungandoldadultspermitsthebettertestofthis
hypothesis.
Amygdalalesionsandemotionalarousal
Totestthetenetthatpatientswithamygdala/anteriortemporallesionswillbeselectively
impairedinthefeltarousalelicitedbynegativestimuli,Berntson,Bechara,Damasio,
Tranel,andCacioppo(2007)examinedtheseparatevalenceandarousalaspectsof
evaluativejudgmentsinthecontextofacomprehensiv eevalu ativespacemodel
(Cacioppo&Berntson,1994).Specifically,wecomparedtheaffectiveratings(positiv ity,
negativity,andarousal)ofgradedemotionalpicturestimuli(verypositive,moderately
positive,neutral,moderatelynegative,andverynegative;InternationalAffectivePicture
Series[IAPS],Langetal.,1999)by sixpatients(fourmalesandtwofemales;ages22–65
years,mean=37.8)withamygdala/anteriortemporallesionstotheratingsofalesion
controlgroup(threemalesand threefemales;ages33–61years,mean=51.2)with
lesionssparingtheamygdalaandotherareasthathavebeenimplicatedin(p.253)
emotionalprocesses(e.g.,ventromedialprefrontalcortex,insula/SSII;Berntsonetal.,
2006).Resultswerealsocomparedtoalargesetofnormativedataonthesepictures
(Lang,Bradley,&Cuthbert,1999).Participantsratedeachof48picturesonafive-point
bivariatescaleofpositivityandnegativity,andaunivalentscaleofarousal.Pictureswere
matchedonevaluativeextremityfromthemid(neutral)-pointofthenormativescale(12
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verypositive,6moder ately positive,12neutral,6moder ately negative,and12very
negative)and normativearousalratings.Pictureswerepresentedinrand omorderona
computermonitorfor6seconds.Participantswereinstructed tofocusontheemotional
contentofthepicturesandtoratethemonpositivityandnegativitybymovingamouse
pointer andclickingalocationina5(positivity,0=notatall,4=extremely)x5
(negativity,0=notatall,4=extremely)gridpresentedonthescreenimmediatelyafter
terminationoftheslide(Cacioppoetal.,2004).Immediatelyafterresponding,asecond
screendisplayedasingle-responsecontinuum,andtheparticipantwasinstructedtorate
thearousabilityofthestimulus(0–4;0=notatall,4=extremely),againbytheuseofa
mouse.Threesecondsaftercompletingtheratings,thenextslidewaspresented.In
additiontotheseparateratingsofpositivity,negativity,andarousal,anetvalencerating
wascalculatedasthepositivityratingminusthenegativityratingforeachpicture.
AsillustratedFigure17–1,theamygdala/anteriortemporalgroupshowedmarkedly
reducedarousalratingstonegativeemotionalstimuli,despiteratingsofneutraland
positivestimulithatwerehighlysimilartothoseoftheclinicalcontrolgroupandtoa
normativeadultsample(Langetal.,1999).Ananalysisofvariance,withpolynomialtrends
analysis,revealedasignificanteffectofpicturecategory(verypositive,moder ately
positive,neutral,moderatelynegative,ver ynegative)onarousalratings,characterized
byasignificantoverallquadratictrendacrosspicturecategories.Thelatter reflectsthe
minimalarousaltoneutralstimuliandtheprogressivelyincreasingarousaltoeither
positiveornegativestimuli,ashasbeenreportedpreviously.Therealsoemergeda
significantgroupx
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Fig.17–1 Arousalandvalenceratings.Mean(s.e.m.)arousal(A)
andvalence(B)ratingsacrossstimuluscategories,forpatientswith
amygdalalesions(Amyg)comparedtotheclinicalcontrastgroup
(Cnt)andnormativecontroldata(Norm).Allgroupseffectively
discriminatedthestimuluscategoriesandappliedvalanceratings
accordingly.Allgroupsalsodisplayedcomparablearousalfunctions
topositivestimuli,buttheamygdalagroupshoweddiminished
arousalselectivelytothenegativestimuli.(FromBerntson,G.G.,
Bechara,A.,Damasio,H.,Tranel,D.,&Cacioppo,J.T.[2007].
Amygdalacontributiontoselectivedimensionsofemotion.Social,
Cognitive,andAffectiveNeuroscience,2,123–129.)
(p.254) picture-categoryinteraction,characterizedbyasignificantdifferencebetween
thegroupsinthelineartrendcomponentacrosspicturecategories.Thisreflectedthe
reducedarousalratings,selectivelyforthenegativepictures,bytheamygdala/anterior
temporalgroup.Incontrasttotheclinicalcontrolgroupandthenormativegroup,the
amygdala/anteriortemporalgroupdisplayedminimalarousalratingstonegativepictur e
content.
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Animportantquestionarisesastowhetherthediminishedarousaltonegativestimuliin
theamy gdala/anteriortemporalgroupmaybeattributabletoimpairedrecognitionor
discriminativeprocessingofthenegativ efeaturesofthepictures.AsillustratedinFigure
17–1B,however,theamygdala/anteriortemporalgroupwasabletocategorizeandlabel
thenegativepicturecontentaccurately,suggestingafundamentaldissociationbetween
thecognitiv eandaffectiveprocessingofthestimuliinthisgroup.Analysisofvariance,
withpolynomialtrendsanalysis,revealedtheexpectedsignificanteffectsofpicture
categoryonpositivityratingsandnegativityratings,eachbeingcharacterizedbya
significantlinearcomponent(forpositivityratingsandfornegativity).Therewereno
significantmaineffectsorinteractionsforgrouponeitherpositivityornegativityratings,
althoughforpositivityratings,aninteractiononthelinearcomponent,reflectingthe
somewhathigherslopeofthepositivity-r atingfunctionoftheamygdala/anter iortemporal
group,approachedsignificance.
Twopatientsintheamy gdala/anteriortemporalpatientshadabilaterallesion,andfour
hadunilaterallesions.Bilateralamygdalalesionshavegenerallybeenfoundtoyield larger
effectsthanunilaterallesions,althoughunilaterallesionshavebeenreportedtohave
similaralthoughattenuatedeffects(Glascher&Adolphs,2003;LaBar etal.,1995;Phelps
etal.,1997)or,insomecases,evencomparableeffectstobilaterallesions(Buchananet
al.,2004).Weexaminedthisissueinfurtheranalysesofthechangeinresponse(from
neutral)topositiveandtoneutralstimuliinbilateralandunilateralpatients.
AsillustratedinF igure17–2,thelesioncontrolgroupevid encedasomewhatgreater
arousalresponsetonegativestimulithantopositivestimuli,whereasthereversepattern
wasappar entfortheamygdala/anteriortemporalgroup.Ananalysisofvariancerevealed
asignificantgroupxpicture-category(positive/negative)interactiononarousalratings.
Thisinteractionwasattributabletothesimilararousalresponsesofthegroupstopositive
stimuli,andtheconsiderablysmallerresponsesoftheamygdala/anteriortemporalgroup
tonegativestimuli.
Figure17 –2alsorevealsdifferencesinthearousalresponseofpatientswithbilateraland
unilateralamygdala/anteriortemporallesions.Thearousalresponseofthebilateral
patientstonegativestimuliweresmallerthanthoseofunilateralparticipants,buteven
thosewithunilaterallesionsshowedasubstantialattenuationofarousaltonegative
stimuli.
Thepresentfindingsindicatethatpatientswithamygdala/anteriortemporallesionsarenot
impairedatrecogniz ingandlabelingnegative
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Fig.17–2 Effectsofbilateralandunilaterallesions.Heavybarsshow
overallmean(s.e.m.)ofthechangeinarousalratingstopositiveand
negativestimuli,comparedtoneutralstimu li,forpatientswith
amygdaladamageandclinicalcontrast(Control)subjects.Lighter
barswithintheheavybarsoftheAmygdalagroupillustrateeffects
ofunilateralvs.bilaterallesions.(FromBerntson,G.G.,Bechar a,A.,
Damasio,H.,Tranel,D.,&Cacioppo,J.T.[2007].Amygdala
contributiontoselectivedimensionsofemotion.Social,Cognitive,
andAffectiveNeuroscience,2,123–129.)
(p.255) aswellaspositiveemotionalcontentinpictures.Theyarealsocapableof
emotionalarousal,asevidencedbytypicalarousalfunctionstopositiveemotionalstimuli.
Incontrast,however,theydisplayanattenuatedarousaltonegativeemotionalstimuli.
Theseresultsareconsistentwithpreviousreportsofdiminishedarousaltonegative
stimuliinpatientswithamygdalalesions(Adolphs,Russell,&Tranel,1999;Winstonetal.,
2005)bu textendthesefindingsbyshowingthatthisarousaldeficitdoesnotarisefroma
cognitive/perceptualdeficitinrecogniz ingandlabelinggradednegativepicturecontent
(seealsoAdolphsetal.,1999).
Neithermemorynordepressivesymptomatologywasmeasur edinthispreliminary
stud y,butthesedataindicatethatamygdaladamagecausesreducedemotionalarousal
specificallytonegativestimuli.Giventhiseffect,itisfeasiblethatthememorialbenefit
typicallycharacteristicofnegativestimuliisdiminishedinindividualswithamygdala
damage,andrelatedlythereducedemotionalimpacttoandmemoryfornegativeevents
lessensdepressivesymptomatologyandmayimpair decisionmakingwhenconsequences
arenegative.Thishypothesiswarrantsfurtherinvestigation.
Wehavefurthersuggestedthatagingmaybeassociatedwithareductioninamy gdala
function,leavingolderadultstoevincecognitiveandaffectiveeffectssimilartothose
shownbymiddle-agedpatientswithamygdaladamage.Thepatientswithamygdala
damageandthelesioncontrolswhosedataareshowninFigures17–1and17–2were
selectedtobematchedongenderandage.Inaddition,Berntsonetal.(2007)identified
twopatientsolderthanage80yearswithdamagethatsparedtheamygdala/anterior
temporalregion.Figure17–3presentstheresultsforthearousalr atings.Thefive
categoriesofimagesalongthex-axisareverypositive,moderatelypositive,neutral,
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moderatelynegative,andverynegative,andtheirarousalr atingsaredepictedalongthe
ordinate.Thedottedlinerepresentsthenormativeratingsobtainedfrom
undergraduates,thedashedlinerepresentsthemeanratingsofemotional
Fig.17–3 Ageandarousalratings.Mean(s.e.m.)arousalratings
acrossstimuluscategories,fortwoelder lypatientswithlesions
sparingtheamygdalaandregionsimplicatedinemotion(SS80)
compar edtotheclinicalcontrastgroup(Cnt)andnormativ econtrol
data(Norm).
arousalbymiddle-agedlesioncontrols,andthesolidlinerepresentsthemeanratingsof
emotionalarousalbythetwoelderlylesionpatients.Thearousalratingsfromtheelderly
patientslooksimilartothoseobtainedfromthemiddle-agedpatientswithamygdala
damage.Althoughpreliminary,thesedata,togetherwiththeinvestigationsusingfMRI
showingthattheamygdalaactivationobser vedinyoungadultstonegativeor threatening
stimuliarereducedor absentinolderadults(e.g.,Gunning-Dixonetal.,2003),fitthe
notionthatage-relatedbrainchangesincludereductionsinamygdalafunction,whichin
turnleadstoreducedemotionalarousalspecificallytonegativestimuliand,consequently,
toreducedemotionalimpacttoandmemoryfornegativeevents.Ifthisisthecase,
reduceddepressivesymptomatologyandimproved subjectivewell-beingcouldeasilybe
conceivedtofollow(Wood&Conway,2006).
Insum,workontheagingbr ainsuggeststhereisashiftfromtheamygdala-hippocampal
systemtotheprefrontalcortexovertime(Leigland,Schulz ,&Janowsky,2004).Thisshift
maybemorenuancedthanpreviouslythought,however,withdiminishedamygdala
functionmoreevidentinresponsetonegativethanpositivestimuli,andwith
consequencesforaffect,cognition,andsocialbehaviorthathavemoreincommonthan
previouslyappreciated.Preliminaryevidenceforthisimplicationwas(p.256) recently
reportedbyWilliamsetal.(2006)intheneurosciences.
Conclusion
Therehavebeentremendousadvancesinourunderstandingofthelinksbetweenthe
mind,brain,andbehavioroverthepastquarter centur y,butpeoplehavegenerallybeen
consideredasisolatedunitsintheseanalyses.Peopleareinherentlysocialcreatures,
however,andthetoolsarenowavailabletodeterminethebiologicalmechanisms
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underlyingsocialcognition,emotion,andinterpersonalinteractions.Discoveringthe
biologicalmechanismsunder lyingsocialandaffectiveprocessesandbehav ioris
undoub tedlyoneofthemajorprob lemsfortheneurosciencestoaddressinthetwenty-
firstcentury.
Anassumptionunderlyingsocialneuroscienceisthatallhumansocialbehavioris
implementedbiologically.Thegenerativepowerofsocialneur osciencecomesinpar tfrom
afocusonfundamentalmechanismsandprocesses,suchasage-relatedchangesinbr ain
function,andfromthederivationofnovelandtestablepred ictionsaboutcommon
underlyingmechanismsforwhatappeartobedisparateeffects.Wehaveattemptedto
illustratethesepointsinthecurrentchapter.Age-relatedimprovementsinsubjective
well-beingandage-relateddecrementsincognitivefunctioninganddecisionmakinghave
beentreatedinitiallyasseparateeffects.Theseeffectswerediscoveredindisparate
fieldsandcontinuetoberegarded bymanyasunrelatedchangesassociatedwithaging.
Althoughwedonotmeantosuggestthatallage-r elatedmemoryimpairments,decision-
makingproblems,andmoodimprovementsderivefromasinglecause,age-related
changesinamygdalafunctioningmaycontributetoeach.Basedonadevelopingmodelof
theneuralorganizationofevaluativeprocessesandanimalandhumanr esearchonthe
contributionofspecificneuralsubstratestovalencejudgments,wereasonedthatthe
amygdalacomplexisimportantinaffectiveprocessingofnegativelyvalencedstimuliand
specificallythatamygdaladamageisassociatedwiththereductionofemotionalarousal
elicitedbynegativebutnotneutralorpositivestimuli.Reductionsinemotionalarousal
arecommonplaceinaging,andwereasonedthatbothamygdalaactivationandthe
emotionalarousalelicitedby negativestimuliarelowerinolderadultsthaninyoung
adults.Inaccordwithpriorworkshowingthatemotionalarousalpromotesmemoryfor
emotionalevents,wefurtherreasonedthatthered uctionintheage-relatedchangesin
amygdalaactivationandemotionalarousaltonegativeeventsisassociatedwithpoorer
memoryfortheseevents,greaterreductionsinoverallnegativeaffect(i.e.,improved
subjectivewell-being),andimpaireddecisionsincircumstancesthatrequirethe
considerationofnegativeinformation.Theextantevidenceisconsistentwiththisanalysis,
butadditionaldataarerequiredtotestrelatedpredictionsoftheABM .
Whetherornotthismodelprovestobecorrectislessimportantherethanitsoriginsin
theneuroscienceliterature,itssuggestionthatwhatappeartobedisparateeffectsin
socio-emotionalprocessesmayhaveacommonunderlyingcause,itsverydiffer ent
explanationfromsocio-emotionalselectivitytheoryforage-relatedchangesinsubjective
wellbeing,itsintegrationofdatafrommultiplelevelsoforganization(e.g.,neurochemical,
brain,affect,cognition,andsocialbehavior),itsgenerativenessandfalsifiab ility,andits
demonstrationofthecomplementaryrolesplayedbylesionandimagingresearch.
Indeed ,thevalueaddedbyasocialneuroscienceperspectiveisthatnovel,testable
hypothesesforcomplexsocialprocessesandbehaviorsarenotonlypossiblebutnatural.
Asaconsequence,thisper spectivepullstogetherliteratures,techniques,and
investigatorsfromscientificdisciplinesthatwereoncethoughttohavenothingin
common.
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Thesedevelopmentsarenomoreathreattotraditionalsocialpsychologicalandsocial
scienceapproachesthantheproposedmodelisathreattosocio-emotionalselectivity
theory.Thetwomodelsareincompatibleinsomerespects(e.g.,theroleoftheamygdala),
butevidencefortheABMdoesnotmeanthatsocio-emotionalselectivitytheorycannot
alsooperateinsomecircumstances,andviceversa.Indeed,(p.257) Carstensenand
Fredrikson(1998)demonstratedthattheregulationofemotionalstatesandthe
consequentimprovementsinaffectarenotlimited toolderadults;youngeradultswho
areapproachingtheendoflifeshowsimilarmotivationaladjustments.Thisresult
suggestsbothprocessesmaycontributetoimprovementsinsubjectivewell-beinglater
inlife.
Finally,anassumptionunderly ingsocialneuroscienceisthatallhumansocialbehavioris
implementedbiologically.Itdoesnotfollowthattheconceptsofbiologycanby
themselvesdirectlydescribeorexplainsocialbehaviororthat“molecular”formsof
representationprovidetheonly orbestlevelofanalysisforunder standinghuman
behavioror mentaldisorders.Scientificconstru ctsdevelopedbybehavioralandsocial
scientistsprovideameansofunderstandinghighlycomplexactivitywithoutneedingto
specifyeachindividualactionbyitssimplestcomponents,thereby providinganefficient
approachtodescribingcomplexsystems.Moreimportantly,thereareconceptsessential
tothedescriptionandunderstandingofsocialbehaviorthatarenotcontainedinbiology.
Byanalogy,chemistswhoworkwiththeperiodictableonadailybasisuserecipesrather
thantheperiodictabletocook,notbecauseaparticularfoodpreparationcannotbe
codedbycomplexchemicalexpressions(Cacioppoetal.,2000).However,efficiencyof
expressionisnottheonly issue:theconceptsdefiningfinecuisinearenotpartofthe
disciplineofchemistry.Thetheoreticaltermsofthebehavioralandsocialsciencesare
similarlyvaluableinrelationtothoseofbiologybutcanbeinformed,complemented,and
refinedthroughintegrationwiththeoriesandmethodsfromtheneurosciences.
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