Reproductive ecology of Syzygium alternifolium (Myrtaceae), an endemic and endangered tropical tree species in the southern Eastern Ghats of India

Abstract

Syzygium alternifolium is a semi-evergreen mass-flowering tree species of dry deciduous forest in the southern Eastern Ghats of India. It is a mass bloomer with flowering during dry season. The floral traits suggest a mixed pollination syndrome involving entomophily and anemophily together called as ambophily. Further, the floral traits suggest generalist pollination system adapted for a guild of pollinating insects. The plant is self-incompatible and obligate out-crosser. The flowers are many-ovuled but only a single ovule forms seed and hence, fruit and seed set rates are the same. Natural fruit set stands at 11%. Bud infestation by a moth, flower predation by the beetle, Popillia impressipyga and bud and flower mounds significantly limit fruit set rate. The ability of the plant to repopulate itself is limited by the collection of fruits by locals due to their edible nature, short viability of seeds, high seedling mortality due to water stress, nutrient deficiency and erratic rainfall or interval of drought within the rainy season. Therefore, S. alternifolium is struggling to populate itself under various intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Further studies should focus on how to assist the plant to increase its population size in its natural area taking into account the information provided in this paper.

Full text





1,2,3 Department of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh 530003, India
1ajsraju@yahoo.com (corresponding author), 2jrkrishna30@gmail.com, 3hareeshchandu@gmail.com

ISSN
Online 0974–7907
Print 0974–7893
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
  Syzygium alternifolium (Myrtaceae), an endemic and endangered tropical tree
species in the southern Eastern Ghats of India. Journal of Threatened Taxa; 
 © Raju et al. 2014  
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
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         
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    
       


Syzygium alternifolium

                   
           

Popillia impressipyga
 
 S. alternifolium is struggling to populate


 Syzygium
alternifolium.


Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 August 2014 | 6(9): 6153–6171
Reproducve ecology of Syzygium alternifolium Raju et al.

      S. paniculatum is
     
      S. oribundum is
      
        
S. inophylloides and S. samarangense are regularly
    S. dealatum

       Syzygium
       
     

S. syzygiodes

S. pycnanthum 

  S. guineense is reported to

S. mamillatum is a rare
        
         S.
mundagum and S. cuminii     
S. mundagum
       
        S. cuminii
        

Syzygium

S. alternifolium occurs in the tropical dry deciduous
       

        

   S.
alternifolium occurs in the upper plateau, slopes and
         

      

         

S. alternifolium       
       
for making furniture and agricultural implements.
       
      
    


    

Syzygium      
        
      

countries including South Africa, South America, South
East Asia and Australia.     
        
from Africa and Madagascar through southern Asia
      
      
        

2003). In India, Syzygium      

such as S. aqueum and S. bracteatum   
trees such as S. cuminii and S. aromacum  


       Syzygium species is


    S. andamanicum, S. courtallense,
S. manii, S. palghatense, S. travancoricum 
Endangered), S. beddomei, S. bourdillonii, S. chavaran,
S. microphyllum, S. myhendrae, S. parameswaranii, S.
stocksii (Endangered), S. benthamianum, S. densiorum,
S. occidentale, S. ramavarmaS. ulis (Data
S. gambleanum (E
(2008) documented that S. alternifolium is an endemic
        
the  Red ist.
       
Syzygium      
    
        
       
S. erneyanum and S.
nervosum
1998), S. cuminii     
2000), S. rubicundum     
S. lineatum       
S. samarangense, S. jambos, S. megacarpum, and S.
formosum     
1994). In Australia, a variety of nectar feeding animals
visit and pollinate S. erneyanum
honeyeaters are primary pollinators of S. sayeri, although
  ing a role in
      S. cormiorum
      

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 August 2014 | 6(9): 6153–6171
Reproducve ecology of Syzygium alternifolium Raju et al.

         
      
    
        
         
        
   
       

          
     
        
 
         
        
for the plant to repopulate itself in its natural area.

      
  S. alternifolium   
      
the studied aspects are discussed in the light of relevant
Syzygium species.


S. alternifolium
        130 
790        
       
       
       
038”–
13055”N  79007”–7902 in
   
          
       
       
      
steep slopes, rocky terrain, dry and poor stony soils.
        
      
et al. 2012).

     
  
   
      
10
   
       



    10    
and placed in a p      

         

        


        
      
        
        
        

      
        
        


       

       

of 0, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 meters using rotor samplers


    
       
     
        



            

        





    


Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 August 2014 | 6(9): 6153–6171
Reproducve ecology of Syzygium alternifolium Raju et al.


      
in each study year and recorded their intensity to the
        
       
       
 the fruit set occurs through

On t
      
        
       



         
      

  






record the results.

      




          
        
      


         
  

also noted.

      
       
       


     




S. alternifolium   
         
    
       


        

      

           
         
  
        


  
   



      
       

 
          
           
 

         



   
        


        
  
lm).

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 August 2014 | 6(9): 6153–6171
Reproducve ecology of Syzygium alternifolium Raju et al.


      
      
      
       
       
     
   
     
     
         
       

 
     
      3 of air sampled
       
   3 of air sampled

      

       
r
at 10m 12,981, at 15m 7,432, at 20m 1500, and at 25m



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Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 August 2014 | 6(9): 6153–6171
Reproducve ecology of Syzygium alternifolium Raju et al.

        
      

 
of 2ndnd
        
         
         

         

           

      
    
       
      
      
      
     


    
         

      
      
      
2Apis dorsata (Image 2c), A. cerana
(Image 2d), A. orea, Trigona iridipennis (Image 2e),
Amegilla sp. (Image 2f) and Szus sp. (Image 2g). Of
these, Trigona   
 

 
     
1.      
2.      
3. 19 April 7 May 20 19 April 10 May 22
4.      
5.      
 18 April  19   
7.    18 April 8 May 21
8.  14 May 19   
9.      
10.      
11.    14 April  22
12.      
13.      
14.  14 May 19 19 April 14 May 
15.    13 April 7 May 25
      
17.  11 May    
18.    14 April 7 May 23
19. 19 April 11 May 23   
20. 21 April     
21.      
22.      
23. 19 April 11 May 23 20 April 10 May 21
24. 17 April 7 May 21 18 April  19
25.    17 April 5 May 19



Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 August 2014 | 6(9): 6153–6171
Reproducve ecology of Syzygium alternifolium Raju et al.

Eumenes sp. (Image 2h), Vespa
cincta (Image 2i) and V. orientalis    
        
      Chrysomya
megacephala (Image 2k) and Helophilus sp. (Image 2l).
  Popillia impressipyga (Image 2m) and
     



    
    Papilio polytes (Image 3a),
Graphium nomius, Catopsilia pyranthe  , C.
pomona (Image c,d), Euploea core (Image 3e), Tirumala
limniace (Image 3f), Precis iphita (Image 3g), Junonia
lemonias (Image 3h), Melanis leda (Image 3i), Danaus
genua (Image 3j), Neps hylas (Image 3k), Mycalesis
perseus (Image 3l), Moduza procris, Arhopala amantes
(Image 3m), Pseudocoladenia indrani (Image 4a), Borbo
cinnara  , Hasora chromus (Image 4c) and
Celaenorrhinus ambareesa     
Cephonodes hylas
       
gecko, Hemitheconyx caudicinctus



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Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 August 2014 | 6(9): 6153–6171
Reproducve ecology of Syzygium alternifolium Raju et al.

       
2o).
     
     Cephonodes hylas; it
   
 
      . 7). All other
      r

        


       
       .   
A. dorsata 


        








Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 August 2014 | 6(9): 6153–6171
Reproducve ecology of Syzygium alternifolium Raju et al.


     


     
 
         
    

      
          








pollinated
No. of fruits
produced

(%)
  0 0
Autogamy (manual
 75 0 0
Geitonogamy (manual
 80 0 0
Xenogamy (manual
  34 57


to anthesis)
1030  11

a
d
g
j

e
h
k l
c
f
i
m

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 August 2014 | 6(9): 6153–6171
Reproducve ecology of Syzygium alternifolium Raju et al.


   
     
     
          
3
       
       
  

          

   

  


ripe fruits from trees and fallen fruits from the ground


         
        
        
         
        
    
     



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Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 August 2014 | 6(9): 6153–6171
Reproducve ecology of Syzygium alternifolium Raju et al.


  are     

          
   
        
    

    
  
is 74%.

S. alternifolium   

        
     
         
         
        

In Syzygium       
      








Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 August 2014 | 6(9): 6153–6171
Reproducve ecology of Syzygium alternifolium Raju et al.

as S. erneyanumS. cuminii (Reddi
S. luehmannii
S. sayeri    S. aqeum
S. alternifolium
   

        
 
   
 

Apidae Apis dorsata   N Regular
A. cerana   N Regular
A. orea  N Regular
Trigona iridipennis Smith  N + P Regular
Amegilla sp.  N Regular
 Szus sp.  N Regular
Vespidae Eumenes sp.  N Regular
Vespa cincta  N Regular
V. orientalis  N Regular

 Chrysomya megacephala  N Occasional
Syrphidae Helophilus sp.  N Occasional

 Popillia impressipyga Ohaus   Resident
  N Occasional

Papilionidae Papilio polytes  N Regular
Graphium nomius Esper  N Regular
Pieridae Catopsilia pyranthe  N Regular
Catopsilia pomona  N Regular
Nymphalidae Euploea core  N Regular
Tirumala limniace  N Regular
Precis iphita  N Regular
Junonia lemonias  N Regular
Melanis leda  N Regular
Danaus genua  N Regular
Neps hylas  N Regular
Mycalesis perseus  N Regular
Moduza procris  N Regular
 Arhopala amantes  N Regular
 Pseudocoladenia indrani  N Regular
Borbo cinnara  N Regular
Hasora chromus  N Regular
Celaenorrhinus ambareesa Moore  N Regular
Sphingidae Cephonodes hylas   N Regular

Gekkonidae Hemitheconyx caudicinctus Dumeril  N Resident

N = Nectar P = + Pollen

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 August 2014 | 6(9): 6153–6171
Reproducve ecology of Syzygium alternifolium Raju et al.



    S. alternifolium indicated
         



     
         
       
        

in situ 
      Syzygium species
         

      Olea europaea
        
       

         
         
       
thermal stress may induce an i 







Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 August 2014 | 6(9): 6153–6171
Reproducve ecology of Syzygium alternifolium Raju et al.

      
    
       

        
      
      



        
      
Syzygium
 
that year and hence, gradually move into an alternate
        
  

S. alternifolium

      

 Syzygium      
     S. samarangense 

S.
malaccensis

S.
aquem
  S. luehmannii  
         
 
southeast Queensland, Australia   
      
        
      
         
       
     
       
 
       
S. alternifolium.
    Syzygium   
      
       

S. erneyanum and S. nervosum in northern Australia
S. cuminii in India (Reddi
   S. rubicundum   
(Stacey 2001), S. lineatum     
1984), and S. samarangense, S. jambos, S. megacarpum,








Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 August 2014 | 6(9): 6153–6171
Reproducve ecology of Syzygium alternifolium Raju et al.

and S. formosum 
S. syzygiodes
       
S. cormiorum      

that S. alternifolium an
        
       
     
    
      

      
   
         
  

      
       


,
S. alternifolium. Nevertheless,
      


     
    S. alternifolium   
       


Polyhymno
     S. mamillatum   
2008).
 , in general, do not have

      

       
    Syzygium erneyanum,
S. sayeri, S. oribundum and S. cormiorum. S.
erneyanum        
      
       
      
       
        

 S. sayeri    S. oribundum
          
          S.
cormiorum
       
      
       
2010). S. paniculatum   
         
    S. syzygiodes and occurring in the


S. inophylloides and S. samarangense are regularly
         
   Syzygium 
       
        
     S. dealatum
       


   
        
      
pollinators of S. eusum and     
most important pollinators of S. neurocalyx  
S. pycnanthum

S. mamillatum
 S. mundagam 

S.
cuminii   
      
      
     
      
          

In S. alternifolium
    
       
      


         
  Cephonodes hylas is the only species that
           



     
         


Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 August 2014 | 6(9): 6153–6171
Reproducve ecology of Syzygium alternifolium Raju et al.


y
day old Hemitheconyx
caudicinctus       

        

    

 


      Apis
dorsata and Amegilla      
      
      
        
      
     
period of S. alternifolium


        
     
  S.
alternifolium       
        
       S. alternifolium
is not an assured food source for them every year due


to Shorea roxburghii and S. tumbuggaia  


S. alternifolium.
In S. alternifolium      
     
r
     
       
     

      S. alternifolium also have

    
environment conform to the occurrence of anemophily.
         
        
        S.
dealatum       
 S. alternifolium   

        
sensu 
       
      
   Syzygium species in novel
     
       
S. cormiorum    
       
         S.
alternifolium   
       


     
       
mode in S. alternifolium    
   
only to this part of India.
In S. alternifolium, the fruit set and seed set rates are

    
     


        
 Popillia impressipyga and common occurrence

       
     




      
         
     

resources allocated to the ovule under environmental
       
        
       
         
      


photosynthesis results in reduced sugar transport into


plants, manual removal of some developing ovules

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 August 2014 | 6(9): 6153–6171
Reproducve ecology of Syzygium alternifolium Raju et al.

       

  
       
        
        
surgically removed from the ovary. On the contrary, S.
alternifolium 
environment during dry season produces the same
         
the seed. It indicates that the plant does not have any
     
ovules to save energy resources for more seed output.
    
  

 S. cuminii and
        


from the dominant seeds, containing predominately

ordinate seeds and hence the plant usually develops

     S. alternifolium  
also only 1 out of 21–38 ovules forms the seed.
In Syzygium

   S. cuminii (Arathi et
   
S. javanicum (Ikeda 1979), and S. jambolana 
S. alternifolium
       S.
alternifolium     

     
seeds in the seasonally dry tropical forest ecosystem
       
         
       

seeds during the rainy season (Roth 1987). A majority
        
        
       
      
    
       
Seeds of some species of this category take several

        
       
         
        


        
     
      




 , thus,     
       
        

  
     
 
 
   
contrary, S. alternifolium   
          
       

   

        
  
      

(1999) reported that seeds of S. alternifolium cannot
         

of the seeds of S. alternifolium 
      


         
      
   
         
end of rainy season and hence it does not have several
      
    
        
        
      
 S. alternifolium.   
       
   

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 August 2014 | 6(9): 6153–6171
Reproducve ecology of Syzygium alternifolium Raju et al.


    
     
     
      
syndrome in majority of tree species and most other
plants in these tropical forests.

    

    Topics in plant populaon biology
.
 . The Wealth of India. Raw Materials - Vol. X.
       

         
     Syzygium cumini  
(Myrtaceae). Internaonal Journal of Plant Sciences
        
       Syzygium
cuminiiIndian Journal of Horculture 
      Some anthecological aspects of the
       
        
Taxonomy and Ecology
     
       
   
University, Anantapur.
      Pteropus, in the Samoan
      

        A
Textbook of Palynology (Basic and Applied).   

       
Science   
science.218.4571.443
      
 Metrosideras collina (Myrtaceae). Ecology

      
Syzygium species. Tropical Ecology
          
  Flora of Tamil Nadu     

      
   Journal of Tropical Ecology  


        
Biological Report
          
      
Syzygium cormiorum (Myrtaceae). Biotropica
        Praccal Pollinaon
Biology.
 Seed dispersal phenology
        
Forest Ecology and Management 

      Eucalyptus regnans. Proc.

         
    Cucurbita pepo 
Internaonal Journal of Plant Sciences
   Pollen Morphology and Plant Taxonomy:
Angiosperms.
 The Principles of Pollinaon Ecology.

         
   Syzygium malaccensis  
Acta Amazonica
        
     
. Journal of Ecology 
   Flora of the Presidency of Madras. 


     

         
        
     The ecology of a tropical forest:
seasonal rhythms and long-term changes

        A Preliminary
      
Eastern Ghats, Andhra Pradesh, India. World Journal of Zoology
83–89.
         Syzygium
erneyanumAustralian
Journal of Botany
          
system of Eucalyptus stolaei. Australian Journal of Botany

         
Syzygium javanicum Merr. and
Perry in South Vietnam. Mem. Fac. Arg. Kagoshima University 

         
Syzygium cuminiVateria indicaIndian Forester

         
        Syzygium
mamillatum (Myrtaceae) in restored and unrestored sites in
 Biotropica   

         

and future climate analysis. Internaonal Journal of Climatology

       
vitro seed culture in Syzygium alternifolium  Journal
of Phytological Research
 
of Syzygium alternifolium    
segments. Silvae Geneca
   Seed
Syzygium cumini
Current Science
           
canopy tree, Syzygium syzygioides (Myrtaceae), in a rain forest in
Biotropica
         
cytotypes of Eugenia jambolana Indian Forester  

     Olea europaea). Annales
Series Historia Naturalis 
          
        

Journal of Threatened Taxa | www.threatenedtaxa.org | 26 August 2014 | 6(9): 6153–6171
Reproducve ecology of Syzygium alternifolium Raju et al.

      
  Australian Ecology   

         
  Cassia fasciculata  Oecologia

          
  Proceedings of the Naonal Science Council 
148–157.
          
     Annals of the Missouri
Botanical Garden
  
    Syzygium cuminii Skeel). Progressive
Horculture
         Syzygium
alternifolium    
       
Zoos’ Print Journal 

     
       Syzygium
alternifolium. Internaonal Journal of Pharmaceucal Sciences 

   
Syzygium pycnanthum     Biodiversitas  
128.
      A survey of plant crude drugs of
Rayalaseema, Andhra Pradesh, India. Journal of Ethnopharmacology

         
      
Trends in Ecology and Evoluon 
Syzygium paniculatum
    Cunninghamia

        
       
       

   nd 
      

  
        

        
      Syzygium cuminii 
Skeels (Myrtaceae). Journal of Palynology 
    Plant crude drugs of
     Internaonal Journal of
Crude Drug Research
  

planning. Ethnobotanical Leaets
         
       
Ghats, India. Ethnobotanical leaets
 The Dispersal of Plants Throughout The World. Reeve

 Flora of Karnataka - Volume II  

       
 Syzygium luehmannii    

        
  Crop Science 
1080; 

        
        
forest tree Syzygium nervosum (Myrtaceae) in northern Australia.
Journal of Tropical Ecology


Malvaceae. Advances in Pollen-Spore Research


American Journal of Botany
          
          Journal of
Interacademicia
   The phenology of rainforest plants in Tutuila,
American Samoa. 


        
   th    
Turkey Acta Horculture
   Silviculture of Indian Trees.  

         
(eds.). Flora of Tropical East Africa
          Syzygium
dealatumPago
Pago, DMWR
        
       Crop
Science   


 Biological Report
      The Flowering of Australia’s
Rainforests.
 Australian Nave Plants: Culvaon,
use in Landscaping and Propagaon.  

        
        Pollinaon Biology.

         
  Mallotus     
temperate forests. Australian Journal of Botany 

