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Chapter 2: Community Wildlife Management in Zambia: Testing Indicators of Sustainable Use in a Case Study of South Luangwa
Abstract
The study presents a means of evaluating sustainable using a case study from the South Luangwa Area Management Unit in Zambia as an illustration. It builds on the factors suggested in the analytic framework (Appendix 1) giving more emphasis to processes of sustainability, rather than to the achievement of a particular state. Matrixes are presented for most factors (External/Human Population; and Modifiable factors: Economic – Price-Policy and Market Distortions; Proprietorship: Socio-Political Organization, Resource Governance and Tenure; Management: Organizations and Resources) together with indicators of the processes involved. Indicators have been defined from two perspectives: From an overall assessment of a number of programmes in a region, and of this particular programme. Emphasis is put on social, economic, and political systems, with management of the natural resource seen as being a consequence of these. The study forwards that the key to sustainable use of wildlife lies in promoting its comparative advantage over other types of land use. Proprietorship, correction of market and policy failures, and management of both human and natural resources are seen as the three main pillars leading to sustainable use. The process of converting wildlife from a nationalized resource into a resource that is privately owned either by communities or individual landholders is recognized as paramount. International funding which secures non-use areas would complement this. Wildlife has a comparative advantage in South Luangwa in part because there are few alternatives. This has been supported through the partial de-nationalization of wildlife resources and the consequent devolution of some use rights to locals. Both individuals and communities benefit directly. This has been recognized through changing attitudes among the local people who now report that they value wildlife, where before wildlife was seen as a nuisance. A notable exception to this is found in attitudes to elephants from which the people receive no direct economic benefits because of international sanctions. Supporting the empowerment process are transparent, democratic institutions that are functioning well in five of the six areas included in the project. Potential threats to long-term sustainability include the interest of national officials in maintaining benefits and management rights for themselves, the need for land use planning at the local level to assure that contingent areas are reserved and enhanced for wildlife, and that issues of equity both within this area and between this and adjacent areas are addressed.
This report evaluated the 2003 Botswana CBNRM programme in 2003. The study used statistics, available literature and in-depth case studies based on fieldwork.
This interdisciplinary approach examines current trends and future prospects for livestock and wildlife co-existence in the semi-arid rangelands of eastern Africa. With increasing demographic pressure, agricultural expansion and finite land resources, it is concluded that pastoral livestock and plains game can and do co-exist sustainably, but only under special circumstances where livestock owners and local communities obtain tangible net benefits. As in many parts of the world, wildlife populations have declined and are concentrated in and around protected areas. Future research and development initiatives to promote livestock and wildlife co-existence as a sustainable livelihood option should, therefore, focus on neighbouring communities and the management of resources on adjoining lands.
As property of the state and symbol of colonial authority, Africa's wildlife fared poorly during the 20th century. Current campaigns to devolve wildlife property rights promise to provide local communities with incentive to better protect wildlife. But defining ‘local community’ and building viable property arrangements requires an understanding of socio-ecological conditions and their historical formation. This paper examines the transition in claimants and wildlife property regimes in Toro District, western Uganda during 1923–79. Data are drawn from government archives and oral histories of 23 Toro elders. Toro wildlife ownership centered on spirit appeasement and a social hierarchy of hunting rights. Colonial wildlife ownership was also hierarchical, but emphasized parks and restrictions on hunting technology. Under both systems, Toro royals enjoyed privileged access to big game. Toro property claims ultimately cannot be disentangled from colonial wildlife property regimes. By mid-century, government ‘control’ campaigns packed wildlife into parks, where they were later decimated by war and poaching. Today recovering wildlife populations create conflict when they stray into densely settled agricultural lands. Necessary reform in property rights is constrained by historically rooted political and physical conditions, and idealized notions of ‘local community’. Neither wildlife nor the rural poor are served by simplistic prescriptions to ‘hand over’ wildlife to imagined communities isolated from government or market forces. Instead, wildlife property arrangements must reflect ecosystem-level processes and macropolitical and economic forces shaping local use of wildlife. National parks are essential, but inadequate components of the land-use and property rights mosaic in western Uganda. Considerable financial and political support is required to build comanagement systems allowing local communities and the government to negotiate and experiment with alternative ways of owning and using wildlife beyond park boundaries. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Jules N. Pretty, ‘Sustainable Agriculture, People and the Resource Base: Impacts on Food Production’, Forum for Development Studies, 1997:1, pp. 7–32.
As this century draws to a close, agricultural development faces some unprecedented challenges. But the views on how to proceed vary hugely, and there are five distinct schools of thought. Sustainable agriculture seeks the integrated use of a wide range of pest, nutrient, soil and water management technologies. Contrary to popular opinion, such regenerative and low-input (but not necessarily zero-input) agriculture can be highly productive, provided farmers participate fully in all stages of technology development and extension. But there remains a huge challenge to find ways to spread or ‘scale up’ the processes which have brought about these transitions. For sustainable intensification of agriculture to spread widely, there is a need for fundamental reform of both policies and policy formulation processes.
High levels of corruption limit investment and growth and lead to ineffective government. Developing countries and those making a transition from socialism are particularly at risk, but corruption is a worldwide phenomenon. Corruption creates inefficiencies and inequities, but reforms are possible to reduce the material benefits from payoffs. Corruption is not just an economic problem, however; it is also intertwined with politics. Reform may require changes in both constitutional structure and the underlying relationship of the market and the state. No single "blueprint" is possible, but the primary goal should be to reduce the gains from paying and receiving bribes, not simply to remove "bad apples."
The governance of natural resources used by many individuals in common is an issue of increasing concern to policy analysts. Both state control and privatization of resources have been advocated, but neither the state nor the market have been uniformly successful in solving common pool resource problems. After critiquing the foundations of policy analysis as applied to natural resources, Elinor Ostrom here provides a unique body of empirical data to explore conditions under which common pool resource problems have been satisfactorily or unsatisfactorily solved. Dr Ostrom uses institutional analysis to explore different ways - both successful and unsuccessful - of governing the commons. In contrast to the proposition of the 'tragedy of the commons' argument, common pool problems sometimes are solved by voluntary organizations rather than by a coercive state. Among the cases considered are communal tenure in meadows and forests, irrigation communities and other water rights, and fisheries.
The East African ivory trade is an ancient one: East African ivory is soft ivory and is ideal for carving, and was always in great demand. It figures prominently in the earliest reference to trading activities on the East African Coast. But the great development came in the nineteenth century when an increased demand for ivory in America and Europe coincided with the opening up of East Africa by Arab traders and European explorers. The onslaught on the ivory resources of the interior took the form of a two-way thrust—from the north by the Egyptians who penetrated into the Sudan and Equatoria, and by the Arabs from the east coast of Africa. The establishment of European protectorates and a settled administration in the 1890s ended this exploitation.
During the nineteenth century ivory over-topped all rivals in trade value— even slaves. The uses of ivory were wide and novel—it played the same part in the nineteenth century as do plastics in the mid-twentieth—but it was always a much more expensive article.
Sociological considerations are crucial to recovery efforts such as the proposed reintroduction of endangered black-footed ferrets into Phillips County, Montana. Ranchers within the proposed reintroduction site were antagonistic toward the program, the ferret, and especially the prairie dogs Cynomys spp. upon which black-footed ferrets depend for survival. Well-conceived public relations programs should use pressure, purchase, and persuasion to try to change or neutralize opposition and to develop, conserve, and strengthen support. -from Authors
The future persistence of African elephants over the 80 per cent of the species's range that remains outside protected areas is increasingly uncertain in many parts of the continent. Conflict between elephants and agriculturalists is already widespread and can lead to displacement or elimination of elephants, causing a further decline in their range and numbers. ‘Protectionist’ conservation groups have recently attempted to play down the importance of human–elephant conflict, contending that it has been greatly exaggerated by those advocating sustainable use of wildlife. The future of elephants in ecosystems over much of the continent will depend largely upon the attitudes and activities of humans. The realities of survival faced by rural Africans may mean that little attention will be paid to a debate taking place on conservation philosophy in the developed world. Therefore, the IUCN African Elephant Specialist Group (AfESG) is investigating how human land use can be integrated with the needs of elephant populations in Africa's biogeographical regions. Findings from these studies will be used in attempts to benefit elephant conservation and management in the 37 African elephant range states.
In most hunting societies there occur together two patterns of behavior that seem incompatible: on the one hand, there are precise formulae for ascribing ownership of an animal to one person when many contribute to acquiring it; and on the other hand, there are patterns for community wide distribution of such animals. Why should such explicit property rules exist if the animals will be distributed anyway? The seeming paradox becomes resolved when these patterns are viewed in the context of the dynamics of reciprocal distributive systems and patterns of esteem-acquisition through superiority in contributing to the community subsistence. The pattern of ownership involved appears to have the function of suppressing conflict among those who contribute to acquiring an animal, since all would like to own it and thus be able to share it. Support for this conclusion derives from social situations in which the pattern of property ascription is absent and conflict is present.
Over the past decade, Zambia, like several other Southern African countries, has introduced community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) projects in several rural areas. These initiatives attempt to combine both conservation and development initiatives into an integrated approach, aimed at promoting rural development-based on natural resources as well as encouraging conservation awareness. This critical review examines the impact of the Luangwa Integrated Resource Development Project (LIRDP) at the community level. The research suggests that LIRDP has generally failed to achieve its conservation and development objectives and that the program has achieved few community benefits. The underlying causes of the project's shortcomings are discussed and corrective policy is suggested. By placing the survey findings into the wider debate about community-based conservation, the research has implications for rural development as well as community-based natural resource management.
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