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Royal Ontario Museum press
2
contents
6 Welcome
8 IntroductIon
16 the exhIbItIon
18 Section 1. The Rise of Qin
40 Section 2. The Terracotta Army
56 Section 3. The Harmonious Han
68 ROM Artifacts
76 lectures
exhIbItIon Floor Plan
sectIon 1
the rIse oF qIn
level b2
garFIeld Weston exhIbItIon hall
entrance and shoP
sectIon 2
the terracotta army
sectIon 3
the harmonIous han
4
5
Terracotta army Pit No. 1
6
7
Welcome
e fabulous terracotta army of China’s First
Emperor, Qin Shihuangdi, ranks as one of the
world’s greatest archaeological finds and one
of its most significant cultural treasures. e
stuff of legend and lore until its discovery by
well diggers in 1974, the life-size figures were
interred in an underground tomb complex in
China’s northern Shaanxi province for more
than 2,000 years. It is said that their faces were
modelled on those of real, individual warriors—
fierce, defiant, compassionate, and noble.
Vigilant in their protection of the emper-
or in the afterlife, the warriors were accompa-
nied by the accoutrements of eternity, replicas
of the emperor’s day-to-day material culture,
both practical and purely decorative, mirror-
ing his earthly existence: wine vessels, mirrors,
jade pendants, stone helmets and armour,
bronze daggers, crossbow models, a model of
the Xianyang palace, wind chimes, incense
burners, female warriors, dancers, acrobats,
and much more. Created over several decades,
the army is vast; more than a thousand arti-
sans may have been employed to create the
nearly 8,000 sculptures. e Royal Ontario
Museum is honoured to have brought a selec-
tion of these international treasures to Canada
and to have developed an exhibition and as-
sociated programming that discuss the nature
of ambition, the universally human concept
of an afterlife, and the historical roots of mod-
ern China. It is the vision of the Museum to
bring people together to learn more about
the world and in so doing understand more
about themselves and each other in an ever-
more multicultural societal mosaic.
e ROM is an especially appropriate
venue to exhibit China’s terracotta warriors.
From its earliest days, the Museum has bene-
fitted from astute collectors and generous do-
nors who have helped to build the Museum’s
Chinese holdings into one of the most impor-
tant collections outside China. e collection
includes a number of the ROM’s most iconic
objects, among them the mural painting
Paradise of Maitreya and the tomb mound of
the famous General Zu Dashou. e ROM’s
Chinese collections are exhibited in four mag-
nificent galleries on the Museum’s first floor:
the Bishop White Gallery of Chinese Temple
Art, the Matthews Family Court of Chinese
Sculpture, the Joey and Toby Tanenbaum
Gallery of China, and the Gallery of Chinese
Architecture, several of which exhibit arti-
facts from the Zhou, Qin, and Han dynasties
featured in e Warrior Emperor and China’s
Terracotta Army. A sampling of ROM artifacts
that relate to the exhibition is highlighted in
this guide.
e great ROM patron Louise Hawley
Stone was passionate about the Asian collec-
tions and was the first chair of the ROM’s
Bishop White Committee, established to sup-
port and promote them. rough her lead-
ership the committee grew to be a powerful
advocate for the East Asian collections and
programs at the Museum, resulting in two en-
dowed curatorial chairs in support of research
in China: e Louise Hawley Stone Chair of
East Asian Art and e Bishop White Chair
of East Asian Art & Archaeology. Dr. Chen
Shen, author of this guide and curator of e
Warrior Emperor and China’s Terracotta Army,
is the current, distinguished scholar to hold the
prestigious Bishop White Chair. Mrs. Stone’s
vision and beneficence extended as well to the
acquisition of artifacts and specimens and to
financial support for ROM research and pub-
lications. It is, in fact, because of Mrs. Stone’s
generosity that the Museum is able to pub-
lish this essential guide to the exhibition in a
format that is widely accessible—editions are
available in English, French, traditional Chi-
nese, and simplified Chinese. We are pleased
to be able to provide this value to our visitors—
the people of Ontario, Canada, and beyond.
We are also delighted to announce the
founding of the Royal Ontario Museum Press,
launched with these editions. e Museum
has a distinguished history of publishing,
characterized by a long list of academic and
popular titles, critical acclaim, and awards.
is affirmation of the publications program
provides a name commensurate with those
achievements and with our plans for an even
more robust catalogue of works in print and
online as we move forward.
We would like to thank the State Admin-
istration of Cultural Heritage, People’s Re-
public of China; Shaanxi Provincial Cultural
Relics Bureau; and Shaanxi Cultural Heritage
Promotion Centre—guardians of the warriors
who guarded the First Emperor—for their
knowledge and wisdom. e ROM’s presenta-
tion would not have been possible without the
generous support of its presenter, e Robert
H. N. Ho Family Foundation; lead sponsor,
BMO Financial Group; and supporting spon-
sor, Cathay Pacific Airways Limited.
Soldiers of destiny, soldiers of eternity,
the terracotta warriors of Qin Shihuangdi
continue to guard and honour him. In their
presence, we cross millennia to witness the
power that unified ancient China. We witness
as well a record of unbridled ambition.
Like the Great Pyramids, the treasures
of Tutankhamun, the Rosetta Stone, and the
gold of El Dorado, the terracotta warriors
conjure another world.
Dr. Mark D. Engstrom
Deputy Director, Collections and Research
BEIJING
XIAN
yellow river
yangze river
SHANGHAI
HONG KONG
LEGEND
CHINA
RIVERS
CITIES
N
Map of China showing location
of the terracotta army
9
IntroductIon
Terracotta warriors
10
11
signify a practical wish to maintain herds and
flocks in the next world.
the lIFe of the First Emperor was little known
to Western audiences before the discovery of
the terracotta warrior pits in 1974. In China,
however, he has always been mentioned promi-
nently in historical documents. e earliest ac-
count of his life is provided by Sima Qian, who
lived about a century after the First Emperor.
As court historian of Emperor Wu (156–87
BC), Sima Qian (c. 145–87 BC) completed his
Shiji (Records of the Grand Historian) in 130
chapters covering 3,000 years of history and
legend before his time. e sections devoted to
the First Emperor give most of the details we
know about his reign.
Today’s historians and archaeologists
find Sima Qian’s written records increasingly
trustworthy, since many have now been sub-
stantiated by archaeological discoveries. Un-
earthed oracle bones and bronze vessels with
inscriptions dating long before his time verify
the historical events and figures he describes,
as do the first two objects in the exhibition
(see pages 19 and 20). Yet it seems his work
was not totally comprehensive. Nowhere,
for instance, does he mention the enormous
undertaking that produced about 8,000 life-
sized terracotta figures.
While the First Emperor’s secrecy could
be a factor, there might be other reasons for
Sima Qian’s silence on the matter. Because the
betWeen 230 and 221 bc, the king of the
Qin state, Ying Zheng (born 259 BC), con-
quered six rival states to the east and founded
the first united empire—the Qin dynasty
(221–206 BC). His actions ended centuries of
ongoing warfare and established norms of gov-
ernance, law, and administration that would
characterize China for over 2,000 years.
After unification, Ying Zheng assumed
the title huangdi, a title never before used in
China, to represent his rule over all heaven
and earth. He had consolidated the terri-
tory his ancestors, dukes of the Qin state, had
worked to annex for several hundred years,
and he intended his family line to rule the
Qin empire for 10,000 generations. us, he
is known as the First (shi) Emperor (huangdi)
of Qin, or Qin Shihuangdi.
Construction of his tomb complex began
as soon as he came to the throne at age 13.
Nearly 8,000 terracotta warriors were made to
guard his underworld empire. e First Emper-
or could never have dreamed that 2,200 years
later, his terracotta soldiers would travel to al-
most every corner of the world, while he still
rests in his mysterious underground palace.
And now his terracotta army has come
to Canada.
the exhIbItIon e Warrior Emperor and
China’s Terracotta Army focuses on the life
and afterlife of the First Emperor, showcasing
nearly 300 objects loaned from 16 major mu-
seums in Shaanxi province in the People’s Re-
public of China. e exhibition is unique to
this Canadian tour, as all artifacts have been
selected specifically for the four participating
Canadian museums. Many have never before
been displayed outside China, and some have
not previously been displayed in any museum,
even in China (see pages 29, 31, and 39).
e story starts 600 years before the
birth of the First Emperor and ends 200
years after his death in 210 BC. e exhibi-
tion features three sections in chronological
order, illustrating the dramatic change from
war to peacetime during the first millennium
BC. e first section tells the story of how a
small and marginal noble family of the First
Emperor’s ancestors rose to become a power-
ful state at the dawn of unification. e second
section focuses on the First Emperor’s afterlife.
e artifacts in this section are from the lat-
est archaeological discoveries in the emperor’s
tomb complex. Magnificent full-sized sculp-
tures include generals, foot soldiers, horses,
and an entertainer.
e third section presents the peaceful
life of the Han dynasty (206 BC–AD 220).
During this period essential Chinese trad-
itions were established that are still reflected
in modern Chinese society. e Han emper-
ors continued the First Emperor’s adminis-
trative policies and also imitated his burial
practices. ey too buried terracotta soldiers
to serve them in the afterlife, although theirs
were much smaller in stature. However, the
Han rulers had some additional objectives:
charming miniature animals, for example,
The existing First Emperor’s burial mound
12
13
historian served an emperor whose ancestors
overthrew the First Emperor’s brief dynasty,
he had to be conscious of presenting the past
in a way that would not distress his ruler with
unflattering comparisons. In Han times too,
In the 4th century BC, Qin underwent a
social revolution engineered by a determined
minister, Shang Yang. All of his reforms were
intended to maximize order, efficiency, and
military strength, and they enabled Qin to
grow in power and extent, paving the way for
the First Emperor’s successful unification. Un-
til recently, Shang Yang was known only from
Sima Qian’s records and a work on govern-
ment attributed to him. But in the late 1990s,
archaeological evidence, in the form of archi-
tectural pieces bearing the character Shang,
came to light from sites in southeast Shaanxi
province, confirming the account that terri-
tory there was awarded to Lord Shang by the
duke of Xiao in 340 BC. One such object (see
page 26) has never been displayed before in
any museum.
constructIon oF the First Emperor’s
tomb lasted nearly 40 years, and, according
to Sima Qian, involved more than 700,000
labourers. e burial site was well known and
Confucianism, which became the mainstream
ruling doctrine, was strongly at odds with the
legalist form of government advocated by the
First Emperor. According to Sima Qian, the
First Emperor had Confucian scholars exe-
cuted and burned their books, a story that
influenced later historians to treat him as a
ruthless tyrant. But even his greatest detract-
ors could not deny his extraordinary achieve-
ments and astonishing legacy. Many of these
achievements are not only recorded in Sima
Qian’s writing, but are now known from ar-
chaeological discoveries.
sIma qIan’s account indicates the earliest
Qin settlements were in today’s Gansu prov-
ince, where archaeological finds have now
identified their early presence. According to
Sima Qian, the Qin moved their political cen-
tres or state capitals gradually eastward nine
times for strategic military reasons. Following
his clues, in the last two or three decades, ar-
chaeologists have been able to confirm most
was probably partially looted or damaged in
the past. Only since the 1970s have modern
archaeological techniques been applied to in-
vestigating the tomb area. After a few decades
of fieldwork, we now know that the terracotta
of these historical locations. Some artifacts ex-
hibited come from archaeological sites in cap-
ital ruins at Qian (776–762 BC), Pingyang
(714–677 BC), Yongcheng (677–383 BC),
and Xianyang (350–206 BC). ese finds
enable us to recognize Qin creativity in some
unique art objects (see pages 24 and 25), in-
cluding the pendants used by a Qin duke (see
page 18), and the very rare wall painting from
an imperial palace (see page 33).
is archaeological evidence also reveals
social changes in the Warring States period
(480–221 BC) as the dukes of Qin began
their deliberate program of reform. One
measure initiated by the Qin dukes was sup-
pression of the practice of human sacrifice as-
sociated with major burials, which probably
encouraged the creation and widespread use
of terracotta human figures as substitutes. e
earliest terracotta figures displayed (see pages
28 and 29) include soldiers and attendants,
which, though small in size, provide archaeo-
logical testimony for this change.
warrior pits formed a very small and periph-
eral part of a huge site, where more than 500
archaeological components (burials, architec-
tural units like walls and gates, foundation
ruins, etc.) have so far been identified. About
LEGEND
THE BURIAL MOUND
WALL & GATES
DITCHES & VALLEYS
RIVERS
PITS & BURIALS
OTHER SITES
KILN SITES
REMAINS OF ABOVE
GROUND STRUCTURE
0
500cm
N
4
EXOTIC
ANIMAL PIT
3
K0007
1
TERRACOTTA
ARMY PITS
2
STABLE PITS
6
K9901
5
K9801
7
K0006
8
HORSE
STABLE PITS
Ongoing archaeological excavation at the
terracotta army Pit No. 1
Plan of the First Emperor’s tomb complex
14
15
180 earth pits—including the terracotta
warriors—are distributed inside and outside
a double-walled enclosure, a north-south
rectangle about 2 square kilometres in area.
e great tomb mound itself is central to the
First Emperor’s life. Two half-sized, beauti-
fully decorated bronze vehicles were excav-
ated in 1980, unique treasures now perma-
nently installed in the gallery of the Emperor
Qin Shihuang’s Terracotta Army Museum
in Xi’an. Recently, other full-sized terracotta
figures were uncovered: from a pit contain-
ing civil officials that probably represents the
emperor’s Department of Justice; from the
acrobat pit that represents imperial entertain-
ment; and from the pit with bronze birds and
musicians that reproduces the emperor’s wa-
ter garden. A massive armoury with supplies
of stone armour was found in a pit larger than
the terracotta Pit No.1. Artifacts from these
new archaeological sites are also on display
(see pages 49–53 and 55).
archaeology conFIrms Sima Qian’s ob-
servation that the Han emperors continued in-
novations begun by the First Emperor. Han
imperial tombs, though smaller, are clearly
modelled on his, with an earthen mound,
compound, located within the inner wall. Ac-
companying burials have been found in the
southern part of the enclosure, while ruins
of architecture—remains of funeral temples,
residences, administrative offices, and facil-
perimeter wall, shrines and other buildings
above ground, and numerous pits under-
ground. A satellite town accompanied each of
them, supporting the annual cycle of rituals
and sacrifices for the deceased that took place
there. Excavations at the tomb complex of the
fourth Han emperor Jing (r. 157–141 BC)
at Yangling (the satellite town) started in the
late 1990s and continue inside the site mu-
seum. ey have revealed accompanying bur-
ials holding a small-sized terracotta army, civil
officials, attendants, eunuchs, and clay sculp-
tures of various animals (see artifacts in Section
3). What lies directly beneath the principal Han
mounds is unknown, however; like the First
Emperor’s tomb, they remain unexcavated.
One of the five Chinese Classics, e Book
of Rites, attributed to Confucius (c. 551–479
BC), counsels: “Serve the dead as you would
have served them when living.” e First Em-
peror, however, was a revolutionary in death as
well as in life. Rather than simply following the
tradition of taking many precious objects with
ities for the tomb construction—are located
to the north.
Nearly 2,000 full-sized terracotta war-
riors and horses have been unearthed from
the three pits with a total area of 21,000
square metres, located 1.5 kilometres east
of the outer wall. Infantry formations and
chariot soldiers are in Pit No.1, while archers
and cavalrymen are stationed in Pit No. 2.
e small U-shaped Pit No. 3 is a field com-
mand post. e exact number of full-sized
figures is not certain, as excavations are still
ongoing, but at least 7,000 figures have been
estimated based on the arrangement of mili-
tary formations. Every so often a few newly
restored, full-sized warriors are revealed, ex-
plaining why we are able to show some new
figures with preserved colours, exclusive to
the Canadian exhibition (see page 43).
e accidental discovery of the terracotta
army in 1974 was just the beginning of major
finds at the site. Since then, more stunning
discoveries continually reveal aspects of the
him for use in the next world, scholars believe
he aimed at nothing less than the re-creation
of his entire world in the hereafter. e size,
richness, and complexity of his tomb site far
outdid anything constructed either before or
after. It appears that Han emperors desired the
same thing in the afterlife, but presented it in
a more symbolic way.
Han burial customs may offer clues to
what archaeologists could find in the First
Emperor’s tomb mound, should it ever be ex-
cavated. e exhibition ends with a painted
stone doorway to a burial chamber in a Han
grave, a “door to eternity” (see page 67). Per-
haps a similar gateway leads into the afterlife
residence of Qin Shihuangdi.
Stone armour and helmet excavated in situ
16
17
the exhIbItIon
Han Emperor Jing’s burial mound
18
sectIon 1
the rIse oF qIn
(9th century–221 bc)
“Qin began as a small state situated in a far-off region, shunned
by the Xia lineage [central Chinese] states and classed with the
Rong and Di barbarians. But after the time of Duke Xian, it
was always a leader among the feudal rulers. . . . In the end it
united the whole world under its rule. is was not necessarily
due to its mountain barriers or the advantages of its geograph-
ic situation. Rather it was as though Heaven had aided it.”
— Sima Qian (c. 145–87 BC),
e Records of the Grand Historian, Chapter 15
Translated by Burton Watson: Records of the Grand Historian: Qin Dynasty
This jade pendant was used by Duke Jing of Qin, who lived about 350 years be-
fore the birth of the First Emperor. Di 4.9 cm Shaanxi Institute of Archaeology
19
Ding Tripod
Bronze 1046–771 BC Ht. 45.6 Di. 39.4 Dp. 20 cm
Baoji Bronze Museum
In Bronze Age China (c. 20th–3rd century BC), bronze ding tri-
pods were among ceremonial vessels used by noble families to
offer food to gods or ancestors. Inscriptions on such vessels fre-
quently commemorated the family’s illustrious history, and they
were passed from generation to generation. e owner of this ves-
sel, Shan Lai, was given responsibility for governing a territory by
King Xuan (r. 827–782 BC), and had a set of ten ding vessels in
graduated sizes, with inscriptions of 316 characters on each, cast
to record the event.
According to Sima Qian, the First Emperor’s ancestor, Qin
Zhong, also served the same King Xuan, but as an official in charge
of horse breeding for the Zhou Kingdom. He held lower rank and
had weaker association with the king. His noble family, the Ying,
was not enfeoffed or given any state title until several decades later.
20
21
Bell of the Duke of Qin
Bronze 771–481 BC Ht. 69.6 Wi. 28.4 cm
Baoji Bronze Museum
“My foremost ancestor received the Mandate of Heaven, was
awarded land and received title to a state . . .”
is 135-character essay was inscribed on a set of three bronze
bo bells that belonged to Duke Wu of Qin (c. 697–678 BC).
e bells were excavated in 1978 from Pingyang, Qin’s old capital
near today’s Baoji, along with another set of five niu bells also
belonging to the Duke.
Musical bells, normally played in sets, were important ritual
objects used in ancient China for ceremonial occasions. is bell,
with its elegant openwork flanges, provides the first archaeologic-
al evidence verifying historical records that the First Emperor’s
ancestor, Duke Xiang (c. 780–769 BC), was given official state
lordship by the Zhou king. is was done to reward the Ying clan
for its military support during the removal of the royal family to
the eastern capital Luoyang at the time of the invasion of the Xi
Rong people in 771 BC.
He Wine Vessel
Bronze 771–481 BC Ht. 20 Wi. 21 Dp. 4.5 cm
Longxian County Museum
is wine vessel was recovered from Bianjiazhuang, Longxian
County, near the northwestern border of today’s Shaanxi province,
where the Qin state capital Qian was located during the earli-
er 8th century BC. When the Qin dukes moved their royal resi-
dence to the east in 762 BC, some noble families still remained
in this western location. Bianjiazhuang was the family cemetery
of the nobility, as indicated by the presence of ritual bronze ves-
sels in burials there, some of them clearly later than the removal
of the capital.
e vessel is decorated with prominent bird motifs. A bird
with a crest and hooked beak functions as a lid, and a large bird
in low relief dominates each flat side. Some scholars consider the
bird motif on early bronze vessels of Qin, similar to pottery bird
models shown in the exhibition, evidence that the Qin people
originated in the East where a bird totem was recognized.
22
23
Pendant Set
Jade 771–481 BC Ht. 7.1 cm
Longxian County Museum
Worn as a necklace, this jade pendant set was found on the body
of a Qin nobleman from a 7th century BC burial at Bianjia-
zhuang. e set consists of two fish-shaped pendants (huang and
pei), one pointed pendant (xi), and a series of agate beads. Dur-
ing the Western Zhou period (c. 1046–771 BC), pendant sets
like this were considered by the nobility as appropriate emblems
of their rank and were not mere costume accessories. is Qin
pendant necklace is still rather simple, as such sets found in feudal
states in central China at the time might contain dozens or even
hundreds of pendants. It illustrates an aristocratic taste for luxury
in the early Qin state, even while it remained less powerful than
other states to the east.
Bridle Fitting
Gold 481–221 BC Le. 4.1 Wi. 3.4 cm
Fengxiang County Museum
Horses were highly regarded by the Qin people, perhaps reflect-
ing the fact that the First Emperor’s ancestors rose to power by
breeding horses for the Zhou dynasty rulers in the 9th–8th cen-
turies BC. Horses used by high-status members of the nobility
could have been decorated with ornaments like this gold object,
which was most likely attached to the bridle of a horse. e open-
work fitting is masterfully cast with five intertwined dragons in
high relief. On the back is a broad, flattened loop for fitting onto
a bridle strap.
Gold from ancient China is rarely found, but a number of
small gold ornaments, mostly horse fittings, have been discovered
in archaeological sites affiliated with Qin culture. Its appearance
there was probably because of the relationship Qin had with no-
madic horse breeders on the northwestern frontier, who associ-
ated the use of gold with status.
22
24
25
Wine Vessel with Garlic Mouth
Bronze 206 BC–AD 220 Ht. 26.7 Di. (base) 11.3 cm
Longxian County Museum
is bronze wine vessel, with its swelling body and elongated
neck with garlic-shaped mouth, is unique to the Qin tradition.
Similarly shaped pottery wine vessels are also found in Qin mid-
dle-class burials, presumably used as ritual vessels in that context
as well. ere are some variations, but all are characterized by the
garlic mouth. Such objects are a good indicator of cultural inter-
actions. When garlic-mouth wine vessels are found from burials
in Sichuan and Hubei provinces a few hundred kilometres away
from the Qin centre, archaeologists can infer that the owners of
such burials were Qin migrants.
Painted Pottery Vessels
Earthenware 221–206 BC Ht. 24.4 Di. (mouth) 10.4 cm (top)
Ht. 14.2 Di. (base) 15 cm (bottom)
Longxian County Museum
e earliest painted pottery appeared on the east coast of China
about 8,000 years ago, and the type became common in the Yel-
low River Valley around 6,000 to 5,000 years ago. ese Qin
vessels were painted after being fired, as were the First Emperor’s
terracotta soldiers and subsequent Han dynasty tomb figures in
this exhibit.
e pottery wares shown here are decorated with white and
red pigments, in linear designs like spirals, circles, triangles, and
feathered patterns on a reddish yellow ground. ey represent
food containers or wine vessels, but were not made for daily use.
Painted pottery was probably utilized during ceremonies or burial
rituals by middle-class members of the early Qin State (7th–6th
century BC), who were not allowed to use bronze ritual vessels for
such occasions.
26
27
Granary Model
Earthenware 221–206 BC Ht. 23 Di. (base) 12.5 cm
Longxian County Museum
Pottery models of granaries first appeared in Qin middle-class
burials during the 6th–5th century BC. By the Han dynasty (206
BC–AD 220), they were commonly found in most tombs of the
wealthy. While this round example shows the earliest form, in the
Han dynasty rectangular granary models prevailed. e increasing
use of such models as burial goods reflects significant social and
economic changes in the Qin state, among them a series of land
reforms initiated by Shang Yang, a close advisor to Duke Xiao
(r. 361–338 BC). As a result, the emerging middle class bene-
fitted from wealth based on private land ownership. Its members
ignored Zhou rituals, in which the middle-to-upper class used
conventional bronze vessels or bells (see pages 19–21 and 30) or
ceramic substitutes, and instead introduced the granary model to
symbolize their new prosperity in the rising Qin state.
Roof Tile with Character Shang
Earthenware 481–221 BC Dp. 0.8 Di. 15.5 cm
Shangluo Municipal Museum
Only the closed end of this tile survives; it originally faced out-
ward. It displays the moulded character Shang indicating it was
used on roofs of residences, temples, or official structures that
belonged to Lord Shang (d. 338 BC), a reformer and most in-
fluential figure in the Qin state. Recovered in a mountainous
region about 300 kilometres south of the Qin capital Xianyang,
it is the first archaeological evidence verifying the historical re-
cord that Gongsun Yang was given the noble title jun (lord) and
a territory with 15 cities as his fief by Duke Xiao in 340 BC.
In that year, Yang, as chief minister leading a Qin army, won a
decisive battle defeating Qin’s long-time rival state of Wei, and
recovered lands west of the Yellow River previously lost to Wei.
Because of this title Lord Shang, Yang is best known in Chinese
history as Shang Yang.
28
29
Group of Figures
Earthenware 481–221 BC Ht. 15 Le. 20.5 cm (horse)
Ht. 7.7–12.5 cm (figures)
Xi’an Institute of Archaeology and Heritage Preservation
is small group includes three standing attendants, one kneeling
servant, one dismounted rider, and one horse. All were painted in
red and black, with modelled headdress details. e standing horse
appears strong and sturdy, and its full tail has a knot at the end. Red
lines on its black-painted body represent the saddle and reins.
e group was recently excavated from a Warring States per-
iod burial in today’s Xi’an, and has not previously been displayed
in any museum exhibit. Sets of burial figures indicate that the
tomb owner must have been from a wealthy family, though not
one with inherited noble status. is clearly illustrates what we
know from historical sources—that social changes allowed Qin
commoners, or even slaves, to gain wealth by providing military
services to the state prior to Qin’s unification.
Cavalry Figures
Earthenware 481–221 BC Ht. 22.3 cm Le. 18.4 Wi. 18 cm (top)
Ht. 22.6 cm Le.18.4 cm (bottom)
Xianyang Institute of Archaeology and Cultural Relics
ese two miniature soldiers riding horses, unearthed from a
military official’s burial near the Qin city Xianyang, are the earli-
est terracotta warriors found in China to date. ey were made
about 100 years before the First Emperor’s life-sized figures, and
show that cavalry was employed in the Qin state’s army during
the wars leading to unification. Some of the bronze vessels from
the same burial, including the one on display, were made in other
states, suggesting that this military official had collected trophies
after winning battles.
Both horses and human figures are painted in red over a grey
clay surface, with details in black. e eyes and mouth of each
soldier are indicated with incised lines, but the nose is modelled
in high relief. Each has a hat with a wide, flat sunshade and wears
the same uniform: a short robe without armour, short trousers,
and boots.
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31
Pictorial Hu Wine Vessel
Bronze 481–221 BC Ht. 40 Di. 12.3 cm
Fengxiang County Museum
A cache of 12 bronze vessels (four in the exhibit) was recovered
in 1977 near the royal palace ruins in Yongcheng, a Qin capital
city during the 7th–5th centuries BC. Archaeologists believe they
represent a royal collection once held in a nearby palace.
is pictorial hu is one of a pair in the group. Copper-inlaid
scenes from life are arranged in four registers separated by three
narrow, decorated, raised bands. e top register illustrates archery
contests, shown upside down as if meant to be seen from above.
e two middle registers have scenes of archers hunting birds
(above) and performing musicians (below). e bottom regis-
ter depicts a group of hunters.
So far, fewer than a dozen such pictorial hu vessels, includ-
ing one in the Royal Ontario Museum (see page 68), are known.
Although they were recovered from different sites, they were all
manufactured in central China in a territory of the state of Jin.
Wine Vessel
Lacquered earthenware 771– 481 BC Ht. 33 Di. 13.3 cm
Shangluo Municipal Museum
Lacquer vessels and utensils became common in southern China
during the Warring States period. is wine container has a thin
pottery body, with designs in red and white painted on a black
lacquer ground. Similar to some bronze vessels of the period, this
lacquered hu has a lid with a corona of six flaring lotus leaves ris-
ing from it. e body is decorated with eight panels filled with
angular and spiral designs.
e Qin state embraced changes in the arts as much as in the
economy and government. is lacquer was unearthed in south-
east Shaanxi, from land once belonging to Lord Shang Yang. Yang
encouraged immigration, with the aim of increasing the agricul-
tural prosperity and military strength of Qin. Characteristic of
craftsmanship in the neighbouring Chu state to the south, the use
of lacquer exemplified Qin’s openness toward foreigners and new
ideas through either immigration or adoption.
32
Palace Wall Painting
Clay 221–206 BC Le. 78 Wi. 46 cm
Shaanxi Institute of Archaeology
Remember the fabled palaces of Xianyang
Shimmering with beauty from six fallen states,
e emperor, intoxicated with such loveliness,
Forgetting to mind affairs in far mountains and river ways.
Xianyang, poem by Li Shangying, Tang dynasty (AD 618–906)
Legends say that the First Emperor built more than 300 palaces
in Xianyang, the Qin’s last capital for 144 years. Many repli-
cated royal architecture from all the states his armies had con-
quered. For decades, archaeologists have been investigating the
ruins of Xianyang, and so far, four palaces have been excavated.
e reconstruction of Palace No. 1, the model displayed in the
exhibit, shows compounds of three-storey buildings, connected
and surrounded by covered corridors. e walls of such roofed
corridors in Palaces 1, 2, and 3 were painted with animals, flow-
ers and plants, human figures, geometric patterns, and scenes
from life. Second only to the discovery of the terracotta war-
riors, these wall paintings are among the greatest finds from the
First Emperor’s lifetime.
Hundreds of mural fragments were recovered among the
remains of collapsed walls, broken into such small pieces that
their subjects are hard to identify. is example is among the
few that are large and relatively well preserved. A diamond-
shaped panel is contained within a black frame that opens and
turns inward at one corner to form a traditional Chinese cloud
pattern. Within the frame, a pair of tan-coloured horses is draw-
ing a two-wheeled carriage and driver. While earlier evidence
of this theme is lacking, running horse-drawn carriages were to
become common in later wall paintings and relief sculptures
found in Han dynasty tombs.
is colourful wall painting is the earliest example of its
kind found so far in China.
34
35
Roof Tile with Decorated End,
and Decorated Ends
Earthenware 771– 481 BC Di. 16.5 cm (top left) Di. 15.5 cm (top
right) Le. 40 Di. 10.5 cm (bottom)
Shaanxi Institute of Archaeology (top row), Fengxiang County Museum
Grander Qin structures, such as temples, palaces, and official
buildings, usually had roof tiles with decorated ends where they
terminated at the eaves. e designs on these are unique to the Qin
and continued to be used in the following Han dynasty. Animals
were favourite subjects for this decoration; the example on the top
right depicts a tiger hunting a deer, while the one on the top left
shows five animals (deer, fawn, dog, toad, and wild goose).
Chinese mythic animals like the dragon and the auspicious
phoenix were also common in roof tile decoration, as seen in the
lower illustration. According to the Er Ya, the earliest Chinese
encyclopedia of animals and plants, probably compiled during
the 3rd–2nd century BC, a phoenix was said to have a “rooster’s
head, swallow’s face, snake’s neck, turtle’s back, and fish’s tail.”
34
Incense Burner
Earthenware 481–221 BC Ht. 17 Le. 21 cm
Shaanxi Institute of Archaeology
Found in a Qin burial in the city of Xianyang, the function of
this unique grey earthenware vessel is still debated. Scholars now
believe it could be an incense burner.
It represents a horse carrying a cylindrical burner chamber.
e horse’s legs were broken and the ends then flattened. e
burner is hollow with a grate at the bottom. A large toad and
a small dog are on the lid, the toad serving as a handle for the
rear part, which opens. e burner chamber is decorated with
crossed lines outside and fish designs inside. e bodies of the
two facing animals on the lid are hollow (as is that of the horse)
and communicate with the interior. e animals’ mouths, in ad-
dition to 12 holes on the back of the toad, would allow incense
smoke to escape.
36
37
Trigger Mechanism and Model of Crossbow
Bronze 221–206 BC Le. 16 Wi. 2.1 cm (top)
Wood Le. 143 Wi. 86 cm (bottom)
Emperor Qin Shihuang’s Terracotta Army Museum
Crossbows, which have a bow mounted on a stock along which
the string is drawn, are among the most lethal weapons of an-
tiquity. eir accuracy and penetrating power gave armies using
them a considerable advantage. However, archers had to pause
and draw the string with both arms, either standing or sitting
with feet braced against the bow.
Early Chinese crossbows, probably adopted from southern
China or Southeast Asia, seem to have been lighter and used
mainly in hunting. ey appear in Chinese burials of the Warring
States period, and became common in the 4th–3rd centuries BC
after the metal trigger mechanism was adopted. By the Qin dy-
nasty, crossbow archers formed part of the imperial army’s battle
formation. e crossbow units among the terracotta soldiers were
originally equipped with functional examples similar to this mod-
ern reproduction.
Inlaid Belt Hook
Gilt Bronze, Shell 481–221 BC Ht. 5 Le. 23.4 Wi. 3.4 cm
Xi‘an Municipal Museum
Bronze and jade belt hooks were used by men in later Bronze
Age China, both for function and as stylish personal accessories.
Often plain, they could also be richly ornamental, or even made
into representations of animals, like the monkey shown in the
exhibition. Images of various belt hooks can be seen on the terra-
cotta warrior figures.
At both ends of this rare gilt bronze example, animal heads
are depicted in detail, with large eyes, prominent snouts, and
broad mouths. Notably, both pairs of eyes are inlaid with black
glass beads. e animals’ bodies stretch back toward the middle
of the object, holding three shell inlays.
ough buried in Qin territory where its owner apparently
served as an official, characters inscribed on this belt hook, as well
as the presence in his tomb of typical bronze and lacquer objects,
indicate that he came from the Chu state in the south.
37
38
39
such as horse and chariot fittings, lamps, knives, and cross-
bow fittings. e discovery of a burial in which more than half
the objects found were clay moulds suggests that it belonged
to a craftsman who supplied moulds for bronze manufactur-
ing. Bronze plaques cast from these moulds would bear motifs
unique to their locality.
A mould with human figures depicts a woman wearing
non-traditional Chinese robes and headdress, holding a boy
with a ball at his feet (bottom left). Two sheep with large curved
horns and extended rear legs are arranged symmetrically on an-
other mould (middle right). A horse is vividly depicted with
hindquarters twisted upwards, its hoof touching its mane (bot-
tom right). e oval plaque (middle left) shows a scene of a fly-
ing eagle attacked by two tigers. Two mythic animals, with bird
heads and snake bodies, are shown above the tigers’ heads.
Plaque and Moulds
Bronze 481–221 BC Le. 10.8 Wi. 5.5 cm (top left)
Shaanxi History Museum
Earthenware 221–206 BC Le. 5.2 Wi. 4.2 Dp. 0.6 cm (middle left)
Le. 7.9 Wi. 6.7 Dp. 1.4 cm (middle right) Le. 7 cm (bottom left) Le. 9.4
Wi. 7 Dp. 2.5 cm (bottom right)
Shaanxi Institute of Archaeology
Because of its location in the west, the Qin state had extensive
contact with ethnic groups in the farther northwest (Xi Rong)
and southwest (Ba and Dian), and absorbed much of their dis-
tinctive art. e gilt bronze plaque with a bull in relief (top left)
was produced by the Dian people, near today’s Kunming, Yun-
nan province. Similar ornaments were also common among the
northwestern nomads, where images of camels, deer, and drag-
ons were most often seen. While these products were readily
accepted through trade and exchange, local versions were also
produced by Qin craftsmen in their own styles.
For the first time, a set of clay moulds for casting such
bronze plaques has been recovered from a Qin dynasty burial
near Xi’an. e site included moulds for a variety of objects,
40 41
Infantry Soldier
Earthenware 221–206 BC Ht. 189 cm
Emperor Qin Shihuang’s Terracotta Army Museum
Of an estimated 8,000 figures originally buried in the three terra-
cotta warrior pits, over 1,000 low-ranking soldiers, with and with-
out armour, have been unearthed. eir postures, either standing
or kneeling, and their costumes are more or less the same, but the
fact that each of them expresses such individuality and personality
is impressive. e level of detail has suggested to some observers
that each of the terracotta warriors could have been modelled from
a living soldier. Every figure, whether young or old, shows vividly
his pride, loyalty, seriousness, concern, yearning, or even sadness.
is soldier from the light infantry has no armour, but he
probably held a bow. Like most other foot soldiers, he wears short
trousers and puttees (leather or cloth strips wound around the
lower legs).
sectIon 2
the terracotta army
(221–206 bc)
“Insignificant as I am, I have raised troops to punish the rebel-
lious princes; and thanks to the sacred power of our ancestors,
all six kings have been chastised as they deserved, so that at last
the empire is pacified. Now if some change in title is not car-
ried out, there will be no way to celebrate these achievements
and make them known to later generations. Let deliberations
be held on an imperial title.”
— e First Emperor, quoted by Sima Qian (c.145-87 BC),
e Records of Grand Historian, Chapter 6
Translated by Burton Watson: Records of the Grand Historian: Qin Dynasty
42
43
Armoured General
Earthenware 221–206 BC Ht. 196 cm
Emperor Qin Shihuang’s Terracotta Army Museum
Only nine figures of generals, the highest ranking commanders
in the Qin Emperor’s army, have been recovered so far. Each has
a distinctive appearance, with flaring twin-peaked headgear, in-
tricate armour of fish-scale design, a double-layered tunic, and
flat-ended shoes with upturned toes; these features distinguish the
figure of the general from the more than 1,000 soldiers unearthed
from the three pits. His height, and the prominent knotted bows,
tied in pairs to the front, shoulders, and back of the armour, also
clearly denote the highest military rank.
When unearthed, this general stood on a command chariot.
Watching his troops from above, his eyes are half-closed, reserved,
and confident. His right hand crosses over to hold the other wrist
while the palm of the left hand once rested on the handle of a
long sword pointing to the ground in front of him. e general’s
imperious expression suggests authority and determination, as if
he is ready to command a battle for his emperor.
Kneeling Archer
Earthenware 221–206 BC Ht. 130 cm
Emperor Qin Shihuang’s Terracotta Army Museum
e Qin army had a large contingent of archers who employed
powerful and deadly crossbows (see page 36). is half-kneeling
archer is one of 332 found in Pit No. 2, lined up in battle forma-
tion. In combat, archers were arrayed in rows, one row firing ar-
rows from a standing position while the others knelt to arm their
crossbows. is kneeling soldier has both hands at the right side
of his body to hold a crossbow. He looks down as if he is taking a
breath, ready to stand up for the next round of shooting.
Most of the earthenware figures from early excavations are
grey in appearance, but they were originally painted with bright
colours—green, red, purple, blue, and white. Conservation tech-
niques used in excavating Pit No. 2 in the 1990s preserved this
rare example of a figure with some intact colours.
42
44
Unarmoured general. Ht. 199 cm Emperor Qin Shihuang’s Terracotta Army Museum
46
47
Charioteer and Horse
Earthenware 221–206 BC Ht. 190 cm (charioteer)
Ht. 166 Le. 193 cm (horse)
Emperor Qin Shihuang’s Terracotta Army Museum
Chariots were already common on the battlefields of China be-
fore the time of the First Emperor. By the Qin unification, char-
iots had apparently become an elite division of the First Emperor’s
army. All charioteers from the terracotta warrior pits held offi-
cial rank, as indicated by their flat headdress, and drove chariots
pulled by four horses. e charioteer, then called yushou (royal
driver), controlled and directed the formations of foot soldiers.
Each chariot also carried one or two soldiers who would
have fought with a medium-range weapon like a ge dagger-axe
over the moving wheels. Because the charioteer would not be able
to defend himself while holding the reins, most wore special ar-
mour, with sleeves that extended over the hands and a high collar
to protect the neck. However, our charioteer in the exhibition
bravely wears just the armour of a regular soldier.
A few charioteers had the honour of driving a command
chariot containing a general (see page 42) and a guard. Such a
chariot would also have contained a leather drum and a bronze
bell (see example in the exhibition) used by the general for direct-
ing military movements. Slight differences between cavalry and
chariot horses found with the terracotta army suggest that in life
they were specially selected for their roles.
48
49
Cavalry Horse and Soldier
Earthenware 221–206 BC Ht. 172 Le. 203 cm (horse)
Ht. 184 cm (soldier)
Emperor Qin Shihuang’s Terracotta Army Museum
Two kinds of horses, both for the battlefield, were found in the
terracotta pits: horses for mounted cavalry, and horses for pulling
the war chariots. is cavalry horse is beautifully outfitted, with
its saddle showing ornamental studs, girth strap, and crupper. It
was ridden without stirrups, which did not come into use until
later centuries. e head is modelled in extremely fine detail—
with flared nostrils, skin creases around the wide-open eyes, ears
pitched forward and alert, and mouth slightly open—presenting
great character and realism. Its remarkable size matches that of
the real horses buried near the First Emperor’s tomb.
In battle, a unit of the First Emperor’s cavalry was likely de-
ployed to the rear of the military formation, as displayed in Pit
No. 2, where 116 saddle horses were found in this position, each
accompanied by a standing cavalry soldier.
Civil Official
Earthenware 221–206 BC Ht. 188 cm
Shaanxi Institute of Archaeology
In 2000, archaeologists discovered a new pit with life-sized terra-
cotta figures at the southwestern corner of the First Emperor’s
tomb complex, very close to the mound itself. is time, it held
not soldiers but civil officials. eir high rank is suggested by
both the distinctive cap and the flat-ended shoes with raised toes,
exactly like those of the armoured figure of a general in the exhibi-
tion. eir hands are tucked into the long sleeves of their robes.
Each official has a knife and sharpening stone hanging from the
right side of his waist, necessary tools for working on the bamboo
strips or wooden tablets used for writing at the time. A wooden
tablet was likely slipped into the space between the left arm and
chest, just as we would now carry a file folder or notepad to a
meeting. Archaeologists believe this pit represented an adminis-
trative office, probably the Department of Justice.
50
51
Reconstruction of these suits is extremely time-consuming,
since all were found collapsed. e wooden stands or hanging
frames on which they were probably mounted originally had dis-
integrated long ago.
Armour and Helmet
Stone 221–206 BC Ht. 77 Wi. 50 cm (armour)
Ht. 38 Wi. 21 cm (helmet)
Shaanxi Institute of Archaeology
Stone armour and helmets were not used for actual combat. A
suit is extremely heavy, weighing as much as 20 kilograms, as
it could have more than 600 limestone plaques linked together
with copper wires. Yet hundreds of life-sized suits were made and
buried specially for the First Emperor’s underworld army. Real
armour and helmets used in the Warring States period were made
from iron or leather.
Found in 1999 at the southeast corner of the tomb complex,
Pit K9801 is as large as the terracotta warrior Pit No. 1, but only
one-eightieth of it has been excavated, revealing 87 suits and 43
helmets. It is hard to imagine how many more suits there could
be, and in what variety, if the pit were excavated entirely. It ap-
pears that the huge quantity of armour buried would have been
sufficient to outfit the 8,000 terracotta warriors. However, none
of the terracotta warriors wear helmets, possibly to demonstrate
their bravery in the service of the First Emperor.
52
53
the Qin dynasty. It was recently recovered from an accompanying
pit, K9901, at the southeast corner of the First Emperor’s tomb
complex. e total area of the pit is about 800 square metres, and
the first excavation in 1999 unearthed 11 acrobat figures, all full-
sized, from a test pit only 9 square metres large. ough all are
incomplete, their postures show various kinds of performance for
the emperor. e figure in the exhibition is the only one of the 11
retaining part of his head. His face shows an expression of calm
concentration on his performance, which probably involved bal-
ancing weight by using one finger of his right hand. In his right
index finger, there is a hole 0.4 centimetres in diameter running
down to the palm, indicating that something like a rod was insert-
ed. Missing the left arm and the left leg, the figure wears nothing
but a simple skirt, the same costume as his companions found in
the pit. His right leg is bent backward with the toe touching the
ground, a suitable stance for a balancing act.
Acrobat
Earthenware 221–206 BC Ht. 180 Wi. (shoulder) 30 cm (right)
Emperor Qin Shihuang’s Terracotta Army Museum
Earthenware 1st–2nd century AD Ht. 21.2 Wi. 10.2 cm (juggler,
left, ROM artifact)
George Crofts Collection
Acrobats were familiar entertainers in the royal court during the
Han dynasty (206 BC–AD 220), as recorded in early historic
documents and indicated by many tomb figures of acrobats (see
the ROM example at left). Such performances in China may
have originated in the Warring States period, or even earlier. An-
cient documents referred to acrobats as bai xi, literally “hundred
games,” and Emperor Wu (156–87 BC) encouraged acrobatic
games as sporting competitions. Archaeological finds illustrate
well over a dozen different types of performance. is tradition
has lasted to the present day; China is widely recognized as having
the most sophisticated acrobatic performers in the world.
is life-sized acrobat, also called a “bai xi terracotta,” is our
earliest archaeological evidence that such entertainment existed in
54
Swan
Bronze 221–206 BC Ht. 100 Le. 90 Wi. 50 cm
Shaanxi Institute of Archaeology
e most recent discovery of full-sized figures from the First Em-
peror’s tomb complex is Pit K0007, an F-shaped underground
chamber with three sections. e floor of the longest section was
paved with wooden planks covered with clay plaster, and the ex-
cavators believe it represented a river; on its wooden banks were
found 46 life-sized bronze waterfowl, including six cranes, 20
swans, and 20 wild geese. Most birds’ heads face the “river,” ex-
cept for a few found in its middle. ey are in different positions:
standing, resting, looking for food, and one even eating a worm.
In another section, 15 full-sized terracotta figures were
found. ese figures, dressed as servants, seem to be playing music-
al instruments, now missing. e excavation in 2001 revealed
that the pit had been burned, so that only bronze and pottery
figures survived. Some scholars believe the group represents an
underground pleasure garden for the First Emperor.
56 57
Han Emperor’s Cavalry and Infantry
Earthenware 206 BC–AD 220 Ht. 58 Le. 50 Wi. 17 cm (top)
Ht. 50 Wi. 15 Dp. 11 cm (bottom)
Xianyang Museum
In 1965, archaeologists excavated a terracotta warrior pit at Yangjia-
wan near the tomb complex of Emperor Gaozu, who established
the Han dynasty in 206 BC. e pit contained 1,800 infantry-
man and 580 cavalrymen. Foot soldiers about 50 centimetres tall
wear painted red caps tied under the chin and black chest armour
over short white robes. Most held a long-shafted wooden weapon,
now vanished, in one hand and a shield in the other. e cavalry
figures are in two different sizes, possibly representing two differ-
ent functions for cavalry described in texts of the period—frontal
attacks and penetration of the opposing army’s flanks.
e discovery of Emperor Gaozu’s terracotta army at
Yangjiawan revealed that large changes had taken place in mil-
itary organization. Where the First Emperor had a sizable chariot
component, the early Han army mainly utilized infantry in mass
formation, supplemented with several cavalry units.
sectIon 3
the harmonIous han
(206 bc–ad 220)
“In the reign of Emperor Hui [221–188 BC, r. 194–188 BC]
. . . the common people succeeded in putting behind them the
sufferings of the age of the Warring States and ruler and subject
alike sought rest in surcease of action. erefore . . . the world
was at peace. Punishments were seldom meted out and evildo-
ers grew rare, while the people applied themselves to the tasks
of farming, and food and clothing became abundant.”
— Sima Qian (c.145–87 BC),
e Records of the Grand Historian, Chapter 9
Translated by Burton Watson: Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty
This kneeling female figure in painted terracotta was recovered from a burial
within the tomb complex of Emperor Jing at Yangling. Emperor Jing (r. 157–141
BC) was the grandson of Emperor Hui. Ht. 41 Wi. (shoulder) 11.5 cm Hanyan-
gling Museum
58
59
Eunuch
Earthenware 206 BC–AD 220 Ht. 57 Wi. (shoulder) 9.31 cm
Hanyangling Museum
Like many of Emperor Jing’s soldiers, this terracotta figure when
buried had arms (probably of wood) and wore textile clothing,
both of which had disintegrated. is figure is not a soldier, how-
ever, but one of the Emperor’s eunuchs, identified by his modified
genitals. Employment of eunuchs at court to serve the rulers and
especially their female companions was a continuous practice,
probably beginning during the Western Zhou period (1046–771
BC) and lasting to the end of the Qing dynasty (AD 1911). In
many historical periods, including the later Han dynasty, eunuchs
used their proximity to the emperors to undermine the power
of the administrative officials, thereby inevitably changing the
course of Chinese history.
is is the earliest archaeological evidence found so far dem-
onstrating the existence of eunuchs in the early Han dynasty.
Cavalry Figures
Earthenware 206 BC–AD 220 Ht. 58.3 Wi. 9.3 cm (left)
Ht. 56 cm (right) Ht. 8 cm (top)
Hanyangling Museum
Unlike earlier examples from the time of the First Emperor and
Emperor Gaozu of the Han dynasty, many thousands of cavalry
figures found within the tomb complex of Emperor Jing (r. 156–
140 BC) at Yangling originally had wooden arms and horses. e
painting on the terracotta figures was relatively well preserved,
retaining orange colour on the faces, bodies, and legs, while black
lines were drawn on the hair, eyebrows, and eyes. All Yangling ex-
amples wore military clothing, which was not preserved; the hair
of the warrior head (above centre) has clear textile impressions,
indicating a red textile headdress.
Ancient texts confirm that women served in the military,
even in Han dynasty cavalry units. e sex of these figures is deter-
mined mainly by their distinctive hairstyles; females have a bun at
the back (right), while males have a central part and short hair.
60
61
Female Figure
Earthenware 206 BC–AD 220 Ht. 63 Wi. (base) 25 cm
Hanyangling Museum
is female figure was unearthed from the same burial at Yangling
as the male figure (see page 60) and probably represents an at-
tendant to a noble lady. She is neatly dressed in fine multi-layered
robes, the outer ones with red borders similar to those on the
garment worn by the male. ese borders and the red waistband
contrast with her white robe with its flaring hem. Her hands hid-
den by full sleeves, she stands with relaxed knees and head tilted
modestly forward. She has a round, pretty face and pleasant ex-
pression, and long hair falls down her back, gathered into a knot
at the end.
Some actual Han dynasty garments have survived in a woman’s
burial near Changsha in former Chu state territory. ey confirm
the style seen here of a wrap-over robe worn on top of layered un-
dergarments, and indicate the rich textures and colouring of dress
at the time.
Male Figure
Earthenware 206 BC–AD 220 Ht. 63 Wi. (base) 23 cm
Hanyangling Museum
Found in an accompanying burial of Emperor Jing at the Yangling
tomb complex, this male figure was fully painted in soft colours.
Red is obvious along the borders of the double-layered white robe
he is wearing and seems to represent an embroidered or patterned
band. He wears a black headdress and a pair of boat-shaped shoes.
Under his left arm there is a thin slit for inserting a wood or
bamboo tablet, used for record keeping. With neat eyebrows
and moustache, the gentleman looks composed and deferential,
making him appear to be an assistant or advisory official to the
emperor or high-ranking administrators. With his hands clasped
inside his sleeves, he stands ready to report for assignment.
62
Goose
Earthenware 206 BC–AD 220 Ht. 22 Le. 38.5 Wi. 12 cm
Xi‘an Municipal Museum
Painted ceramic animal figures are very common in the Han
dynasty, mostly found as funerary goods in well-furnished Han
tombs. is small sculpture demonstrates the high level of artis-
tic craftsmanship available at the time for making even ordinary
objects. Incised lines with red paint vividly depict the characteris-
tics of this resting goose. A simple painted circle and two curved
lines delineate the bird’s head with its flat beak. On the body, a
painted spiral leads into rows of scale-like patterns outlined in
red, representing its feathers. Its wings reach toward its tail, which
is extended to steady the base. A hole in the top of its head sug-
gests that the sculpture could once have supported something,
perhaps a lamp. Its overall appearance indicates the bird may rep-
resent a wild swan goose (Anser cygnoides), native to this part of
the world.
Seals and Seal Impression
Clay (top left), Bronze (top right) 206 BC–AD 220 Ht. 0.57 Le. 0.91
Wi. 0.87 cm (right) Le. 3.8 Wi. 1.93 Dp. 1.38 cm (left)
Hanyangling Museum
e script on the seals and on the clay seal impression represents
the writing style lishu (clerk’s script), standardized after the First
Emperor’s unification. Before the invention of paper in the early
2nd century AD, official correspondence was written on bamboo
strips or silk, and sealed with finely processed clay.
e bronze seal on the right belonged to an official respon-
sible for duties in the Changle Palace, a place well known in his-
torical texts. e four recessed characters produced a raised im-
pression on sealing clay, like the example shown on the left. e
clay is well preserved, clearly showing the four characters Yangling
Lingyin (seal of Yangling Civic Official), referring to the official in
charge of administrative affairs in the satellite town near Emperor
Jing’s tomb complex. On the back of the clay is an impression of
bamboo strips, suggesting that the object was used for sealing an
official document written on a roll of bamboo strips.
64
65
Rooster and Hen
Earthenware 206 BC–AD 220 Ht. 15 Le. 15.5 cm (rooster)
Ht. 12 Le. 15 cm (hen)
Shaanxi Institute of Archaeology
Pit No. 13 at Yangling contained not only many dogs, but also
other domestic animals like sheep, goats, and pigs, some of them
also shown in the exhibition. Roosters and hens were also pres-
ent but found in extremely low numbers. However, for some rea-
son, their painted colours of red and yellow are better preserved
than those of other animals. Since all the chickens were originally
modelled on wooden legs that had decayed, the legs seen here are
modern replacements.
Dogs
Earthenware 206 BC–AD 220 Ht. 19.9 Le. 31.2 Wi. 8.5 cm (top)
Ht. 19.9 Le. 35 Wi. 9.2 cm (bottom)
Hanyangling Museum
Five dogs have been included in the exhibition out of 456 painted
examples recovered from Pit No. 13, one of many accompany-
ing burials within Emperor Jing’s tomb complex at Yangling. Two
types of dog are represented here, the first with a heavy head and
neck, longer legs and a hanging tail, and the second, a female,
with its tail curled up on its back.
Dogs are among the earliest domesticated animals in China,
where archaeological evidence for their domestication in central
China can be traced back 9,000 years. Besides being trained for
guarding and hunting, they were often living sacrifices used in rit-
uals and ancestor worship. In the First Emperor’s tomb complex,
no designated pits of terracotta dogs or other farmyard animals
have yet been found. Only horses and wild birds seem to have
been chosen for burial there.
66
67
Brazier
Earthenware 206 BC–AD 220 Ht. 8.3 Le. 24.6 Wi 17.6 cm
Shaanxi History Museum
People at the time called objects like this brazier mingqi, literally
“utensils for the afterlife.” In the Han dynasty, models of prac-
tical things used during life were commonly made for burial in the
multiple-chambered brick tombs, reflecting the desire for a peace-
ful and prosperous lifestyle to continue. Many images depicted on
tomb bricks also show that roasting over a fire was a popular cook-
ing method in ancient China, especially in the Han dynasty.
is brazier has four supports in the shape of bears. e sur-
face is modelled in relief with rings representing handles, and run-
ning animals. e bottom of the firebox is perforated for removal
of ashes, indicating use of a charcoal or wood fire. Most intriguing
is the representation of two skewers, with four cicadas on each.
Apparently, grilled cicada must already have been considered a
delicacy in Han times.
Tomb Gate
Stone 206 BC–AD 220 Le. 193.5 Wi. 35.5 Dp. 6 cm (top frame)
Le. 122.5 Wi. 31 Dp. 6 cm (left column) Le. 121 Wi. 32.5 Dp. 6 cm
(right column) Le. 113 Wi. 48.5 Dp. 4.5 cm (left door) Le. 113.5 Wi.
48.5 Dp. 4 cm (right door)
Shaanxi Institute of Archaeology
Han dynasty tombs of the wealthy were regularly constructed
using pictorial stones or bricks. At Shengmu Dabaodang in
northern Shaanxi province, archaeologists discovered a Han fam-
ily cemetery where many of the tombs had stones with painted
pictorial reliefs. e tomb gate in the exhibit consists of five stone
panels, comprising a horizontal lintel, two vertical side pieces,
and two doors.
Many scenes depicted represent the “three worlds” of indi-
vidual experience according to Chinese belief at the time: a heav-
enly realm, an actual lifetime, and an underground afterlife. On
the top, hunting scenes and a family procession with horses and
carriages suggest pleasures of this life continued in the afterlife.
Both side door frames have scenes of female dancers and a pair of
horses and carriages. On the doors with their images of large mask
and ring handles are glimpses of a heavenly paradise represented
by mythic creatures including auspicious red birds.
68 69
Fu Food Vessel
Bronze Western Zhou dynasty (1046–771 BC) Le. 29.5 Ht. 22
Wi. 24.7 cm
Bishop William C. White Collection
e style and decoration of this vessel suggest that it was cast at
about the same time as the lai ding with long inscription (see page
19). Like the ding, it was used for offering food to gods or ances-
tors. e inscription, cast on both the body and the lid, indicates
it was commissioned by a marquis of the Chen state as part of a
dowry gift to a relative.
Alliances between states and powerful families were com-
mon during Western Zhou, as China was broken up into numer-
ous states and principalities of different sizes. e state of Chen
was established by the Zhou royal family during this period, con-
trolling territory in today’s southeastern Henan province. In 568
BC, Chen became part of the powerful state of Chu in the south.
Chu in turn was conquered by the state of Qin in 223 BC, two
years before the First Emperor’s unification.
rom artIFacts
e collection of Chinese art in the Royal Ontario Museum is
one of the most comprehensive and diversified outside China.
Some of the best known and most informative objects from
more than 35,000 artifacts in the collection are now on display
in the Joey and Toby Tanenbaum Gallery of China, spanning
more than 10,000 years of Chinese history. Most objects in
the following pages have been selected from this gallery, giving
additional examples of art produced during the periods repre-
sented in the exhibition.
This pictorial hu wine vessel, with scenes including an archery competition,
banquet, prize giving, and a land and water battle, is similar in decoration to the
vessel exhibited (see page 30). Bronze with copper inlay. Warring States period
(481–221 BC) Ht. 33 Di. 22 cm Dr. Herman Herzog Levy Bequest Fund
70
71
Pendant
Jade Spring and Autumn period (771–481 BC) Le. 3.6 Wi. 3.6
Thickness 0.5 cm
Gift of Sir Robert Mond
is beautifully carved piece from a pendant set is a type com-
monly seen among jade ornaments from the Qin state. Shaped
like a vertical bow knot, it has decoration on one face only; the
other side remains plain. It is pierced at top and bottom by three
evenly spaced perforations running at an angle through to the
back. e decoration is divided into three zones; in the centre are
a few incised horizontal lines; above and below them, the stone
is pierced by symmetrically placed lines, the spaces between them
filled with a fine incised geometric design.
Jade ornaments were a valuable part of aristocratic costume
during Zhou times. e exhibition contains a number of jade
pendants that were recovered from burials of Qin dukes or nobles
(see page 23). is ROM jade pendant was likely worn by a no-
bleman (or noblewoman) of the Qin state.
Chariot Fittings
Bronze; pole fittings with silver inlay Warring States period (481–221 BC)
Le. 9.7 Di. 4.3 cm; Le. 8.8 Di. 4.3 cm (pole fittings) Le. 18.7 Wi. 3
Dp. 7.9 cm; Le. 19.2 Wi. 3 Dp. 8.1 cm (crossbow rests)
Bishop William C. White Collection
ese chariot fittings were among objects that came into the
ROM collection in the 1920s and 1930s. eir exact func-
tion was unknown before the discovery in 1978 of a half-sized
bronze chariot and covered carriage near the First Emperor’s tomb
mound. ose unique bronze vehicles are now permanently in-
stalled in China and thus do not travel.
Use of horse-drawn vehicles is known from the Shang dy-
nasty onward, appearing in China about 1200 BC. As they were
made almost entirely of perishable materials like wood and leather,
only the bronze fittings have survived. e First Emperor’s bronze
vehicles reveal that the ROM fittings at the bottom formed a pair
attached to the front of a chariot to support a crossbow. e oth-
ers (top) were part of a coupling device that slipped over the pole
of the vehicle’s parasol. ese decorative fittings reportedly came
from royal tombs of Eastern Zhou kings near Luoyang.
72
73
Tiger Tally
Bronze Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) Le. 15 cm
Sir Edmund Walker Collection
According to early texts, tallies in the form of tigers were used by
rulers during the Warring States period for issuing commands to
mobilize the army. is bronze tiger tally came into the ROM
collection in 1918, before any actual examples had yet been ex-
cavated in China. In 1973, the first archaeological find of bronze
tiger tallies was unearthed near Xi’an, with inscriptions that verify
their function. According to the inscriptions, a tiger tally had to
be presented in order to mobilize any force of more than 50 per-
sons. e ROM tiger tally, like those excavated, has two halves;
one half was given to a general in the field, the other half stayed
with the emperor. When the emperor sent a command, he had a
courier bring his half to the general. If the two halves fitted, the
general knew the order really came from the emperor.
Ridge Tile
Earthenware Warring States period (481–221 BC) Le. 90 Ht. 20
Wi. 30 cm
The George Crofts Collection
is very large roof ridge title was used on a grand royal palace
in the state of Yan, one of the six powerful rival states finally con-
quered by Qin before unification. Similar tiles have been discov-
ered from sites within the First Emperor’s tomb complex.
Trying to halt Qin’s chain of victories, the state of Yan
planned to kill the King of Qin, the future First Emperor. In 227
BC, an assassin was sent by Yan’s crown prince from their capital
Xiadu (where the ROM tile was collected) to Xianyang to meet
the King of Qin. ere he feigned submission by his state and
approached the king. As a famous stone relief of the 2nd century
AD shows, he failed in his mission when his dagger hit a column
instead of the king. e king is shown walking away unscathed,
wearing a long sword similar to one shown in the exhibition.
74
75
Lamp
Bronze Western Han dynasty (220 BC–AD 24) Ht. 43.3 cm
Dr. Herman Herzog Levy Bequest Fund
Lamps were common household utensils and are frequently found
at Han dynasty archaeological sites. One of the bronze lamps in
the exhibition was used in the famous Changle palace in the Han
capital Chang’an, just north of modern Xi’an. e ROM lamp is
in the form of a long-necked bird, possibly a wild goose, similar
to some of the bronze birds found in Pit K0007 in the First Em-
peror’s pleasure park. e bird stands on the back of a tortoise,
which represents the direction of north in Han cosmology. Its
wings and tail feathers are indicated with fine recessed lines. e
lamp consists of five parts: the body of the bird; its neck and head
holding the lid in its beak; a small, handled tray for burning oil;
and adjustable lampshades. e openwork grille on one of the
shades shows two entwined four-footed dragons.
Model of a Pigpen
Green-glazed earthenware Han dynasty (206 BC–AD 220) Ht. 16
Wi. 15.8 Dp. 16 cm
The George Crofts Collection
In ancient China it was believed that after death the “spirit-soul”
travelled to the land of the immortals, and individual existence con-
tinued with all the necessities and luxuries provided that had been
used in life. e First Emperor’s faith in an afterlife is exemplified
by his elaborate tomb structures and lavish burial goods, including
the terracotta soldiers and many other objects in the exhibition.
e belief that motivated the First Emperor in planning
his tomb complex persisted into the Han dynasty, though on
a more modest scale, and the emphasis shifted from warfare to
agriculture and food production. Models of domestic animals,
entertainers, workers, and buildings tell us a great deal about
life at the time. is model typically shows a pigpen below the
privy with its tile roof.
76
77
Director’s Signature Series
The Warrior Emperor and China’s Terracotta Army
TUESDAY, MAY 18
Motel to Mogul: Isadore Sharp
Isadore Sharp is the Founder, Chairman, and Chief Executive Officer
of Four Seasons Hotels and Resorts. He built his first hotel in 1961.
Four Seasons operates 83 hotels in 35 countries.
TUESDAY, JUNE 15
On Being a Celebrity in China: Mark Rowswell
Since his first appearance on Chinese television in 1988, Mark Row-
swell has been an extremely popular performer and on-air personality,
and a cultural ambassador between China and the West.
WEDNESDAY, JUNE 23
An Evening with Deepak Chopra
Deepak Chopra has written more than 56 books translated into over 35
languages. He is a Fellow of the American College of Physicians and a
member of the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists.
THURSDAY, OCTOBER 14
e Man Who Loved China
Simon Winchester is a journalist, broadcaster, and bestselling author
of 20 books, including the current New York Times bestseller e Man
Who Loved China, the remarkable story of Joseph Needham.
The Warrior Emperor and China’s Terracotta
Army Lecture Series
THURSDAY, JUNE 24
Building Up and Digging Down: New Archaeological Evidence
for the Construction of the Tomb Complex of the First Emperor
Dr. Chen Shen is the Bishop White Chair of East Asian Archaeology at
the ROM, and is the senior curator who developed the exhibition e
Warrior Emperor and China’s Terracotta Army.
TUESDAY, JULY 6
Law and War in the Making of the Chinese Empire
Robin D. S. Yates, James McGill Professor of History and East Asian
Studies, McGill University, is a specialist in Chinese history who
focuses on science and technology, law, and women.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 21
Newest Sources of Early Chinese History: Recently Discovered
Inscribed Bronze Vessels
Edward L. Shaughnessy is the Lorraine J. and Herrlee G. Creel
Distinguished Service Professor of Early China, Department of East
Asian Languages and Civilizations, University of Chicago.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 24
Before the Empire: New Light from Early Qin Archaeology
Li Feng is Associate Professor of Early Chinese History and Archaeol-
ogy, Department of East Asian Languages and Cultures, Columbia
University, and an expert in ancient Chinese bronzes and bronze
inscriptions.
An Evening with Deepak Chopra begins at 7 p.m.
and takes place at Convocation Hall,
31 King’s College Circle, University of Toronto.
Price: Ground Floor an d Rise Area $63,
1st Balcony $42, 2nd Balcony $26.25.
VIP tickets on the Ground Floor with a special reception
where Deepak Chopra will be present, $150.
All tickets for this event are only available at:
www.uofttix.ca or call 416-978-8849.
78
79
The Warrior Emperor and China’s Terracotta
Army Lecture Series Continued
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 28
Art, War, and the Aerlife: What Survives the Great Cataclysms
and Why?
Gary Geddes has written and edited more than 40 books and received
12 literary awards. His books Swimming Ginger and e Terracotta
Army are steeped in Asian culture.
TUESDAY, OCTOBER 19
State Power and Sovereignty: e Success of the First Emperor
Dr. Roberto Ciarla is a specialist in Far Eastern prehistoric and proto-
historic archaeology. He is the curator of the Far East section, National
Museum of Oriental Art, Rome.
THURSDAY, OCTOBER 21
Visualizing the Underground World as Conceived by the First
Emperor: Archaeological Implications
Dr. Duan Qingpo is Professor of Archaeology at Northwest University
in Xi’an, and has been the chief archaeologist investigating the First
Emperor’s tomb complex during the past two decades.
This lecture is in Mandarin with English translation.
THURSDAY, OCTOBER 28
New Light on Xanadu
British historian John Man specializes in Mongolia and north China. His
recent books include e Terracotta Army, e Great Wall, and Xanadu:
Marco Polo and Europe’s Discovery of the East.
THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 4
e Garden of Curious ings: Science and Technology in
China at the Time of the Terracotta Warriors
Professor Rick Guisso has taught the history of premodern China in the
Department of East Asian Studies, University of Toronto, for more than
30 years, serving two terms as Department Chair.
THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 11
Use and Abuse: e Qin Dynasty in Later Histories
Professor Michael Nylan is the author of seven books about Confucian
Classics and the archaeology and history of the classical era, two transla-
tions, and 50 articles.
WEDNESDAY, NOVEMBER 17
China’s Ancient Green Revolution
Archaeologist Gary Crawford, a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada
and member of the Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto,
specializes in environmental issues and the origins of agriculture.
THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 25
From Terracotta Army to Jade Suits: A Golden Age in
Chinese History
Carol Michaelson, a curator of Chinese art at the British Museum, is
also curating an upcoming exhibition of Qin and Han material at the
Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, Stockholm.
THURSDAY, DECEMBER 2
Battle for an Empire
Dr. Graham Sanders is an Associate Professor, Department of East Asian
Studies, University of Toronto. His most recent book, Words Well Put,
examines poetry as a persuasive form of discourse.
THURSDAY, DECEMBER 9
Writing Fiction About China as a Foreigner
Former theatre director David Rotenberg is now Artistic Director of e
Professional Actors Lab. His writing includes the Zhong Fong mystery
novels, Shanghai, and e Ivory Compact.
All lectures begin at 7 p.m. in the Signy and Cléophée
Eaton Theatre at the ROM.
Price per lecture: $28, ROM Members and students
$25. Choose any 4 lectures for $84, ROM Members and
students $75. All 14 lectures: $252, ROM Members and
students $225.
© 2010 Royal Ontario Museum
All rights reserved. No par t of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or data base, or transmitted, in any form or
by any means, without the prior written permission of the publishers, or in the case of photocopying or other reprographic copying, a license
from Access Copyright, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Royal Ontario Museum Press
100 Queen’s Park
Toronto, Ontario M5S 2C6
www.rom.on.ca
Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Shen, Chen, 1964–
The warrior emperor and China’s terracotta army / Chen Shen.
Published to accompany the exhibition of the same name opened at the Royal Ontario Museum in June 2010. Also published in French under
the title: L’empereur guerrier de Chine et son armée de terre cuite. Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 978-0-88854-478-0
1. Qin shi huang, Emperor of China, 259–210 B.C.—Tomb—Exhibitions.
2. Terra-cotta sculpture, Chinese—Qin-Han dynasties, 221 B.C.–220 A.D.—
Exhibitions. 3. Excavations (Archaeology)—China—Shaanxi Sheng—
Exhibitions. 4. Shaanxi Sheng (China)—Antiquities—Exhibitions. 5. Royal
Ontario Museum—Exhibitions. I. Royal Ontario Museum II. Title.
DS747.9.Q254S43 2010 931’.04 C2010-902722-1
Managing Editor: Glen Ellis; Research Editor: Barbara Stephen; Copy Editor: Caroline Kaiser; Designer: Tara Winterhalt
Cover photo: Infantry Soldier, Earthenware 221–206 BC, Ht. 189 cm, Emperor Qin Shihuang’s Terracotta Army Museum
Photography courtesy the Shaanxi Cultural Heritage Promotion Centre with the following exceptions—pages 4–5, 9, 11, 12, 14, 17, 40:
Brian Boyle, ROM. Care has been taken to trace the ownership of any copyright material contained in this text. The publishers welcome any
information that will enable them to rectify, in subsequent editions, any incorrect or omitted reference or credit.
Printed and bound in Canada by Transcontinental Interglobe, Beauceville East, Quebec
The Royal Ontario Museum is an agency of the Government of Ontario. [FSC logo]
