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One of the side effects of each electrical device work is the electromagnetic field generated near its workplace. All organisms, including humans, are exposed daily to the influence of different types of this field, characterized by various physical parameters. Therefore, it is important to accurately determine the effects of an electromagnetic field on the physiological and pathological processes occurring in cells, tissues, and organs. Numerous epidemiological and experimental data suggest that the extremely low frequency magnetic field generated by electrical transmission lines and electrically powered devices and the high frequencies electromagnetic radiation emitted by electronic devices have a potentially negative impact on the circadian system. On the other hand, several studies have found no influence of these fields on chronobiological parameters. According to the current state of knowledge, some previously proposed hypotheses, including one concerning the key role of melatonin secretion disruption in pathogenesis of electromagnetic field induced diseases, need to be revised. This paper reviews the data on the effect of electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic fields on melatonin and cortisol rhythms-two major markers of the circadian system as well as on sleep. It also provides the basic information about the nature, classification, parameters, and sources of these fields.
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Review Article
Influence of Electric, Magnetic, and Electromagnetic Fields on
the Circadian System: Current Stage of Knowledge
Bogdan Lewczuk,1Grzegorz Redlarski,2,3 Arkadiusz gak,2Natalia ZióBkowska,1
Barbara Przybylska-Gornowicz,1and Marek Krawczuk2
1Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury,
Oczapowskiego Street 13, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
2Department of Mechatronics and High Voltage Engineering, Gdansk University of Technology, Własna Strzecha Street 18A,
80-233 Gdansk, Poland
3Department of Electrical Engineering, Power Engineering, Electronics, and Control Engineering, University of Warmia and Mazury,
Oczapowskiego Street 11, 10-736 Olsztyn, Poland
Correspondence should be addressed to Bogdan Lewczuk; lewczukb@uwm.edu.pl
Received  April ; Revised  May ; Accepted  June ; Published  July 
Academic Editor: You-Lin Tain
Copyright ©  Bogdan Lewczuk et al. is is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly
cited.
One of the side eects of each electrical device work is the electromagnetic eld generated near its workplace. All organisms,
including humans, are exposed daily to the inuence of dierent types of this eld, characterized by various physical parameters.
erefore, it is important to accurately determine the eects of an electromagnetic eld on the physiological and pathological
processes occurring in cells, tissues, and organs. Numerous epidemiological and experimental data suggest that the extremely
low frequency magnetic eld generated by electrical transmission lines and electrically powered devices and the high frequencies
electromagnetic radiation emitted by electronic devices have a potentially negative impact on the circadian system. On the other
hand, several studies have found no inuence of these elds on chronobiological parameters. According to the current state of
knowledge, some previously proposed hypotheses, including one concerning the key role of melatonin secretion disruption in
pathogenesis of electromagnetic eld induced diseases, need to be revised. is paper reviews the data on the eect of electric,
magnetic, and electromagnetic elds on melatonin and cortisol rhythms—two major markers of the circadian system as well as on
sleep. It also provides the basic information about the nature, classication, parameters, and sources of these elds.
1. Introduction
One of the side eects of each electrical device work is the
electromagnetic eld generated near its workplace. All organ-
isms, including humans, are exposed daily to the inuence of
dierent types of this eld, characterized by distinct physical
parameters. erefore, it is important to accurately determine
the eects of electromagnetic eld on organisms. All elec-
trically powered devices and transmission lines generate the
low frequency (usually  or  Hz) eld, which has a quasi-
stationary character and its two components—the electric
and magnetic eld—can be analysed separately. is eld
is considered as having a potentially negative impact on
organisms, although the mechanism of its biological action
remains unknown. On the other hand, electronic devices,
such as mobile phones, television sets or radio transmitters,
emit electromagnetic radiation with high frequencies (from
 MHz to  GHz). High energy radiation of this type
causes a thermal eect that may increase the temperature of
tissues and organs and also cause serious damage to cells. e
international agency for research on cancer (IARC) in 
classied the extremely low frequency magnetic eld gener-
ated by electrical devices as possibly carcinogenic to humans
[]. In , the radio frequencies of electromagnetic elds
were qualied by IARC and WHO as possibly increasing the
risk of malignant brain tumour development [].
e visible part of electromagnetic radiation, with a rela-
tively narrow frequency band from  to  THz, plays
Hindawi Publishing Corporation
BioMed Research International
Volume 2014, Article ID 169459, 13 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/169459
BioMed Research International
a key role in the regulation of the diurnal rhythms by having
inuence on the activity of the suprachiasmatic nucleus via
melanopsin-positive ganglion cells of the retina []. However,
several reports have provided evidence that electric and
magnetic elds also inuence the circadian system. It has
been suggested that a deciency in melatonin secretion
may be responsible for the oncogenic action of the electro-
magnetic eld [].
eaimofthepaperwastoreviewthedataontheeects
of electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic elds on melatonin
and cortisol rhythms, two major markers of the circadian
system as well as on sleep. We also included information on
the nature, physical parameters, classication, and sources of
elds, which may be useful for biologists and medical doctors.
2. Nature of Electric, Magnetic, and
Electromagnetic Forces
In physical sciences, the electromagnetic eld is the state
of space characterised by electrodynamic nature of forces
acting on electrically charged objects. In that context, the
electromagnetic eld can be thought of as consisting of two
independent components []:
(i) electric—represented by a state of space, known as an
electric eld, in which Coulomb forces act on station-
ary electrically charged objects,
(ii) magnetic—represented by a state of space, known
as a magnetic eld, in which Lorenz forces act on
nonstationary (moving) electrically charged objects
(representing electric currents).
It may be interesting to note that according to the special
theory of relativity, electric and magnetic elds are two
aspects of the same phenomenon depending on a chosen
reference frame of observation—an electrical eld in one
reference frame may be perceived as a magnetic eld in a dif-
ferent reference frame.
Within the range of their inuence, the electromagnetic
elds may aect physical objects, including living organisms.
e eects of this inuence depend on many factors. Among
these, the most important are []
(i) eld intensity—in the case of the electric eld, its
intensity 𝐸is expressed in volts per metre (V/m),
whileinthecaseofthemagneticeld(MF)itsintensi-
ty 𝐻is expressed in amperes per metre (A/m),
(ii) distance 𝑅from an object expressed in metres (m),
(iii) frequency 𝑓of radiated energy—in the case of time
dependent elds it is expressed in hertz (Hz), while
for time independent elds their frequency 𝑓equals
,
(iv) surface power density 𝑃(specic power) representing
the intensity of radiated energy (power) with the area
throughout this energy being radiated, expressed in
watts per square metre (W/m2).
It is worth mentioning at this point that the intensity of
amagneticeld𝐻is expressed in amperes per metre (A/m)
according to the SI standards. However, in the literature and
scientic practice, very oen, the induction of a magnetic
eld 𝐵is used instead, which is expressed in tesla (T). ese
quantities—𝐻and 𝐵—are interrelated through the medium
magnetic permeability 𝜇.
3. Electromagnetic Fields in the Habitat of
Living Organisms
Electromagnetic radiation and elds have been accompa-
nying living organisms since the dawn of life on Earth.
However, their current intensity and omnipresence should
be attributed, rst of all, to human activity—technological
advances in modern engineering related to the development
and practical use of electrical power transmission systems,
electrical equipment, and telecommunications.
e sources of electromagnetic radiation and elds can
be divided into natural and nonnatural ones. e natural
sources include celestial bodies such as stars and magnetars,
Earth and biological processes involving the ow of electrical
impulses in living organisms (Figure ). e electromagnetic
radiation that reaches the Earths surface from space as
microwave background radiation is a consequence of the
big bang and the evolution of the universe in the very rst
seconds of its existence. is type of radiation is characterised
by its thermal energy distribution as the most perfect black
body in nature and has a nearly ideal Planck spectrum at a
temperature around . K, while the maximum of its surface
power density corresponds to the wavelength of  GHz [].
e solar radiation that reaches the Earths surface has rela-
tively small surface power density around 𝜇W/m2[]and
comprised of distinctive frequency bands, so-called atmo-
spheric windows, representing those frequency bands that are
not absorbed by the Earth atmosphere. ey can be listed as
(i) radio window—represented by electromagnetic
wavelengths starting from  MHz up to  GHz,
(ii) optical window—represented by electromagnetic
wavelengths starting from  THz up to  THz,
(iii) microwave window—represented by electromagnetic
wavelengths starting from . THz up to . THz.
e magnetic eld of Earth is another natural eld originating
from the planet core that extends to a vast space surrounding
Earth, known as the magnetosphere. An important source
of strong electromagnetic elds is atmospheric discharges,
known as lightning. Rapid radiation releases, which accom-
pany these natural phenomena, are characterised by high
power densities and high frequencies. In living organisms,
electromagnetic elds originate from the transmission
ofsignalsinthenervoussystemandfromstructures
autonomously generating electrical impulses (like the heart).
e history of nonnatural sources of electromagnetic
radiation and elds is relatively short and covers only the
last hundred years. Nonnatural sources of electromagnetic
radiationoreldsareattributedtotwogroups.erstgroup
includes ionising radiation, characterised by a relatively high
energy that may result in the ionisation of matter particles.
e presence of this kind of radiation has primarily natural
BioMed Research International
T : A list of various sources of electromagnetic elds/radiation inuencing living organisms [].
Level Frequency range Radiation source
Static  Hz Earth, video screens, magnetic resonance imaging, and other
diagnostic/scientic equipment, electrolysis, welding
Extremelylowfrequencyelds Hz Power transmission lines, home wiring, car electric engines, electric
trains and trams, welding devices
Intermediate f requency  Hz– kHz
Video screens, antithe devices used in cars, homes, shops, card
readers, metal detectors, magnetic resonance imaging, welding
devices
Radio f requency  kHz– GHz Radio, television, mobile phones, microwave ovens, radar and radio
transmitters, magnetic resonance imaging
Background (2.7K)
3𝜇W·m−2 E
t
40 𝜇s
300 K
Earth (1.3 mW·m−2)
1V·m−1 ÷10kV·m−1
F : Natural radiation sources present on Earth (based on []).
reasons (the statistical annual exposure dose is around
. mSv). However, nonnatural sources of ionising radiation,
such as technical devices, in which various radioactive
isotopesareused,arecurrentlyconsideredtobethemost
importantproblemsinpublichealthprotection.esecond
group comprises nonionising radiation of energy, which is
too low to ionise matter particles. e common sources of this
kind of radiation are all means used for electrical power pro-
duction, transmission, and utilisation (high-voltage power
lines, substations, motors, generators, industrial and domes-
tic appliances, home wiring, etc.). Very important sources
of electromagnetic radiation include telecommunication sys-
tems (radio, television, internet, and Wi-Fi) as well as medical
devices used for diagnosis or therapy.
According to the European Commission, nonionizing
radiation can be divided into several levels []:
(i) static elds,
(ii) extremely low frequency elds (ELF elds),
(iii) intermediate frequency elds (IF elds),
(iv) radio frequency elds (RF elds).
In order to illustrate the authors’ considerations, typical sour-
ces of electromagnetic elds/radiation inuencing living
organisms and mentioned above are listed and described in
Table .
4. Effects of Electric, Magnetic, and
Electromagnetic Fields on the Diurnal
Rhythm of Melatonin Secretion
Melatonin is the main hormone of the circadian timing
system in all vertebrates including the human []. e diurnal
rhythm of its secretion in the mammalian pineal gland is
driven by the suprachiasmatic nucleus—the central endoge-
nous oscillator, directly connected with the retina [].
Under physiological condition, the regulatory mechanisms
ensure that this rhythm is properly entrained to the light-
dark cycle and, therefore, the elevated night-time melatonin
secretion can serve for all cells of the body as a clock and a
calendar [,,]. Melatonin plays a key role in the control
of many physiological processes occurring in daily or season-
al rhythms, like sleep, metabolism, and reproduction [].
Moreover, melatonin is also involved in the regulation of
immune system [], cardiovascular system [], and cancer
development [,,]. It is also a very potent free radical
scavenger [].
Itisworthtonotethatthelevelofmelatoninsecretion
diers markedly between individuals, in both humans [,]
and animals [,].Basedonurinarymelatoninmeasure-
ments, the human population could be divided into low and
high melatonin excretors [,]. e study on the sheep
demonstrated that interindividual variability in a plasma
melatonin level is under strong genetic control and it is related
to the pineal gland weight and melatonin secretion, but not to
the hormone catabolism []. e individual diurnal proles
of plasma melatonin are highly repeatable on consecutive
days, weeks, and months, in both humans and animals [,
]. e level of nocturnal melatonin secretion decreases with
age [].
Several factors, like light pollution during night or mov-
ing across time zones, may lead to the disruption of the
melatonin secretion rhythm and circadian disorganization,
which undoubtedly has a negative impact on various aspects
of health [,,,,].
e melatonin secretion by the pineal gland is generally
regarded as particularly sensitive to electric, magnetic, and
electromagnetic eld inuences. e eects of these elds on
BioMed Research International
pineal activity have been analyzed in epidemiological studies
[] and experimental investigations carried out using
dierent in vivo []andin vitro models [].
4.1. Epidemiological Studies. e epidemiological studies
provided interesting and very important data on the inuence
of electromagnetic elds on melatonin and its metabolite—
-sulfatoxymelatonin—in humans. Many of these investiga-
tions concerned the eects of an extremely low frequency
magnetic eld (ELF-MF), which is generated by outdoor
high- and medium-voltage electricity power lines, indoor
electrical power supply, and electrical appliances [].
e relations between exposure to the magnetic elds
with a frequency of . Hz and human health have been
intensively studied in railway workers [,,]. Puger
and Minder [] compared, using a repeated measures
design, the urinary excretion of -sulfatoxymelatonin in 
male Swiss railway workers between leisure periods and days
following the start of service on electrically powered engines
or doing other tasks. e study demonstrated that the urinary
excretion of -sulfatoxymelatonin was lower on work days
than leisure days among engine drivers exposed to a . Hz
magnetic eld with an average strength of 𝜇T, b u t n o t
among other workers. It should be noted that epidemiolog-
ical studies of Swiss railway workers demonstrated signi-
cantly increased (.% per 𝜇T-year of cumulative exposure)
leukemia mortality []. e statistical data also suggest a
link between occupational exposition to a magnetic eld with
a frequency of . Hz and the risk of Alzheimer’s disease
[].
Humans are widely exposed to magnetic elds with a
frequencyofHz(inEurope)orHz(inNorthAmer-
ica) generated by the electrical power supply and electrical
devices, commonly used in homes and workplaces. e
decreased excretion of -sulfatoxymelatonin in urine was
observed in electrical utility workers, who were exposed to
magneticeldswithafrequencyofHz[]. Signicant
changes were noted aer the second day of the working week
and the eect of the magnetic eld exposition was the most
prominent in subjects with low workplace light exposures
[]. Further, it was demonstrated that a decrease in excretion
of -sulfatoxymelatonin occurred in workers exposed for
more than two hours and in a -phase environment []. No
change was found in people working in a -phase environ-
ment. A weak eect of occupational exposure to low-intensity
magnetic eld on -sulfatoxymelatonin excretion was also
observed in female workers [].
Davis et al. [] suggested that domestic exposure to a
 Hz magnetic eld decreased pineal activity in women,
primarily those using medications. e level of -sulfatox-
ymelatonin excretion was lower in infants kept in incubators
and rose when they were moved to a place free from electrical
devices []. e analysis performed by Juutilainen and
Kumlin [] suggests that exposure to a magnetic eld with
a frequency of  Hz may enhance the eects of night-time
light exposure on melatonin production; however, the study
was performed on a relatively small group of subjects.
It should be underlined that a moderate number of epi-
demiological studies showed no eect of the exposure to
ELF-MF on melatonin secretion []. Gobba et al. []
noted similar levels of -sulfatoxymelatonin excretion in two
groups of workers exposed to elds . 𝜇Tand>. 𝜇T. N o
association between residential exposure to a  Hz magnetic
eld and -sulfatoxymelatonin excretion was observed in
adults aged – years []. Touitou et al. []showedthat
the long-term exposure to ELF-MF did not change the level
and diurnal secretion of melatonin. ese data suggest that
magnetic elds do not have cumulative eects on melatonin
secretion in humans.
In contrast to ELF-MF, much less attention has been
paid in epidemiological studies to the eects of interme-
diate frequency range ( Hz to < MHz) and radio fre-
quencyrange(MHztoGHz)electromagneticelds.
No changes in urinary -sulfatoxymelatonin excretion were
found in women residing near radio and television broad-
casting transmitters []. e use of a mobile phone for
more than  minutes a day decreased the level of melatonin
secretion []. Broadcast transmitters with short-wave elec-
tromagnetic elds (– MHz) reduced melatonin secretion
by % []. A study carried out on  electronic equipment
service technicians, exposed to dierent kinds of elds, found
signicantly decreased levels of serum melatonin compared
to the control group [].
4.2. Experimental Studies on Volunteers. In contrast to the
epidemiological studies, the majority of investigations per-
formed on volunteers found no eect of ELF-MF on mela-
tonin or/and -sulfatoxymelatonin levels []. In a study
by Warman et al. [], -hour-long exposure to a  Hz eld at
an intensity of – 𝜇T did not induce signicant changes
in the nocturnal melatonin rise. Similarly, the exposure of
volunteersforonenighttoHzeldatanintensityof𝜇T
had no eect on plasma melatonin level []. Selmaoui et al.
[] demonstrated that nocturnal acute exposure to either
continuous or intermittent  Hz linearly polarized magnetic
elds of  𝜇T does not aect melatonin secretion in humans.
In a series of experiments performed by Graham et al. [
], the nocturnal secretion and metabolism of melatonin
were not altered in humans by the exposure to ELF-MF at
intensities within the occupational-exposure range for one or
more nights. No changes in salivary melatonin were found
aer exposing volunteers to a .Hz electromagnetic eld
[,]. In contrast to the data presented above, Davis et al.
[] demonstrated that the exposure to a magnetic eld of .
to  𝜇T greater than the ambient levels for  consecutive nights
reduced the excretion of -sulfatoxymelatonin in women.
4.3. Experimental Studies on Animals. e majority of in vivo
experiments concerning the inuence of magnetic eld expo-
sure on pineal activity have been conducted on laboratory
rodents [].
Highly variable results were obtained in the studies on
the eects of ELF-MF. e continuous exposition of Spra-
gue-Dawley rats to a  𝜇THzmagneticeldfor
days decreased the blood melatonin level []. However,
BioMed Research International
another study from the same group failed to demonstrate a
consistenteectofa𝜇T  Hz magnetic eld exposure
on melatonin levels in rats, as a decline or no changes were
observed [].Adecreaseinthepinealactivityinresponse
to ELF-MF was also noted in several other experiments
performed on laboratory rats []andDjungarianham-
sters [,]. On the other hand, an increased excretion of
-sulfatoxymelatonin was observed in Sprague-Dawley rats
exposed to a magnetic eld with a frequency of  Hz and an
intensity of  𝜇Tforhours[]. Similarly, Dyche et al.
[] demonstrated that male rats, exposed to the  𝜇T
magnetic eld for  month, have a slightly elevated excretion
of -sulfatoxymelatonin. Increased melatonin secretion aer
exposure to a weak magnetic eld was also reported in the
Djungarian hamster by Niehaus et al. []. In other studies
performed on rats and hamsters, no changes in melatonin
secretion were observed in response to a magnetic eld
with a frequency of / Hz []. e lack of inuence
of ELF-MF on pineal activity was also reported for mice
[].
Studies on rodents have provided interesting data con-
cerning the eect of radio frequency range of electromagnetic
eld on pineal activity. e exposure of rats to an electromag-
netic eld of  MHz frequency and a specic adsorption of
. Wkg−1 (mobile phone) lasting  hours a day and repeated
fordaysresultedinastatisticallysignicantdecreasein
pineal melatonin content []. Moreover, a eld of  MHz
frequency and a power of  Wcm−2 ( hours per day for
 days; . Wkg−1) disturbed the rhythm of melatonin
secretion in rats []. However, in another experiment, the
animals were subjected to a similar eld for  minutes a
day,  days a week for  weeks and no changes in the level of
melatonininratserumwerenoted[]. Similarly, the expo-
sure of Djungarian hamsters to an electromagnetic eld with
frequencies of , , and  MHz ( m Wkg−1)for
days ( hours a day) did not result in alternations of the
melatonin secretion [].
Studies on the eects of electric and magnetic elds on
nonrodent species have been conducted only occasionally
[]. e exposure of dairy cattle to a vertical electric eld
of  kV/m and a uniform horizontal magnetic eld of 𝜇T
for  days did not change the nocturnal blood melatonin
level []. Similarly, no changes in melatonin secretion were
observed in other experiments performed on dairy cows
[,]andonlambs[,]. e studies of American
kestrels reveled that a long-term exposure to electromagnetic
elds ( Hz,  𝜇T,  kV m−1)causedchangesinmelatonin
secretion []. e magnetic eld increased the level of mela-
tonininthepinealglandandbloodserumoftroutduringthe
night [].
4.4. In Vitro Studies. In vitro studies concerning the eect
of electromagnetic elds on melatonin secretion were con-
ducted on the pineal glands of Djungarian hamsters [,]
and rats []. e results of experiments with hamster
pineals in the superfusion organ culture demonstrated that
ELF-MF with an intensity of  𝜇Tandafrequencyof
. or  Hz caused a decrease in melatonin secretion,
activated by isoproterenol []. A reduction in isoproterenol-
stimulated melatonin secretion and activity of arylalkylamine
N-acetyltransferase has also been found in studies of rat
pinealocytes aer exposure to ELF-MF [,]. On the con-
trary, Lewy et al. [] noted increased activity of melatonin-
synthetizing enzymes, while Tripp et al. [] found no
changesinmelatoninsecretioninratpinealocytesinresponse
to ELF-MF.
e eect of exposure to an electromagnetic eld with
afrequencyofMHzonmelatoninsecretionfromthe
Djungarian hamster pineal gland was investigated []
in the same experimental setup which had been used in
experiments with ELF-MF []. is study demonstrated that
both continuous and pulse signals at a specic adsorption
level of  mWkg−1, lasting seven hours, increased the level
of isoproterenol-stimulated melatonin secretion [].
5. Effects of Electric, Magnetic, and
Electromagnetic Fields on the Diurnal
Rhythm of Cortisol Secretion
Cortisol is an essential steroid hormone produced by the
adrenalgland.Likemelatonin,itexhibitsaconstantand
reproducible diurnal rhythm under physiological conditions
[]. Debono et al. []inastudyofhealthyindi-
viduals with -minute-interval cortisol proling over 
hours showed that the cortisol concentration reached the
lowest levels at around midnight. It then started to rise at
:–: and the peak occurred at around :. Next, the
cortisol level slowly decreased back to the nadir. e peak cor-
tisol level in the human blood was approximately  nmol/L,
while the nadir cortisol level was < nmol/L. Like many
other physiological processes in the body occurring in daily
cycles, the rhythm of cortisol secretion is regulated by the
suprachiasmatic nucleus, located in the hypothalamus.
Cortisol governs hunger and appetite, stress, inam-
matory response, and many other functions []. e
importance of cortisol is especially evident when it becomes
decient in a state known as adrenal insuciency []. It
has been suggested that cortisol acts as a secondary messen-
ger between central and peripheral clocks and may be an
important factor in the synchronization of body circadian
rhythms []. Alterations in the rhythmic production and
level of the cortisol lead to signicant adverse eects [,
]. Children with autism frequently show a large variation
in day-time patterns of cortisol and signicant elevations
in salivary cortisol in response to a nonsocial stressor
[].
Both people and animals live in environments with elec-
tromagnetic elds of dierent origins. ey are exposed to
electromagnetic eld of natural origin, like the magnetic
force of Earth and articial origins, which results from
human activities. Variations in the Earths magnetic eld are
consequential to all living beings of the planet. In addition,
electric and magnetic elds, which exist wherever electricity
is generated or transmitted, seem to be very important to
exposed organisms.
BioMed Research International
5.1. Experimental Studies on Animals. e results of studies
on the eects of electromagnetic eld on the secretion of
cortisol in animals are very diverse. In Guinea pigs, ELF-
MF caused changes in cortisol levels, which depended on
the eld frequency and intensity []. Exposure of animals
for h and  h per day, over a period of  days, to a eld of
 Hz and . 𝜇T showed a signicant decrease in cortisol
levels []. However, in the groups subjected to a eld of
Hz and .𝜇T, no si g ni ca n t c h ang e s i n co r ti s ol w e re
observed aer  h or  h of exposure []. In Swiss mice
continuously exposed to a low frequency ( Hz) eld for 
days, a decrease in cortisol value was observed on day  of
the experiment []. No signicant dierences were noted
on days  and  of the exposure []. An increase in the
cortisol level was observed in rats exposed to uniform mag-
netic elds of −3 Tand
−2 T,  hou r e ac h d a y for a p e ri o d
of ten days []. e exposure of female hamsters to mobile
phones working at  MHz for short ( days,  h daily) and
long ( days,  h daily) periods caused a signicant increase
in cortisol in comparison with the control group [].
A lack of electromagnetic eld eect on cortisol concen-
tration was also reported. Burchard et al. []showedno
variation in cortisol concentration, which could be attributed
to the exposure of dairy cows to electric and magnetic elds
(vertical electric eld  kV and horizontal magnetic eld
ofmT).Inewelambs,noeectoftheexpositiontoa
 Hz magnetic eld for  weeks on serum cortisol was
also reported []. A lack of electromagnetic eld eect
on corticosterone concentration, irrespective of the exposure
characteristics and period, was also found in experiments on
rats [,].
5.2. Studies in Humans. e studies concerning the inuence
of the Earth’s magnetic force on the human body demon-
strated that the serum cortisol values were dependent on
the direction of the head during sleep in relation to the
North and South Magnetic Poles []. e biological eect
of exposure to man-made electromagnetic elds on humans
wasthesubjectofseveralstudies[]. Dentistry is one
of the job categories with high exposure to elevated levels
of ELF-MF. Exposure of dentists to the elds emitted by
cavitrons caused a decrease in the serum cortisol level in
comparison with a control group []. Low frequency mag-
netic elds are applied in physiotherapy (magnetotherapy and
magnetostimulation). Studies of the long-term application of
these procedures suggest a regulating inuence of magnetic
elds on cortisol concentration []. However, it should
be stressed that numerous studies found no eect of the
magnetic elds / Hz (– 𝜇T) and the radio frequency
electromagnetic elds on a level of cortisol, irrespective of the
experiment time, age, or sex of individuals or sampling time
[].
6. Effects of Electric, Magnetic, and
Electromagnetic Fields on Sleep
e diurnal rhythms are generated by an internal biological
clock system that is synchronized to a -hour day by
environmental factors, primarily the light-dark cycle. Many
rhythms are overt and easy to recognize, such as the sleep-
wake cycle, locomotor activity, and feeding behavior.
e sleep-wake cycle is likely the primary output rhythm
of the circadian clock, because the regulation of many
behavior and physiological activities depends on whether
the organism is asleep or awake. Sleep disorders—frequently
occurring clinical symptoms—have been hypothesized to be
partially related to electromagnetic eld exposure. In recent
years, there has been an increasing amount of experimental
and epidemiological data on the inuence of nonionizing
electromagnetic elds on brain physiology and sleep [,
].
Sleep is an endogenous, self-sustained cerebral process.
It is possible to measure dened and distinguishable phases
of sleep. e low frequency activity (< Hz) and the sleep
spindle frequency activity (approximately – Hz) are two
silent features of nonrapid eye movement (NREM) sleep that
canbequantiedandusedasmarkersofsleepregulating
processes []. Several experiments have shown that elec-
troencephalographic (EEG) spectral power in the alpha (–
 Hz) and spindle (– Hz) frequencies is enhanced both
during and following pulsed-modulated radio frequency eld
exposure [].Recently,anincreaseindeltapower
(<. Hz) has also been observed []. Mann and R¨
oschke
[] reported a reduction of rapid eye movement (REM)
sleep and changes in spectral power of EEG during REM
sleepinresponsetoahighfrequencyelectromagneticeld
emitted by digital mobile radio telephones. Regel et al. []
performed a study on the inuence of radio frequency
electromagnetic eld exposure by varying the signal intensity
in three experimental sessions. e analysis of the sleep
EEG revealed a dose-dependent increase of power in the
spindle frequency range in NREM sleep. is provided the
rst indications of a dose-dependent relation between the
eld intensity and its eect on brain physiology. Huber et al.
[] also demonstrated a power increase in the fast spindle
frequency range of EEG during pulse-modulating radio fre-
quency eld exposure but not in a dose-dependent manner. It
should be also stressed that many studies [,] failed
to show any eects of the radio frequency eld exposure on
sleep or sleep EEG.
Despite several reports showing an inuence of pulsed-
modulated radio frequency electromagnetic eld on sleep
EEG, the mechanism behind these exposure-induced chan-
ges is still unclear. Additionally, there is no supporting evi-
dence that this eect is related to health consequences such
as alterations in sleep quality [,].
To date, there have been few controlled laboratory studies
on sleep EEG under low frequency electric and magnetic
elds. ˚
Akerstedtetal.[] carried out a double-blind, pla-
cebo-controlled study on  healthy subjects to examine
the eects of a  Hz magnetic eld on sleep. e results
showed that sleep eciency, slow wave sleep, and slow
activity as well as subjective depth of sleep were signicantly
reduced under ELF-MF exposure. Although these results
suggest an interference of the low frequency eld, the authors
emphasize that these alterations are still within a normal
range. In a double-blind laboratory study, Graham et al. []
BioMed Research International
investigated the eect of a Hz magnetic eld on sleep
during continuous, intermittent, or sham exposures. ey
demonstrated that intermittent exposure resulted in clear
distortion of sleep and altered sleep architecture compared
to sham conditions and continuous exposure. It should be
emphasized that eld strengths in both cited studies [,]
were below those used for medical diagnostic purposes such
as magnetic resonance imaging.
e analysis of epidemiological data concerning the sleep
quality and melatonin cycle, collected during ten years in
the area surrounding a short-wave (– MHz) broadcasting
station, provided the evidence that electromagnetic eld
exposure only aects poor sleepers and that might be a
group of people who are sensitive to such exposure []. is
phenomenon has been described as electromagnetic hyper-
sensitivity, EHS. It was also observed in several other reports
[,].
Although a biological explanation for an association
between exposure to radio frequency electromagnetic eld
and impaired sleep quality has not been identied, it is
hypothesized that the suppression of night-time melatonin
secretion may be involved in this process []. Two relatively
recent studies suggest an association between the decreased
secretion of melatonin during the night and increasing use
of mobile phones emitting a radio frequency eld [,].
However, four cross-over trials [,,,]havefound
no correlation between the exposure to mobile phone handset
andthemelatoninsecretion.ehypothesisofanassociation
between melatonin cycle and electromagnetic eld exposure
requires further investigation [].
7. Conclusions
e results of studies on the eects of electric, magnetic, and
electromagnetic elds on melatonin and cortisol secretion
as well as on sleep are largely contradictory. e adverse
data related to the inuence of these physical factors on
secretion of both “circadian” hormones were obtained in
all groups of investigations including the epidemiological
studies, the studies on volunteers, and the studies on animals.
Moreover, in vitro investigations on rodent pineals have also
brought inconsistent results. e sources of discrepancies
remain unknown; however such factors as an inappropri-
ate estimation of exposure level, interferences with other
factors like light and medication, dierences in a phase of
the circadian rhythm during exposure, and interindividual
variability in the sensitivity to electromagnetic elds seem
to be particularly worth of attention. e idea that some
individuals are more sensitive to the electromagnetic eld
than others, due to genetic background or/and current health
status, appears very attractive and should be a subject of
further studies. It is worth to note that inconsistent results
have been also obtained in the studies dealing with other
eects of electrical, magnetic, and electromagnetic elds on
organism, including their tumor-promoting action [].
Despite divergences in the reported results, ELF-MF and
radio frequency electromagnetic eld have to be considered
as factors possibly inuencing the circadian system function,
because a substantial number of studies demonstrated the
changes in melatonin and cortisol secretion as well as in sleep
aer exposition to these elds. Due to widespread exposure
of humans and animals to ELF-MF and radio frequency
electromagnetic eld, the studies on their biological eects
should be continued. An important and still unsolved issue is
relationships between physical characteristics and biological
eects of the elds as well as the mechanisms of eld action
on the circadian system.
In light of the existing literature, the hypothesis pointing
to the disruption of melatonin secretion, as one of the main
factors responsible for cancerogenic eects of electrical, mag-
netic, or electromagnetic elds [,], is not supported
by the epidemiological and experimental data. erefore, it
should be currently considered as negatively veried.
Conflict of Interests
e authors declare that there is no conict of interests
regarding the publication of this paper.
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... Melatonin has been shown to be very helpful in the treatment of neurological disorders such as Parkinsonism, Alzheimer's disease, cerebral edema and traumatic brain injury, depression, cerebral ischemia, hyperhomocysteinuria and phenylketonuria and has a complementary effect in the treatment of glioma. Melatonin has been shown to inhibit amyloidosis [9,13,23]. ...
... Numerous epidemiological and experimental data suggest that extremely low-frequency magnetic fields generated by power lines and electricity-powered devices, as well as high-frequency electromagnetic radiation emitted by electronic devices, have a potentially negative impact on the circadian cycle. According to the European Commission, non-ionizing radiation can be divided into several levels [23]: ...
... The restoration of the geomagnetic field (GMF) reverses the deleterious decrease in ROS forms. GMF plays an important role in neurogenesis in adult hippocampus by maintaining adequate levels of endogenous ROS [23] Maintenance of adequate ROS levels by GMF is required for normal adult hippocampal neurogenesis and function [25]. ...
Article
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Melatonin is a relic, due to its millions-of-years-old presence in chemical reactions, found in evolutionarily diverse organisms. It has a multidirectional biological function. It controls diurnal rhythms, redox homeostasis, intestinal motor functions, mitochondrial biogenesis and fetal development and has antioxidant effects. It also has analgesic and therapeutic effects. The purpose of this paper is to describe the role of melatonin in vital processes occurring in interaction with the environment, with particular reference to various magnetic fields ubiquitous in the life of animate matter, especially radio frequency/extra low frequency (RF/ELF EMF) and static magnetic fields. The most important part of this article is to describe the potential effects of magnetic fields on melatonin secretion and the resulting possible health effects. Melatonin in some cases positively amplifies the electromagnetic signal, intensifying health effects, such as neurogenesis, analgesic effects or lowering blood pressure. In other cases, it is a stimulus that inhibits the processes of destruction and aggravation of lesions. Sometimes, however, in contrast to the beneficial effects of electromagnetic fields in therapy, they intensify pathogenic effects, as in multiple sclerosis by intensifying the inflammatory process.
... Piezoelectricity was discovered by Pierre Curie in 1880 when conducting pressure studies using quartz. 'Piezo' in Greek means pressure, and piezoelectricity is a well-known phenomenon utilized in medicine (ultrasound, tissue regeneration), electronics (including power harvesting), and in dipole induction in crystals (Quartz, Rocelle salts, barium titanate, etc.) [8][9][10][11][12][13]. Regardless of the form of the bone: fresh (Ca 5 (PO 4 ) 3 OH), dry (Ca 3 Na(PO 4 ) 3, or ash (Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 3 ), it maintains its piezoelectric properties -the 'pressure' resulting from either the weight of the soil from being buried or the weight of the bone lying on a surface. ...
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Free radicals generated within subcellular compartments damage macromolecules which lead to severe structural changes and functional alterations of cellular organelles. A manifestation of free radical injury to biological membranes is the process of lipid peroxidation, an autooxidative chain reaction in which polyunsaturated fatty acids in the membrane are the substrate. There is considerable evidence that damage to polyunsaturated fatty acids tends to reduce membrane fluidity. However, adequate levels of fluidity are essential for the proper functioning of biological membranes. Thus, there is considerable interest in antioxidant molecules which are able to stabilize membranes because of their protective effects against lipid peroxidation. Melatonin is an indoleamine that modulates a wide variety of endocrine, neural and immune functions. Over the last two decades, intensive research has proven this molecule, as well as its metabolites, to possess substantial antioxidant activity. In addition to their ability to scavenge several reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, melatonin increases the activity of the glutathione redox enzymes, i.e., glutathione peroxidase and reductase, as well as other antioxidant enzymes. These beneficial effects of melatonin are more significant because of its small molecular size and its amphipathic behavior, which facilitates ease of melatonin penetration into every subcellular compartment. In the present work, we review the current information related to the beneficial effects of melatonin in maintaining the fluidity of biological membranes against free radical attack, and further, we discuss its implications for aging and disease. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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During acute systemic infectious disease, precisely regulated release of energy-rich substrates (glucose, free fatty acids, and amino acids) and auxiliary elements such as calcium/phosphorus from storage sites (fat tissue, muscle, liver, and bone) are highly important because these factors are needed by an energy-consuming immune system in a situation with little or no food/water intake (sickness behavior). This positively selected program for short-lived infectious diseases is similarly applied during chronic inflammatory diseases. This review presents the interaction of hormones and inflammation by focusing on energy storage/expenditure and volume regulation. Energy storage hormones are represented by insulin (glucose/lipid storage and growth-related processes), insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) (muscle and bone growth), androgens (muscle and bone growth), vitamin D (bone growth), and osteocalcin (bone growth, support of insulin, and testosterone). Energy expenditure hormones are represented by cortisol (breakdown of liver glycogen/adipose tissue triglycerides/muscle protein, and gluconeogenesis; water retention), noradrenaline/adrenaline (breakdown of liver glycogen/adipose tissue triglycerides, and gluconeogenesis; water retention), growth hormone (glucogenic, lipolytic; has also growth-related aspects; water retention), thyroid gland hormones (increase metabolic effects of adrenaline/noradrenaline), and angiotensin II (induce insulin resistance and retain water). In chronic inflammatory diseases, a preponderance of energy expenditure pathways is switched on, leading to typical hormonal changes such as insulin/IGF-1 resistance, hypoandrogenemia, hypovitaminosis D, mild hypercortisolemia, and increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Though necessary during acute inflammation in the context of systemic infection or trauma, these long-standing changes contribute to increased mortality in chronic inflammatory diseases.
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In the present study we investigated the influence of pulsed high-frequency electromagnetic fields of digital mobile radio telephones on sleep in healthy humans. Besides a hypnotic effect with shortening of sleep onset latency, a REM suppressive effect with reduction of duration and percentage of REM sleep was found. Moreover, spectral analysis revealed qualitative alterations of the EEG signal during REM sleep with an increased spectral power density. Knowing the relevance of REM sleep for adequate information processing in the brain, especially concerning mnestic functions and learning processes, the results emphasize the necessity to carry out further investigations on the interaction of this type of electromagnetic fields and the human organism.
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This study determined whether chronic exposure of female lambs to the electric and magnetic fields (EMF) of a high voltage transmission line can alter pineal secretion of melatonin and the normal occurrence of puberty. Twenty female Suffolk lambs were assigned randomly in equal numbers to a control and a treatment group. Treatment from 2 to 10 mo of age consisted of continuous exposure within the electrical environment of a 500-kV transmission line (mean electric field 6 kV/m, mean magnetic field 40 mG). Treated lambs were penned directly beneath the transmission line; control lambs were maintained in a pen of similar construction 229 m from the line where EMF were at ambient levels (mean electric field < 10 V/m, mean magnetic field < 0.3 mG). Melatonin was analyzed by RIA in serum of blood samples collected at 0.5-3-h intervals over eight 48-h periods. To assess attainment of puberty, serum concentrations of progesterone were determined by RIA from blood samples collected twice weekly beginning at 19 wk of age. Concentrations of circulating melatonin in control and treated lambs were low during daylight hours and increased during nighttime hours. The characteristic pattern of melatonin secretion during nighttime (amplitude, phase, and duration) did not differ between control and treatment groups. Age at puberty and number of subsequent estrous cycles also did not differ between groups. These data suggest that chronic exposure of developing female sheep to 60-Hz environmental EMF does not affect the mechanisms underlying the generation of the circadian pattern of melatonin secretion or the mechanisms involved in the onset of reproductive activity.
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The aim of present study was to investigate the cellular phones emitted EMFs (Electromagnetic fields) effect on serum progesterone, cortisol and glucose concentration in exposed female hamsters. Seventy two female golden hamsters (mature and non-pregnant) were used. The animals were divided into three groups: group 1- the control group without any EMF exposure; group 2- the short-term EMF exposure (10 day, 3 h daily) and group 3 - the long-term EMF exposure (60 day, 3 h daily). The 950 MHZ EMFs emitted by the antenna of cellular phones (Specify: ON, SAR: 0.60 week kg(-1)) was produced for short- or long- term (group 2 and 3), respectively. Exposing to 900 MHZ EMF caused decreases in progesterone (p<0.01) and increases in cortisol for both exposed groups (short-term and long-term) (p<0.01) in comparison with control group. Group exposed for 60 days had significantly higher blood glucose rate in comparison with control or short-term exposed groups. May, 950 MHZ EMFs caused stressful condition, cortisol releasing and subsequent hyper-glycemia in long-term exposing. Also, adrenal and reproductive glands may affect by 950 MHZ EMFs and caused changes in serum progesterone rate. It was concluded that short-or long-term exposure to 950 MHZ may cause progesterone suppressing and cortisol releasing but this frequency only in long-term exposure could cause hyper-glycemia in hamster as a laboratory model.
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In 1998, the authors studied the effect of residential exposure to electric and magnetic fields from high-power lines on female urinary excretion of 6-sulfatoxymelatonin (6-OHMS) in the Quebec city, Canada, metropolitan area. A sample of 221 women living near a 735-kV line was compared with 195 women the same age living away from any power lines. Participants provided morning urine samples on 2 consecutive days and wore a magnetic dosimeter for 36 consecutive hours to measure personal magnetic exposure. The indoor electric field was assessed by spot measurements. After adjustment for other factors associated with low melatonin secretion, such as medication use or light exposure, nighttime concentration of 6-OHMS was similar in the two groups. When either 24-hour or sleep-time exposure to magnetic field or electric field measurements was used, no exposure-effect relation was evident. However, the trend of decreasing 6-OHMS concentration with age was more pronounced for women living near the lines, as was a lower 6-OHMS concentration in women with high body mass index. Chronic residential exposure to magnetic fields from high-power lines may accentuate the decrease in melatonin secretion observed in some vulnerable subgroups of the population.