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ITALIAN JOURNAL OF ANATOMY AND EMB RYOLOGY Effects of resistance training on jumping performance in pre-adolescent rhythmic gymnasts: a randomized controlled study Key to abbreviations

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Abstract

The aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of two different resistance training pro-grams on lower limb explosive and reactive strength in young female athletes. Fifty seven rhyth-mic gymnasts were randomly assigned to unspecific resistance training with dumbbells (12 repe-tition maximum squats) (n=19; age=12.0±1.8 years) or to specific resistance training with weight-ed belts (6% of body mass; n=18; age=11.9 ± 1.0 years). Squat jump test, counter movement jump test, hopping test, flexibility of the hip, and anthropometric measures were assessed before and after six weeks training. The main result was that both unspecific resistance training and specific resistance training protocols positively affected the jumping performance, with an increase of the lower limb explosive strength of 6-7%, with no side effects. Counter movement jump flight time increased significantly (p<0.01) while hopping test ground contact time significantly decreased (p<0.01). No significant differences were detected among groups for flexibility, body mass, calf and thigh circumferences. Therefore, six weeks of resistance training that integrates different ele-ments of rhythmic gymnastics training enhance jumping ability in young female athletes. = repetition maximum SJ = squat jump test CMJ = counter movement jump test HT = hopping test
ITALIAN JOURNAL OF ANATOMY AND EMBRYOLOGY
© 2014 Firenze University Press DO I : 10.1312 8/I JAE -14 63 5
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IJAE
Vol. 119, n. 1: 10-19, 2014
Research Article: Basic and Applied Anatomy
Eects of resistance training on jumping performance
in pre-adolescent rhythmic gymnasts: a randomized
controlled study
Marina Piazza1,*, Claudia Battaglia2, Giovanni Fiorilli3, Giovanni Innocenti1, Enzo Iuliano3,
Giovanna Aquino3, Giuseppe Calcagno3, Arrigo Giombini2,3, Alessandra Di Cagno2,3
1 Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Firenze, Firenze, Italy
2 Department of Health Sciences, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, Italy
3 Department of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Molise, Campobasso, Italy
Submitted April 18, 2013; accepted revised September 16, 2013
Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine the eectiveness of two dierent resistance training pro-
grams on lower limb explosive and reactive strength in young female athletes. Fifty seven rhyth-
mic gymnasts were randomly assigned to unspecic resistance training with dumbbells (12 repe-
tition maximum squats) (n=19; age=12.0±1.8 years) or to specic resistance training with weight-
ed belts (6% of body mass; n=18; age=11.9 ± 1.0 years). Squat jump test, counter movement jump
test, hopping test, exibility of the hip, and anthropometric measures were assessed before and
after six weeks training. The main result was that both unspecic resistance training and specic
resistance training protocols positively aected the jumping performance, with an increase of the
lower limb explosive strength of 6-7%, with no side eects. Counter movement jump ight time
increased signicantly (p<0.01) while hopping test ground contact time signicantly decreased
(p<0.01). No signicant dierences were detected among groups for exibility, body mass, calf
and thigh circumferences. Therefore, six weeks of resistance training that integrates dierent ele-
ments of rhythmic gymnastics training enhance jumping ability in young female athletes.
Key words
Adolescents, muscle strength, stiness, exibility, jumping, weighted belts, dumbbells.
Key to abbreviations
RM = repetition maximum
SJ = squat jump test
CMJ = counter movement jump test
HT = hopping test
Introduction
Over the past decades resistance training, that is a method to improve muscu-
lar strength by increasing the ability to resist force applied through free weights,
* Corresponding author. E-mail: marina.piazza@uni.it.
11Strength training for young athlete
machines, or the person’s own body weight, was not often recommended for young
athletes by the scientic community because of a presumed risk of injuries associated
with this type of exercise. Recent ndings, conversely, have demonstrated that resist-
ance training can be an eective tool to increase strength in children and adolescents,
when appropriately prescribed and supervised. (Payne et al., 1997; Faingenbaum
et al., 2009; Harries et al., 2012). The current position of the National Strength and
Conditioning Association (NSCA) is that regular resistance training is safe for young
people and plays an important role in growth and maturation during pediatric years
(Malina, 2006). Moreover, resistance training reduces the likelihood of sport-related
injuries, improves motor skill and facilitates weight control.
Explosive muscular power, that is the ability to generate muscular work in a short
time, and the rate of force production are the basis for most sport actions (Kraemer and
Newton, 1994). Explosive strength, oor reaction time, exibility and anthropomet-
ric features account for 41% of the success in performing rhythmic gymnastics (Milet-
ic et al., 2004). In this discipline, resistance training is needed for good leaping ability,
although a low degree of muscle hypertrophy is an important prerequisite in order to be
thin and “lightweight” (Di Cagno et al., 2008). The addition of resistance training to the
traditional dynamic strength conditioning (i.e. training to develop powerful movements)
may increase the rate of force development of gymnasts (Young et al., 1998) and conse-
quently improve performance. Motor performance skill tests such as vertical jumps are
commonly used to assess changes in muscular strength and power. Thus, the aim of this
study was to determine the eectiveness of two dierent resistance training programs
on lower limb explosive and reactive strength (dened as a concentric contraction fol-
lowing a rapid eccentric contraction resulting in a greater concentric force output), and
to assess if such protocols induce changes in exibility, body mass and muscle circum-
ference. A contraction is “concentric” when it results in shortening of a muscle, as when
lifting an external load or accelerating a body part; it is “eccentric” when exerted in the
presence of a resistive force with eventual elongation of a muscle, as when incompletely
contrasting an external load or decelerating a body part. The study was designed to test
the hypothesis that a specic resistance training may be more eective for young elite
rhythmic gymnasts than an unspecic resistance training protocol.
Subjects and methods
Experimental strategy
This study followed a repeated measures design to assess the eectiveness of two
dierent resistance training protocols, i.e. with dumbbells or belts, on the lower limb
explosive and reactive strength of young female rhythmic gymnasts aged 10-13 years.
Squat jump (SJ), counter movement jump (CMJ), hopping test (HT), exibility of
the hip and anthropometric measures were assessed before and after six weeks of
training program.
Subjects
Fifty-seven female rhythmic gymnasts, aged between 10 to 13 years, competing at
the same technical level, with at least two years of sport participation, volunteered
12 Marina Piazza et alii
to take part in this study. Athletes were randomly assigned to unspecic resistance
training (n = 19; age = 12.0 ± 1.8 years; body mass index = 18.4 ± 2.2 kg) or to spe-
cic resistance training (n = 18; age = 11.9 ± 1.0 years; body mass index = 17.8 ± 1.5
kg). The training groups were determined using a randomization list, generated by
a random number generator. Order assignments were placed in sealed, opaque, con-
secutively numbered envelopes, and were concealed by one of the study investiga-
tors involved in the randomization process. Both groups maintained their own habit-
ual sport practice. All participants except three had not had menarche. None of the
subjects had training experience using resistance training equipment before the start
of the study. Athletes, parents and coaches were informed about the nature of this
project, and parents of the underage athletes gave their written consent for the study
before data collection. The study was designed according to the Declaration of Hel-
sinki and was approved by the local ethics committee.
Training
The resistance training programme of the experimental groups was organized as
follows: for 6 weeks, the rst group of gymnasts followed an unspecic, moderate
load/high repetition resistance training program with dumbbells (Faingebaum et al.,
2001) and the second group performed a gymnastics specic strength training using
weighted belts (Mersh and Stoboy, 1989), as follows.
One -repetition maximum (1-RM) represents the maximum amount of weight that
a subject can lift in a single execution of a given exercise, and is a widely accepted
valid dynamic strength measure (Horvat et al., 2003; Kramer et al., 2006). The inten-
sity of an exercise can be expressed as percentage of 1-RM (e.g. 70% 1-RM, that is the
70% of maximum amount of weight that subject can lift) or as multiple of this meas-
ure (e.g. 6-RM, that is the maximum weight that a subject can lift to repeat a given
exercise 6 times ). In this study, 12-RM squat (the maximum amount of weight that
an athlete could lift to repeat a squat 12 times) was evaluated for each athlete before
beginning, after three weeks, and at the end of the experimental training.
The rst group of gymnasts, after warm-up, performed 3 sets of 12-RM squat
movements with dumbbells. Rest periods were 45 sec between exercises and 2 min
between sets (Faigenbaum et al., 2006; Mangine et al., 2008).
The second group, after warm-up, followed a strength training protocol for 15
min using weighted belts set at 6% body mass (Xtreme Worldwide Athletic Equip-
ment), twice a week, on non consecutive days (Faingebaum et al., 2001). The protocol
consisted of three repetition of ten dynamic exercises, progressing from low- to mod-
erate-intensity (Table 1). Gymnasts were instructed to perform the resistance training
protocol as fast and as explosively as possible. Approximately one minute rest was
allowed after the three repetition of each exercise (Faigenbaum et al., 2006).
Each group was trained with the instruments to be used, before starting the
experimental sessions.
Testing procedures
All the subjects were assessed before and after six-week resistance training for
lower limb explosive strength, by jumping tests, and for stiness, by measuring ex-
13Strength training for young athlete
ibility. Anthropometric data was also collected to evaluate variations in body mass or
segmental circumferences.
Jumping tests
The two groups of gymnasts, in the testing sessions, performed three verti-
cal jumps, three times each jump, in the following order: Squat Jump (SJ), Coun-
ter-Movement Jump (CMJ) and Hopping Test (HT). Thirty seconds rest was given
between the trials of each jump, and the maximum value was considered. A SJ con-
sists in a maximal vertical jump, starting with the knees bent a 90°, with the hands
on hips throughout the exercise. A CMJ consists in a maximal vertical jump with
the hands on hips, starting with a preliminary counter movement ( in standing posi-
tion, the subject exes the knees to 90° and then jumps). The SJ and CMJ ight time
was recorded and used to estimate the height reached during the jump. According
to Bosco et al. (2002), the height of SJ and CMJ is a way to assess the explosive lower
limb power. HT is a series of seven continuous jumps with free arms, with a small
amplitude counter movement and a short ground contact time. If these requirements
were not met, the trial was repeated. HT was used to assess the leg stiness, which
is inversely correlated with the contact time during the test. Ground contact time and
ight time were measured by Optojump (Microgate, Bolzano, Italy). This system has
a high reliability (range 0.88-0.98 as calculated by Interclass Correlation Coecient:
Di Cagno et al., 2008). All measures, pre and post, were taken by the same research-
ers who were blind to the experimental condition of athletes. The athletes were accus-
tomed to the test by practicing several jumps before the test ones.
Flexibility measurements
Flexibility parameters were assessed by measuring the active range of motion of
the hip joints. The range of active hip abduction (A), hip external rotation (ER), and
hip internal rotation (IR) were measured at baseline and at the end of the experimen-
tal training. Angular displacement was measured using inclinometer (a circular, uid
lled goniometer; Baseline® AcuAngle Inclinometer, Kom Kare Company, Ohio, Usa)
which measures the value in angular degrees through a gravity device (MacDougall
Table 1 – Rhythmic gymnastics specic strength conditioning protocol for lower limbs with weighed belts.
1. Running.
2. Lateral shue. Move laterally quickly without crossing feet.
3. Running with explosive repetition velocities.
4. Walking with limbs exed / exed legs alternate with walking with limbs extend-
ed / stretched legs up on toes.
5. Backward lunge. Move backwards by reaching each leg as far back possible.
6. Power skip. Rapidly skip forward, elevating body as high as possible.
7. Heel ups. Rapidly kick heels towards buttocks while moving forward
8. Lunge walks. Lunge forward with alternating legs while keeping torso vertical.
9. High - knee skip. Emphasize knee lift and arm swing while moving forward in dif-
ferent directions.
10. Stretched leg jumps alternated with leg tuck jumps with legs to the chest.
14 Marina Piazza et alii
et al., 1991). Inclinometer reliability was examined in the rst 10 athletes. An Intra-
class Correlation Coecient of 0.98 indicated a high level of reliability. Gymnasts
were instructed before testing on how to perform the required movements.
To measure hip abduction, athletes were positioned lying on the oor with the
body left side, with the lower limbs extended. For internal and external rotation,
athletes were positioned prone in a neutral position, with the arms aligned with the
trunk, the face down, and the knee maintained at 90° exion. After zeroing the incli-
nometer, gymnasts were asked to perform maximal active movements. Each move-
ment was measured until the point where no further motion could occur without
pelvic movement. Each movement was performed three times and if the above men-
tioned requirements were not met the trial was repeated.
Anthropometric data were obtained from each participant using standard data
collection procedures and standard laboratory scale (Lohman et al., 1988). Body mass
and height were measured using a calibrated balance scale and stadiometer, respec-
tively. The thigh and calf circumferences were measured at the level of the maximal
thigh and calf girth. A well-trained anthropometrist took the anthropometric meas-
urements and was assisted by a recorder who was familiar with the specic proce-
dures. All measurements were recorded three times and the maximum value was
considered for analysis.
Statistical Analysis
Descriptive statistics, i.e. mean ± standard deviation (SD), and percentage dierenc-
es in strength, exibility and anthropometric data were calculated. Unpaired samples
t-test was used to compare the study groups at baseline. Data were subjected to repeat-
ed measures 2×2 analysis of variance (ANOVA) to assess dierences within (pre and
post) and between groups for each variable. When a signicant main eect or interac-
tion was found, a simple eect analysis was performed. Dierences between groups
were analyzed using t-test for unpaired samples, while dierences within groups were
analyzed by t-test for paired samples. The α level was set at P 0.05 and the analyses
were conducted using SPSS 16.0 statistical package (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL).
Results
All the gymnasts completed the study and no injuries or health complains were
reported. There were no dierences in baseline strength or exibility between the two
groups.
ANOVA showed signicant interaction between group and training for the ight
time of HT (F1.24 = 4.3; p < 0.05). A signicant dierence was found for HT ight time
between unspecic and specic training (p < 0.01) with higher scores after unspecic
training. The HT ground contact time signicantly decreased after each kind of resist-
ance training (F1.24 = 10.4; p < 0.01) and a signicant interaction was found between
training and group (F1.24 = 18.9; p < 0.05). The eect of training on CMJ ight time was
signicant (F1.24 = 24.1; p < 0.01), whereas no interaction was demonstrated between
training and group. A signicant eect of training was detected on SJ ight time (F1.24
= 6.5; p < 0.05), whereas no signicant dierence was found between groups.
15Strength training for young athlete
There were no signicant dierences between groups for the three exibility
measurements, body mass, or calf and thigh circumferences. 2×2 repeated measures
ANOVA showed signicant dierences between pre- and post-training only for hip
internal rotation (F1.24 = 5.2; p < 0.05). Thigh circumference increased signicantly
(F1.24 = 27.2; p < 0.01) in both groups with no dierence between groups. No signi-
cant body mass increase was observed after either experimental protocols. Results of
paired sample t-test post hoc analysis are showed in Table 2.
Discussion
The main nding of this study was that both tested resistance training protocols
aected positively the jumping performance in young rhythmic gymnasts, with an
increase of 6-7% in lower limb explosive strength and with no side eects. Despite
the inherent limitation of the study because of lack of a non-exercising control group,
the results allowed an objective, quantitative comparison between the two training
protocols tested.
Our results are in agreement with other studies which reported statistically sig-
nicant increases in explosive strength ranging from 5% to 24% as assessed by verti-
cal jumps, after resistance training (Soh et al., 2007; Gabbet et al., 2008; Mujika et al.,
2009; Alves et al., 2010). In this study, CMJ ight time, which assesses the explosive
lower limb power (Bosco et al., 2002), signicantly improved after both unspecic
Table 2 – Mean, standard deviation (SD) and percentage variation (Δ) of anthropometric, exibility and jump
parameters between pre- and post-training.
Unspecic weight training
(%)
Specic weight training
(%)
PRE
(mean ± SD)
POST
(mean ± SD)
PRE
(mean ± SD)
POST
(mean ± SD)
HT ight time (ms) 412.9 ± 68.4 441.7 ± 44.2#+7.0 420.0 ± 35.1 395.3 ± 46.5 - 5.9
HT ground contact time
(ms) 230.4 ± 32.1 238.7 ± 29.8## +3.6 256.0 ± 35.3** 199.9 ± 20.5 -21.9
SJ ight time (ms) 427.1 ± 35.3 440.1 ± 28.0 +2.7 410.4 ± 41.6 421.5 ± 28.4 + 2.7
CMJ ight time (ms) 449.7 ± 34.5** 481.3 ± 30.8 +7.0 457.2 ± 30.6** 485.0 ± 33.8 + 6.1
Hip Abduction (°) 86.2 ± 10.6 87.3 ± 11.7 +1.2 90.7 ± 12.1 78.9 ± 11.1 -13.0
Hip external rotation (°) 42.4 ± 8 44.1 ± 6.6 +4.0 45.6 ± 6.9 44.5 ± 6.3 - 2.4
Hip internal rotation (°) 46.0 ± 10.3 42.8 ± 8.2 -6.9 48.1± 6.5* 43.2 ± 4.8 -10.0
Body mass (kg) 40.7 ± 9.4 41.8 ± 9.4 +2.8 36.5 ± 6.7 36.7 ± 7.0 + 0.5
Thigh circumference (cm) 42.5 ± 4.6** 44.8 ± 6.2 +5.4 40.6 ± 2. 3** 43.9 ± 3.7 + 8.1
Calf circumference (cm) 30.3 ± 3.2 30.7 ± 3 +1.2 29.4 ± 1.8 29.6 ± 2.8 + 0.9
* p < 0.05 vs. post-training.
** p < 0.01 vs. post-training.
# p < 0.05 vs. specic weight training.
## p < 0.05 vs. Specic weight training.
16 Marina Piazza et alii
and specic training, while the HT ight time, which assesses leg stiness, improved
only after unspecic training. In previous studies, it had been shown that a lack of
strength in athletes was a consequence of inadequate training load, volume, duration
and progression (Siegel et al., 1989; Dayne et al., 2011). Coherently, our study demon-
strated that load increase was able to improve the jumping performance in rhythmic
gymnasts. No injuries occurred to gymnasts through the whole training duration, as
it had been observed in other studies (Faingenbaum et al., 2009).
The HT ground contact time decreased only after specic training, due to the
high plyometric (i.e., jump training) regimen that characterized this protocol. Short-
er ground contact time in HT is a talent identication parameter for leaping ability,
and stiness is highly correlated with ight time and good execution of the techni-
cal leaps in rhythmic gymnastics (Di Cagno et al., 2008). Several studies have recog-
nized that the best results in sport are obtained using training protocols which are
as specic as possible to the demands of the sport activity (Thompsen et al., 2007).
Specic training is characterized by dynamic movements and is designed to elevate
core body temperature, enhance motor unit excitability, improve kinaesthetic aware-
ness, maximize active range of motion, and improve technique by reinforcing critical
motor programs (Robbins and Docherty, 2005). Consequently, although the results
of this study gave indication in favour of both resistance training methodologies to
improve explosive lower limb power and stiness, specic training appeared to be
preferable as it increased reactive strength. The benets of this kind of training were
recognized in several investigations (Kubo et al., 2007), especially for intramuscu-
lar coordination (Burkett et al., 2005). However, the unavoidable continuation of the
athletes’ habitual sport activity during the intervention period made it dicult to
determine the independent contribution of each resistance protocol to the improve-
ment in muscular power.
In accordance with previous studies, the gymnast calf circumferences did not
increase after either kind of training. The training-induced strength gain in preado-
lescents is, in fact, more related to neuromuscular activation and coordination rather
than muscle hypertrophy (Ozmun et al., 1994; Malina, 2006). Without adequate levels
of circulating testosterone to stimulate increase in muscle size, pre-pubescent subjects
experience more diculty in increasing their muscle mass with a resistance training
program (Vrijens, 1978). In contrast, thigh circumferences signicantly increased after
both unspecic and specic training, with no signicant dierences between the two
protocols (Malina and Katzmarzyk, 2006). A low level of free fat mass is a require-
ment for competitive female aesthetic sports. We hypothesize that the chosen loads
were too high for the sample group. Resistance training programs with high repeti-
tion regimen, using weighted belts at the 2% of body mass, might probably induce
less thigh circumference increase (Campos et al., 2002).
Rhythmic gymnastics requires athletes with high exibility and a good compro-
mise between strength and exibility is advisable for high quality performance (Dou-
da et al., 2002). During resistance training, exibility training should be increased
accordingly. As anticipated, exibility, explosive strength, oor reaction time and
anthropometric characteristics account, in fact, for 41% of the success in rhythmic
gymnastics (Di Cagno et al., 2008). In this study, lower limb exibility did not change
after either unspecic and specic training, except for internal rotation, i.e. an out-
ward rotation of the legs at the hips level, which however is an important technical
17Strength training for young athlete
requirement for rhythmic gymnastics because it is necessary to perform all technical
elements correctly and to reach a good balance.
Recent studies on pre-adolescent strength training have highlighted the physiolog-
ical and psychological benets of properly designed and well supervised resistance
training (American Academic of Pediatrics, 2008; Harries, et al., 2012). This study has
provided further evidence that high repetition of low intensity resistance exercises is
advisable for young rhythmic gymnasts to improve power and stiness and that spe-
cic training appears to be preferable as it increases reactive strength. Coaches may
use this knowledge when designing appropriate training loads for this population of
young athletes.
Acknowledgments and declaration of conicts of interest
The authors declare that they have no conicts of interest with respect to their
authorship or the publication of this article. No nancial support was given for this
study.
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... Flexibility is the ability of a joint or series of joints to move through an unrestricted, pain-free range of motion [14]. Thirteen studies examined flexibility in rhythmic gymnastics [6,[15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26]. Of these studies, four studies examined differences between higher and lower-level athletes; one study examined differences between age categories; three studies examined the association between flexibility and performance; five studies examined training outcomes; one study compared gymnasts from different countries, and two studies compared gymnasts with athletes from other sports ( Table 1). ...
... In general, increased flexibility in the hip, spine, and shoulders was associated with higher performance scores [15][16][17][18]. High-level gymnasts demonstrated better flexibility scores compared with low-level gymnasts [19][20][21]26] and controls (i.e., non-athletes and athletes from other sports) [22,23], and the same was found for older compared with younger gymnasts [16]. ...
... Nevertheless, one study failed to detect differences between athlete groups, probably due to the short training intervention period (8 weeks) in athletes already trained in flexibility [21]. Notably, resistance training was not effective in improving the flexibility in rhythmic gymnasts, underpinning the need for specific training [18]. ...
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This scoping review presents an overview of physical fitness parameters in rhythmic gymnastics as well as the association of fitness with gymnasts' performance, competitive level, and age. PubMed, Scopus, and Sport Discus databases were searched. Of the 586 records retrieved, 41 studies met the inclusion criteria (n = 1915 participants). The included studies examined flexibility, aerobic capacity, muscle power, muscle endurance, muscle strength, sprint speed, agility, balance, and coordination. Performance was associated with flexibility, aerobic capacity, lower-limb muscle power, agility, muscular endurance, balance, and coordination from a young age. Flexibility, aerobic capacity, and muscle power were, in general, higher in high-level gymnasts than in low-level gymnasts or controls. Older rhythmic gymnasts demonstrated higher scores than the younger ones in flexibility, aerobic capacity, balance, and sport-specific coordination but not in muscle endurance, while some studies reported a decline in muscle power with age. Supplementary physical fitness training improved all physical abilities irrespective of the gymnasts' level. Rhythmic gymnastics training alone improved muscle power, agility, speed, muscular endurance, and balance to a lesser extent than targeted fitness training. Muscular strength, speed, and agility are largely under-researched in rhythmic gymnastics. Emphasis should be given to targeted strength and power training due to the high mechanical loads placed on skeletally immature athletes.
... As a result, there is a need to develop general strength capacity in gymnasts across their training career [13] and in all levels of performance [14], as well as to produce more in-depth research on strength to assist the future development of gymnastics [14]. The application of supplementary programs with plyometric [15,16], strength [16,17] and proprioceptive exercises [18] is a valid way to increase gymnasts' jumping performance, even at young ages [19]. The development of running and changing direction skills and Countermovement Jump (CMJ) performance can, in turn, improve the performance of gymnastics skills, increasing flight time [19]. ...
... Due to its ballistic/mechanical characteristics, the CMJ is the exercise generally used to evaluate the power output of the lower limbs, as well as the F-V relationship, allowing to obtain the relationship between force, velocity and power. All studies found with interventions in Rhythmic Gymnastics (RG) used the CMJ as the criterion exercise for the evaluation of jumping performance [15][16][17][18]. In ACRO, two studies focused on jumping were found: one used the CMJ to evaluate the influence of the range of motion in the jumping performance of girls practicing the sport twice per week [23,24], and the other focused on the effect of two competition floors upon plantar pressures at the gymnasts' feet during landings from two different falling heights [25]. ...
... In RG, other instruments were also used: two studies used a force platform [18], while one also used the Chronojump system [15]. Others used the Optojump System [17] and a piezoelectric platform [16]. A previous study evaluated the jump height through the vertical jump test (VJ) [14], in which the athletes jump as high as possible, marking the highest point reached (using ink on the middle finger) [27]. ...
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An increased jumping performance is key for gymnastics competition routines. Rhythmic gymnasts (RGs) use the jump as one of the main body elements. In Acrobatic Gymnastics (ACRO), top gymnasts must coordinate their jumps with the impulse provided by base gymnast(s). It is expected that the gymnasts' discipline and role played impact their jumping skill. This work aims to investigate how the jumping performance differs between ACRO gymnasts and RGs, focusing on the Force-Velocity (F-V) profile mechanical variables. Gymnasts were divided in three groups: ACRO tops (n = 10, 13.89 (3.62) median (interquartile interval) years old), ACRO bases (n = 18, 18.24 (4.41) years old) and RGs (n = 15, 12.00 (3.00) years old). The F-V profile during countermove-ment jump and its mechanical variables were evaluated using MyJump2. A training background survey and anthropometric assessments were conducted. The significance level was set at p ≤ 0.05. Group comparisons showed that ACRO bases jump higher than ACRO tops and RGs, present a higher maximal force than RGs and a more balanced F-V profile, while RGs present high force deficits. Coaches can use this data to develop interventions that optimize the training stimulus to different gymnastics disciplines considering the individual characteristics and adaptability of each gymnast.
... Otro estudio, informo mejoras especificas en las extremidades inferiores debido a programas de entrenamiento de resistencia no específicos como específicos condujeron a un aumento en la fuerza explosiva de las extremidades inferiores con un aumento del 6-7% en la fuerza explosiva sin efectos secundarios, según lo evidencian las mejoras en el tiempo de vuelo del salto CMJ y SJ (Piazza et al., 2014), a su vez los hallazgos en otro manuscrito no fueron encontradas diferencias significativas en las correlaciones entre la fuerza muscular y el rendimiento en salto entre los atletas de salto de pista y campo y los jugadores de voleibol (Rousanoglou et al., 2008), teniendo en cuenta lo anterior, los datos de las correlaciones encontradas en nuestro estudio, muestran que el entrenamiento de las porristas debe ser de forma general, no descuidando los miembros superiores ya que permite una mayor integración del movimiento de suma importancia en la realización de las diferentes técnicas que esta disciplina exige (Gavanda et al., 2023). ...
... La mayoría de los estudios sugieren que, aunque el impacto del entrenamiento de fuerza en los saltos en mujeres adolescentes puede variar, puede tener un efecto positivo cuando se dirige a grupos musculares específicos y se combina con otros métodos de entrenamiento (Herman et al., 2022;Piazza et al., 2014;Rousanoglou et al., 2008;Zdunek, 2020). ...
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Abstract. Currently, cheerleading has undergone a significant transformation, evolving from being considered a secondary activity to becoming a highly competitive sport. The objective of this study was to determine which of the two training methods could be more efficient in developing explosive strength in the lower limbs, evaluated through the components of the Bosco battery in two groups of elite cheerleaders. The variables included CMJ, SJ, Abalakov, Elastic Index, elastic capacity, arm contribution, and Abalakov power. The results show that both training systems influence jump height in the CMJ, SJ, Abalakov variables, with higher values prevailing in strength training. In conclusion, the importance of implementing combined training programs that integrate plyometrics and strength in the gym to enhance explosive strength in the lower limbs, especially in female cheerleaders, is emphasized. This strategy is presented as crucial for addressing the diverse physical demands of competitions and optimizing performance in the highly competitive field of cheerleading.
... Otro estudio, informo mejoras especificas en las extremidades inferiores debido a programas de entrenamiento de resistencia no específicos como específicos condujeron a un aumento en la fuerza explosiva de las extremidades inferiores con un aumento del 6-7% en la fuerza explosiva sin efectos secundarios, según lo evidencian las mejoras en el tiempo de vuelo del salto CMJ y SJ (Piazza et al., 2014), a su vez los hallazgos en otro manuscrito no fueron encontradas diferencias significativas en las correlaciones entre la fuerza muscular y el rendimiento en salto entre los atletas de salto de pista y campo y los jugadores de voleibol (Rousanoglou et al., 2008), teniendo en cuenta lo anterior, los datos de las correlaciones encontradas en nuestro estudio, muestran que el entrenamiento de las porristas debe ser de forma general, no descuidando los miembros superiores ya que permite una mayor integración del movimiento de suma importancia en la realización de las diferentes técnicas que esta disciplina exige (Gavanda et al., 2023). ...
... La mayoría de los estudios sugieren que, aunque el impacto del entrenamiento de fuerza en los saltos en mujeres adolescentes puede variar, puede tener un efecto positivo cuando se dirige a grupos musculares específicos y se combina con otros métodos de entrenamiento (Herman et al., 2022;Piazza et al., 2014;Rousanoglou et al., 2008;Zdunek, 2020). ...
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En la actualidad, el porrismo ha experimentado una transformación significativa, evolucionando de ser considerado una actividad secundaria a convertirse en un deporte altamente competitivo. El objetivo de este estudio fue determinar cuál de los dos métodos de entrenamiento puede ser más eficiente en el desarrollo de la fuerza explosiva de los miembros inferiores, evaluada mediante los componentes de la batería de Bosco en dos grupos de porristas elites. Las variables fueron: CMJ, SJ, Abalakov, Índice elástico, capacidad elástica, contribución brazo y potencia Abalakov. Los resultados muestran que ambos sistemas de entrenamiento influyen en la altura del salto en las variables CMJ, SJ, Abalakov, donde los mayores valores predominan en el entrenamiento de la fuerza. En conclusión, se enfatiza la importancia de implementar programas de entrenamiento combinados que integren pliometría y fuerza en gimnasio para potenciar la fuerza explosiva en miembros inferiores, especialmente en mujeres porristas. Esta estrategia se presenta como clave para abordar las diversas demandas físicas de las competiciones y optimizar el rendimiento en el ámbito altamente competitivo del porrismo. Palabras claves: Pliometría, entrenamiento de la fuerza, miembros inferiores, batería Bosco. Abstract. Currently, cheerleading has undergone a significant transformation, evolving from being considered a secondary activity to becoming a highly competitive sport. The objective of this study was to determine which of the two training methods could be more efficient in developing explosive strength in the lower limbs, evaluated through the components of the Bosco battery in two groups of elite cheerleaders. The variables included CMJ, SJ, Abalakov, Elastic Index, elastic capacity, arm contribution, and Abalakov power. The results show that both training systems influence jump height in the CMJ, SJ, Abalakov variables, with higher values prevailing in strength training. In conclusion, the importance of implementing combined training programs that integrate plyometrics and strength in the gym to enhance explosive strength in the lower limbs, especially in female cheerleaders, is emphasized. This strategy is presented as crucial for addressing the diverse physical demands of competitions and optimizing performance in the highly competitive field of cheerleading. Keywords: Plyometrics, strength training, lower limbs, Bosco battery.
... The primary methods and techniques in gymnastics include active training games, general developmental exercises, choreographic routines, gymnastic turns, jumping, paired-group exercises, and plyometric training (Yu et al., 2024;Cabrejas et al., 2024). The use of weights is recommended when performing jumping exercises (Piazza et al., 2014). After active games and general physical training, it is recommended to include special preparatory sets of exercises that closely align with the chosen sport (Kokarev et al., 2023). ...
Article
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In the training systems for athletes across various specializations, enhancing coordination skills is crucial, particularly in sports requiring complex coordination. Purpose. To develop and test a methodology for improving coordination skills in 6-7-year-old girls engaged in rhythmic gymnastics, tailored to the characteristics of their autonomic nervous regulation. Material and methods. The study involved 40 girls (6.4 ± 1.8 years old) in their first year of rhythmic gymnastics at the initial training stage. Based on the Kerdo index, which characterizes autonomic nervous regulation types, a control group (CG, n = 19) was identified. These athletes followed the federal standard training program. The experimental group (EG, n = 21) participated in a program designed to develop coordination skills, tailored to the specific features of autonomic regulation. The methodology comprised sets of physical exercises, techniques, and methodological approaches, which were applied differentially to athletes with sympathicotonic and parasympathicotonic types of autonomic nervous regulation. In both groups, milestone assessments were performed to evaluate the development of static and dynamic coordination, as well as overall physical fitness. Results. Analysis of the milestone testing results revealed that in the EG, where the proposed methodology for developing coordination skills was applied, the test scores were significantly higher than those in the CG. Athletes with a sympathicotonic type of autonomic regulation achieved better results in motor coordination tests, while those with a parasympathicotonic type excelled in static coordination tests. Athletes with a higher level of coordination development also demonstrated superior results in general physical fitness tests compared to the girls in the CG. Conclusions. It is more effective to develop and improve coordination skills in young gymnasts by considering the identified features of their autonomic nervous regulation. This approach not only improves coordination abilities but also contributes to a higher overall level of physical fitness in the athletes.
... In addition to physical fitness factors, researchers investigated the effects of resistance training and vibration training on strength, flexibility, and balance in artistic gymnasts. Piazza (Piazza et al., 2014) investigated the effects of resistance training on the explosive power and responsiveness of the lower limbs in artistic gymnasts. The study randomly assigned 57 artistic gymnasts to a dumbbell resistance training group and a weight-band-specific resistance training group, and the subjects performed deep squat jumps, reverse squat jumps, single-leg jumps, hip flexibility, and anthropometric tests before and after 6 weeks of training, and the results showed that both types of training had a positive effect on his subjects' jumping ability and explosive power, with a 6%-7% increase in explosive power, a significant increase in reverse half squat jump stall time The results showed that both types of training had a positive effect on the subjects' jumping ability and explosive power, with a 6%-7% increase in explosive power, a significant increase in reverse half-squat stall time, and a significant decrease in touchdown time. ...
Article
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This study conducted a systematic review of the existing literature on rhythmic gymnastics. Through searching databases such as PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus, 37 out of 2319 articles were selected, covering training and physical fitness, nutrition and metabolism, as well as sports injuries and rehabilitation. The findings revealed that: (1) Core physical training significantly enhanced athletes’ performance; (2) Inadequate nutritional intake was prevalent; (3) The incidence of sports injuries was high, particularly those resulting from overtraining. The conclusion emphasizes the need to enhance strength training, optimize nutritional management, and further investigate injury prevention and rehabilitation measures to enhance athletes’ performance and health status.
... No studies were found in the literature about F-V profile or training programs directed to the F-Vimb of RG athletes. However, there are studies that have proven effectiveness of the training programs that improve jumping performance of GR athletes (Dallas et al., 2020;Dobrijević et al., 2018;Piazza et al., 2014;Rodríguez et al., 2010). A 16-week training program showed improvements in CMJ performance, maximum speed and power of ballet dancers (Ávila-Carvalho et al., 2022). ...
Article
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The jump is one of the main body elements in Rhythmic Gymnastics (RG). To perform it correctly, gymnasts must develop appropriate force and velocity levels to reach enough jump height to show the body shape during flight, as defined by the RG Code of Points. Jumping performance is influenced by the mechanical force-velocity (F-V) profile and the maximum power generated by the lower limbs. The F-V profile identification can provide a more accurate and complete mechanical representation of its capabilities and needs. This study aimed to analyse the F-V profile during the counter movement jump of RG athletes, identify the magnitude and direction of the imbalance between the two variables (force and velocity), and compare the jumping ability and mechanical variables of different age groups. Eighteen Portuguese gymnasts (average age 12.2±1.8 years) were evaluated, according to age group: beginner and youth gymnasts (G1- ages 10 to 12) and junior and senior gymnasts (G2 - ages 13 to 16), and according to the F-V profile imbalance detected. The data collection was performed after a covid-19 lockdown period. Results showed anthropometric differences between age groups but no differences in the F-V profile related variables. When gymnasts were compared according to the deficit, differences were found in variables force and velocity. Furthermore, 72.3% of the gymnasts presented force deficit, 11% presented velocity deficit and 16.6% were balanced. Considering the deficits found, the demands of the sport and of each athlete, it is essential to include strength training in the regular training routines of rhythmic gymnasts.
... No studies were found in the literature about F-V profile or training programs directed to the F-Vimb of RG athletes. However, there are studies that have proven effectiveness of the training programs that improve jumping performance of GR athletes (Dallas et al., 2020;Dobrijević et al., 2018;Piazza et al., 2014;Rodríguez et al., 2010). A 16-week training program showed improvements in CMJ performance, maximum speed and power of ballet dancers (Ávila-Carvalho et al., 2022). ...
Article
Full-text available
The jump is one of the main body elements in Rhythmic Gymnastics (RG). To perform it correctly, gymnasts must develop appropriate force and velocity levels to reach enough jump height to show the body shape during flight, as defined by the RG Code of Points. Jumping performance is influenced by the mechanical force-velocity (F-V) profile and the maximum power generated by the lower limbs. The F-V profile identification can provide a more accurate and complete mechanical representation of its capabilities and needs. This study aimed to analyse the F-V profile during the countermovement jump of RG athletes, identify the magnitude and direction of the imbalance between the two variables (force and velocity), and compare the jumping ability and mechanical variables of different age groups. Eighteen Portuguese gymnasts (average age 12.2±1.8 years) were evaluated, according to age group: beginner and youth gymnasts (G1-ages 10 to 12) and junior and senior gymnasts (G2-ages 13 to 16), and according to the F-V profile imbalance detected. The data collection was performed after a covid-19 lockdown period. Results showed anthropometric differences between age groups but no differences in the F-V profile related variables. When gymnasts were compared according to the deficit, differences were found in variables force and velocity. Furthermore, 72.3% of the gymnasts presented force deficit, 11% presented velocity deficit and 16.6% were balanced. Considering the deficits found, the demands of the sport and of each athlete, it is essential to include strength training in the regular training routines of rhythmic gymnasts.
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The aim of this manuscript was to review the evidence regarding the risks, concerns, and efficacy of resistance training (RT) on measures related to muscular fitness and hypertrophic responses of youth athletes, while also establishing recommendations to assist the prescription of RT in this population. PubMed and Google Scholar databases were searched for studies that met the following inclusion criteria: (a) published in English as a full-text manuscript or thesis; (b) inclusion of RT protocols lasting > 6 weeks; (c) involvement of youth individuals (≤ 19 years) engaged in sport modalities. Twenty-nine studies assessing muscle strength, power and/or endurance in young athletes were identified; only one of these studies did not show significant improvements with RT, specifically in muscle power, but improvements were substantially heterogeneous across the studies. The literature is still inconclusive regarding the occurrence of muscle hypertrophy in response to RT among youth athletic population, but this was drawn from just seven studies in non-athletic populations. Injury rates among youth participants were low and less concerning in well-designed, progressed, supervised and technique-oriented RT programs. RT is an effective method to improve muscular fitness-related measures in young athletes. The varying experimental designs across studies still represent an obstacle to the establishment of precise guidelines for RT prescription in this population. Nevertheless, some suggestions about RT frequency, resting interval, intensity and volume were elaborated in this review to assist coaches working with youth athletes to optimize muscular fitness-related measures gains.
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This study gives an overall view of the present national and international state of strength training for children and adolescents with special consideration of the possibilities to train the strength, the incidence of injuries, over- and wrong stress and the appropriate organisation of strength training with children and adolescents.
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Leg extensor muscle characteristics, running speed and serum testosterone were studied in sixteen males and twelve female sprinters. The rise of center of gravity was measured during squat jumps executed without (SJ) and with extra loads (SJbm), counter movement jump (CMJ) and continuous jumping (CJ) for 5 s. Nine females and nine males performed also half-squat exercises with extra loads ranging from 50% to 200% of the subject's body mass (bm). Average mechanical power (P), force (F) and velocity (v) were calculated and measured during half-squat exercises using the Ergopower®. Total serum testosterone (TT) was determined in venous blood. In women, 60 m dash, SJ, CMJ and CJ performances were significantly lower (P<0.001) than men. Gender differences were not found in F during half-squat exercises and in SJbm. Women demonstrated significantly higher ratios CMJ:SJ and CJ:SJ than men. With loads 50-100 % of bm men demonstrated greater v and P than women. It was suggested that high testosterone level in men might be a factor ensured superiority in explosive power and speed, but not in muscle strength adjusted to body mass.
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The purposes of the study were: (1) to determine the agility and leg power among Malaysian national junior netball players and (2) to determine the impact of eight-week aerobic and strength-training programme on these two variables. A total of 21 netball players from Bukit Jalil Sport School were selected as the subjects in this study. The SEMO Agility Run test was used to determine the agility level while leg power was measured using the Vertical Jump test. Pre-test and post-test results showed no significant differences in the agility and leg power level among the netball players. The mean values for the agility and leg power post-test were 12.59 (SD = 0.56) seconds and 50.24 (SD = 4.90) cm respectively. The pre-test and post-test results for different playing positions recorded the highest improvement in agility and leg power among attacker, followed by centre, and defender. Thus, the training conducted in this study was found to have improved agility and leg power marginally, especially among attacker and centre netball players. (JUMMEC 2007; 10(1): 25-28).
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To assess the effects of a group resistance exercise program on prepubescent children, an experimental group of boys ( n = 26) and girls ( n = 24), with a mean age of 8.4 ± 0.5 years, participated in 12 weeks of school based training. The program consisted of upper body exercise using hand-held weights, stretch tubing, balls, and self-supported movements. A control group of boys ( n = 30) and girls ( n = 16), mean age 8.6 ± 0.5 years, had a free-play period. Boys were significantly stronger than girls on all initial strength evaluations and were taller and had lesser skinfold sums. ANCOVA was used to evaluate pre/post changes in cable tensiometer elbow flexion and extension, right and left handgrip strength, pull-ups, flexed arm hang, sit-ups, sit-and-reach flexibility, and body composition parameters. Following the training period, significantly greater gains were made by the experimental group for right handgrip, flexed arm hang, pull-ups, and flexibility. Greater decreases in sum of skinfolds were also found. Training responses of boys and girls were similar. It was concluded that a group strength training program can be an effective means of increasing fitness levels and improving body composition in both boys and girls of this age.
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The purpose of this study was to identify the specific characteristics in muscle strength and flexibility between rhythmic sports gymnasts and female artistic gymnasts separately, using different grade levels. A total of two hundred and ten female participants (n=210), rhythmic sport gymnasts (RSG, n=71), artistic gymnasts (GYM, n=58) and a control group (CRL, n=81) were divided into four groups according to their age: group Á (16.141.18 yr., n=38), group B (13.860.82 yr., n=51), group C (11.770.91 yr., n=60), group D (9.430.86 yr., n=61). Various measurements, including speed, muscle strength, jumping ability, explosive power and flexibility, were used to allow evaluation of physical characteristics and quantification of the extreme ranges of movement displayed by gymnasts during the execution of different routines. The analysis of data indicated that RSG and GYM athletes were better in the majority of the tests than the control group (p<0.001). Rhythmic sports gymnasts were more flexible in all flexibility measurements while artistic gymnasts attained the highest scores in jumping ability, explosive power and sit-ups. As a result, the specific physical preparation helps the athletes to develop and maintain physical abilities which are sufficient for a successful technical performance in Rhythmic Sports Gymnastics and Artistic Gymnastics.