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A brief mindfulness and yoga intervention with an entire NCAA Division I athletic team: An initial investigation

August 2014
Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice 1(4):339-356

DOI:10.1037/cns0000022

Authors:

Fallon Goodman

George Washington University

Todd B Kashdan

George Mason University

Whereas traditional sports psychology interventions emphasize controlling or reducing distress, mindfulness-based interventions teach tolerance and acceptance of negative thoughts, feelings, and emotions. In the present pilot study, an entire men’s Division I athletic team (n=13) provided voluntary consent and participated in a brief mindfulness-based intervention. Over 5 weeks, the team attended eight 90-min group intervention sessions immediately followed by 1-hr Hatha yoga sessions. Completer analyses showed that following the intervention, participants reported greater mindfulness, greater goal-directed energy, and less perceived stress than before the intervention. Compared with a nonrandomized control group (student athletes from various club sports; n=13), intervention participants reported greater goal-directed energy and mindfulness. We also explored written feedback from players to identify ways to improve the intervention. Implications for practitioners for improving mindfulness-based interventions are discussed.

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Psychology of Consciousness: Theory,

Research, and Practice

A Brief Mindfulness and Yoga Intervention With an Entire

NCAA Division I Athletic Team: An Initial Investigation

Fallon R. Goodman, Todd B. Kashdan, Travis T. Mallard, and Mary Schumann

Online First Publication, August 11, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/cns0000022

CITATION

Goodman, F. R., Kashdan, T. B., Mallard, T. T., & Schumann, M. (2014, August 11). A Brief

Mindfulness and Yoga Intervention With an Entire NCAA Division I Athletic Team: An Initial

Investigation. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice. Advance online

publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/cns0000022

A Brief Mindfulness and Yoga Intervention With an Entire NCAA

Division I Athletic Team: An Initial Investigation

Fallon R. Goodman, Todd B. Kashdan, Travis T. Mallard, and Mary Schumann

George Mason University

Whereas traditional sports psychology interventions emphasize controlling or reducing

distress, mindfulness-based interventions teach tolerance and acceptance of negative

thoughts, feelings, and emotions. In the present pilot study, an entire men’s Division I

athletic team (n⫽13) provided voluntary consent and participated in a brief mindful-

ness-based intervention. Over 5 weeks, the team attended eight 90-min group inter-

vention sessions immediately followed by 1-hr Hatha yoga sessions. Completer anal-

yses showed that following the intervention, participants reported greater mindfulness,

greater goal-directed energy, and less perceived stress than before the intervention.

Compared with a nonrandomized control group (student athletes from various club

sports; n⫽13), intervention participants reported greater goal-directed energy and

mindfulness. We also explored written feedback from players to identify ways to

improve the intervention. Implications for practitioners for improving mindfulness-

based interventions are discussed.

Keywords: mindfulness, intervention, athletes, acceptance and commitment, yoga

College student athletes represent a unique

group potentially at increased risk for emotional

and behavioral difﬁculties (Proctor & Boan-

Lenzo, 2010). In addition to juggling athletic

obligations, academic responsibilities, and in-

terpersonal relationships, student athletes often

are pressed to present the idealized public image

of a college student athlete (Heyman, 1986;

Parham, 1993). Several studies have shown that

student athletes, particularly those playing at

highly competitive levels, engage in riskier be-

haviors (e.g., drug use and binge drinking) com-

pared with their nonathlete peers (Marcello,

Danish, & Stolberg, 1989; Martens, Dams-

O’Connor, & Beck, 2006; Nelson & Wechsler,

2001; Yusko, Buckman, White, & Pandina,

2008). Given that athletic performance and

quality of life can be compromised by stress

unrelated to sports (Haney, 2004), psychologi-

cal interventions might be particularly useful

for athletes.

Traditional Psychological Interventions

With Athletes

Traditional sports psychology, commonly re-

ferred to as psychological skills training (PST;

Meichenbaum, 1977; Whelan, Mahoney, &

Meyers, 1991), emphasizes control of internal

states. Athletes are taught to control or reduce

unwanted thoughts, emotions, and sensations to

increase their potential for achieving an ideal

mental state conducive to optimum perfor-

mance (Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996). A pri-

mary assumption of PST is that decreases in

negative internal experiences (e.g., thoughts,

emotions) minimize distractions and enhance

opportunities for positive experiences and con-

ﬁdence building. Unfortunately, studies have

reported inconsistent ﬁndings regarding

whether reductions in anxiety improve well-

being or athletic performance (for a review, see

Gardner & Moore, 2004).

Fallon R. Goodman, Todd B. Kashdan, Travis T. Mal-

lard, and Mary Schumann, Department of Psychology,

George Mason University.

Fallon R. Goodman and Todd B. Kashdan were ﬁnan-

cially supported by the Center for the Advancement of

Well-Being (CWB), George Mason University. Fallon R.

Goodman is Doctoral Fellow at CWB, and Todd B. Kash-

dan is a Senior Scientist at CWB.

Correspondence concerning this article should be ad-

dressed to Fallon R. Goodman, Department of Psychology,

MS 3F5 George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030.

E-mail: fgoodman@gmu.edu

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2014, Vol. 1, No. 3, 000 2326-5523/14/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/cns0000022

In fact, efforts to control or entirely suppress

negative experiences may be a suboptimal and

even counterproductive strategy for improving

athletes’ performance. An unwillingness to

maintain contact with unpleasant internal

thoughts and emotions is referred to as experi-

ential avoidance (Hayes, Wilson, Gifford, Fol-

lette, & Strosahl, 1996). Although avoiding un-

pleasant experiences can provide temporary

relief from distress, repeated attempts to elimi-

nate or suppress internal experiences often en-

gender a rebound effect of increasing such un-

wanted states (e.g., Farach, Mennin, Smith &

Mandelbaum, 2008; Kashdan et al., in press;

Marx & Sloan, 2005). When dysfunctional reg-

ulatory strategies are used, such as trying to

suppress negative emotions, limited cognitive

resources are depleted or exhausted, which in

turn impairs the ability to adapt to ﬂuctuating

situational demands and promotes a rigid orien-

tation toward experiences called psychological

inﬂexibility. Such rigidity can hinder the pursuit

of valued and meaningful behavior (Hayes,

Strosahl, & Wilson, 1999), is associated with a

variety of mental health problems (see Kashdan

& Rottenberg, 2010 for a review), and may

ultimately be detrimental to athletic perfor-

mance. Accordingly, minimizing or eliminating

experiential avoidance and promoting psycho-

logical ﬂexibility are potentially worthwhile

goals in improving athletic performance.

Mindfulness-Based Interventions With

Athletes

Recent psychological interventions for ath-

letes have turned away from approaches that

emphasize control of internal states (e.g., Daw

& Burton, 1994; Gould & Udry, 1994) in favor

of mindfulness and acceptance-based ap-

proaches. These latter interventions draw on

research from acceptance and commitment ther-

apy (ACT; Hayes, Strosahl, & Wilson, 1999) in

which the core message is to observe and accept

what is beyond one’s control or ability to

change and to commit to actions that are aligned

with personal values. ACT-based approaches

emphasize mindfulness, which is deﬁned as

bringing conscious attention to the present mo-

ment in a receptive, curious manner (Bishop et

al., 2004; Kabat-Zinn, 2003). Individuals are

taught to engage in self-observation by inten-

tionally allowing thoughts, emotions, and

bodily sensations to occur without judgment,

allowing for greater engagement in life as it

naturally unfolds. Researchers have found that

self-reported levels of mindfulness are associ-

ated with adaptive emotion regulation strategies

(Feldman, Hayes, Kumar, Greeson, & Lau-

renceau, 2007), even after controlling for anxi-

ety, stress, and depression (Gratz & Roemer,

2004). Regular mindfulness practice can help

individuals become more adept at guiding at-

tention toward desired stimuli, allocating lim-

ited cognitive resources toward valued ends,

and improving task performance (Slagter et al.,

2007; Zeidan, Johnson, Diamond, David, &

Goolkasian, 2010). It is important to note that

mindful athletes are more likely to experience

ﬂow, a state of energized focus and full involve-

ment, during athletic performance (Bernier,

Thienot, Codron, & Fournier, 2009; Jackson &

Csikszentmihalyi, 1999; Kee & Wang, 2008).

In one study of 13 university athletes, a 6-week

self-administered mindfulness training exercise

increased frequency and duration of ﬂow states

(Aherne, Moran, & Lonsdale, 2011). In another

mindfulness-based intervention, athletes re-

ported increases in trait mindfulness and ﬂow

and decreased task-related worries and task ir-

relevant thoughts (Thompson, Kaufman, De

Petrillo, Glass, & Arnkoff, 2011). Moreover,

researchers have found that regular mindfulness

practice is associated with improvements in

cognitive processing, such as attention orienta-

tion, executive attention, and working memory

(Jha, Stanley, Kiyonaga, Wong, & Gelfand,

2010; van den Hurk, Giommi, Gielen, Speck-

ens, & Barendregt, 2010). In short, training

student athletes in mindfulness and acceptance

might be a better alternative to enhancing per-

formance than more traditional PST.

The Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment

Approach

Gardner and Moore (2004, 2007) developed

the Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment

(MAC) program for athletes. As the name im-

plies, the MAC program has three main com-

ponents: mindfulness, acceptance, and commit-

ment. Participants ﬁrst learn the foundations of

mindfulness through psychoeducation and

group discussions. They practice various expe-

riential exercises to learn how to more ﬂexibly

attend and react to internal experiences. As ath-

2 GOODMAN, KASHDAN, MALLARD, AND SCHUMANN

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letes become increasingly aware of their inter-

nal experiences, they are in a better position to

understand how and when particular experi-

ences impede performance. Awareness facili-

tates understanding of the antecedents, conse-

quences, and contexts in which distress arises

and when it is helpful to rely on acceptance as

opposed to change strategies.

The MAC program places a strong emphasis

on values, which can be deﬁned as guiding life

principles that inﬂuence daily decision making

and serve as the foundation of meaningful

goals. Because individuals do not have the ca-

pacity to highly value everything, given limited

personal resources, values are often prioritized

to determine which values are most important to

achieving relevant goals. The MAC program

helps student athletes evaluate their values

while making an important distinction between

goals and values. Whereas goals pertain to spe-

ciﬁc outcomes, values are continuously con-

structed dynamic patterns of behaviors. For ex-

ample, a basketball player may set the

achievable goal of scoring 20 points each game,

while he may value being a reliable, productive

team member; this value may guide his behav-

ior to achieve his goal. Unfortunately, negative

momentary thoughts and feelings often promote

emotion-driven behaviors that conﬂict and in-

terfere with adhering to values. Because emo-

tions—particularly negative ones—often derail

goal-related efforts, the MAC program teaches

athletes how to use mindfulness skills to in-

crease acceptance of unwanted internal experi-

ences. Accordingly, the basketball player can

learn how to accept unwanted feelings (e.g.,

anxiety) and commit to behavior (e.g., practic-

ing free throw shooting) that is in line with his

value of being a reliable teammate. Together,

awareness and acceptance build commitment

toward values-driven behavior.

Although the MAC approach is based on

empirically supported mindfulness- and accep-

tance-based therapies, research on the efﬁcacy

of the MAC program is scant (for a review, see

Gardner & Moore, 2012). Two open trials have

been published: one with 11 collegiate-level

ﬁeld hockey and volleyball athletes (Wolanin,

2005) and another with seven elite adolescent

golfers (Bernier et al., 2009). Three case studies

were reported with athletes from lacrosse,

swimming, and powerlifting teams (Gardner &

Moore, 2004; Lutkenhouse, 2007; Schwan-

hauser, 2009). Participants in these studies have

generally reported increased levels of mindful-

ness, acceptance, and ﬂow, and several have

found increases in objective measures of ath-

letic performance (Bernier et al., 2009; Gardner

& Moore, 2004) and coaches’ evaluations (Lut-

kenhouse, Gardner, & Moore, 2007). Neverthe-

less, there has yet to be a peer-reviewed study of

the MAC program that includes a controlled

comparison group for team sports. Lutken-

house, Gardner, and Moore (2007) conducted a

large randomized control trial that compared

MAC with PST, but this remains unpublished,

and Bernier et al.’s (2009) controlled trial with

golfers did not evaluate the efﬁcacy of the MAC

program in the context of team sports. The

primary goal of this study is to ﬁll this gap and

contribute to the small but growing body of

literature regarding the efﬁcacy of the MAC

intervention. Because we were especially inter-

ested in student athletes’ well-being, we in-

cluded multiple measures of psychological and

emotional functioning.

Yoga as Physical Practice of Mindfulness

Mindfulness practices can be taught through

mind–body exercises such as yoga. The central

message of yoga is to learn how to listen and

respond to bodily sensations. This awareness

helps individuals move to a comfortable “phys-

ical and mental space” while challenging their

body (Shiffmann, 1996). Various physical

poses and movements are used to increase

awareness of one’s physical and mental states.

Yoga practitioners are shown how to mindfully

focus their attention on the present moment.

Several studies have supported the physical and

psychological beneﬁts of yoga. In a comprehen-

sive review of 81 studies that compared yoga to

other types of physical exercise (e.g., walking,

running, cycling), Ross and Thomas (2010)

found that yoga was equally or more effective at

improving multiple factors related to one’s

well-being, including decreased stress and fa-

tigue. Some of these beneﬁts have been docu-

mented at a physiological level (e.g., decreased

cortisol; Kamei et al., 2000). More frequent

yoga practice has been associated with more

positive emotions, fewer negative emotions,

and increased satisfaction with life (Impett,

Daubenmier, & Hirschman, 2006), and some

studies have observed beneﬁcial effects after a

3MINDFULNESS INTERVENTION WITH COLLEGE ATHLETE TEAM

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single yoga session (e.g., Telles, Gaur, &

Balkrishna, 2009). In addition, yoga-based in-

terventions have been associated with reduc-

tions in levels of depression and anxiety (Kirk-

wood, Rampes, Tuffrey, Richardson, &

Pilkington, 2005; Pilkington, Kirkwood,

Rampes, & Richardson, 2005). When compared

with contemplative practices that lack active

physical activity (e.g., body scanning, medita-

tion), researchers have found yoga to be more

effective at increasing mindfulness and well-

being and reducing perceived stress and anxiety

(Carmody & Baer, 2008).

The Present Study

In this study, we explored the utility, feasibility,

and potential efﬁcacy of a comprehensive mind-

fulness intervention for student athletes. We eval-

uated whether a 5-week intervention could im-

prove the well-being of an entire men’s NCAA

Division I athletic team. We used Gardner and

Moore’s (2007) MAC program to teach athletes

how to be mindful and accepting of negative

thoughts, identify values, and commit to behaviors

that align with their values. We modiﬁed Gard-

ner’s original protocol in two ways. First, we

condensed the 8-week protocol (one session per

week) to 5 weeks (two sessions each week, one

session the ﬁrst and last weeks) to increase the

feasibility and practicality of delivering the inter-

vention. Second, student athletes participated in

60-min yoga classes after each session to incor-

porate more physical movement into the interven-

tion.

Method

Participants

Participants were 26 college student athletes (M

age ⫽20.23, SD ⫽1.53). For the experimental

group, an entire NCAA Division I male Varsity

team (13 student athletes) participated in the in-

tervention (Mage ⫽20.08, SD ⫽1.26). Eleven

(84.6%) of the participants were African Ameri-

can, 1 (7.7%) participant was Caucasian, and 1

(7.7%) participant identiﬁed as other. This study

was approved by the university’s institutional re-

view board and the Director of Athletics. Before

the intervention, researchers met with the student

athletes (without coaching staff) to introduce the

program and address any concerns. Participants

were told that their choice to participate would not

affect their standing with their athletic team or the

university, and at no point would their individual

data be shared with coaching personnel.

Written consent was obtained from all partici-

pants. Although all participants completed the in-

tervention, one participant did not complete pre-

program questionnaires, and four participants did

not complete postprogram questionnaires. Thus,

our ﬁnal sample for analyses in the experimental

group was eight. Those who did not complete

postprogram questionnaires did not signiﬁcantly

differ from those completed the questionnaires on

any of the baseline measures.

Because of our small sample size and the

exploratory nature of this pilot study, we chose

not to use imputation methods for missing data.

Nonetheless, our results should be interpreted

with this consideration.

To evaluate whether any effects were because

of the presence of an intervention, we recruited an

additional group of student athletes. The control

group consisted of 13 male student athletes from

club sports teams (Mage ⫽20.38, SD ⫽1.80).

Six (46.2%) of the participants were Caucasian, 4

(30.8%) participants were Asian, 2 (15.4%) par-

ticipants were Hispanic, and 1 (7.7%) participant

was African American. Participants in the control

group ﬁlled out pre- and postquestionnaires but

did not participate in the intervention. They were

recruited from club sports teams (via ﬂyers) from

the same university to maximize similarity with

the experimental group. Although club teams

compete at a less competitive level than varsity

teams, they often have similar time and energy

demands.

Procedure

Participants in the experimental group were

recruited in coordination with the campus ath-

letic department.

Over 5 weeks, the team

attended eight 90-min mindfulness-based ses-

sions, each followed by 60-min Hatha yoga

sessions. All sessions were voluntary, and

participation had no inﬂuence on the partici-

pants’ standing with their respective athletic

teams or the university. To determine the

efﬁcacy of the intervention, participants com-

Our research team coordinated with athletic department

to offer the intervention to all athletic teams. We chose

teams based on interest and availability.

4 GOODMAN, KASHDAN, MALLARD, AND SCHUMANN

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This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

pleted self-report measures before and after

the intervention. Participants in the control

group were recruited through campus ﬂyers

and Listserv emails for a “study investigating

the relationship between psychological pro-

cesses and student athletes’ well-being.” Con-

trol group participants completed all mea-

sures at two time points 5 weeks apart, but

they did not participate in the intervention.

They were compensated $20 for completing

the measures.

MAC intervention. Two experienced fa-

cilitators led each MAC session. We followed

the procedures outlined in Gardner and

Moore’s (2007) protocol (see Table 1 for a

summary). Instructor 1 has a doctorate in

clinical psychology and is a licensed clinical

psychologist. She has taught university-level

courses on meditation, mindfulness, and

sports psychology. Instructor 2 is a registered

yoga instructor at the 500-hr level and holds

professional certiﬁcations in positive psy-

chology and advanced coaching. She is the

director of a mindfulness living learning pro-

gram and has taught university level courses

on the science and application of mind–body

integration. Participants received homework

assignments at the end of each session. These

assignments were voluntary (although en-

couraged), and no data were collected on ad-

herence or effectiveness.

Session 1: Introducing mindfulness.

Group instructors introduced the MAC ap-

proach and provided an explanation of funda-

mental concepts of mindfulness. Instructors ex-

plained that by being mindfully aware, one is

better able to accept negative internal experi-

ences (e.g., anxiety, anger) while attending to

the external environment (e.g., taking a foul

shot). The instructors then led the Brief Center-

ing Exercise, where participants attended to

their breath, switched their attention to their

surroundings, then back to their body. The goal

is to learn how to ﬂexibly move one’s attention

between internal and external sensations. The

suggested homework was to practice and record

mindful breathing (brief periods of focusing

only on the breath, allowing thoughts to come

and go, and to bring attention back to the

breath). Participants were also asked to com-

plete a worksheet, What I Have Learned About

Performance and Myself, in which they re-

ﬂected on what they learned during the session

and how it related to their performance.

Session 2: Introducing cognitive defusion.

Group instructors began the session with the

Brief Centering Exercise to reinforce a pat-

tern of mindful-based behavior. Instructors

introduced the concept of cognitive fusion,

which is when thoughts and feelings are seen

as truth rather than subjective experiences.

Thoughts and feelings are “fused” with reality

(“I think I am worthless, therefore I truly am

worthless”), so that individuals are unable to

view themselves as experiencing thoughts as

“just thoughts or feelings” and exhaust lim-

ited cognitive resources in the process. One

goal of mindfulness is to create cognitive

defusion, which is a state of mind character-

ized by psychological distance from subjec-

tive experiences (Blackledge, 2007). This dis-

tance allows one to see thoughts and feelings

as ﬂeeting psychological states rather than

factual interpretations of reality. As an exam-

ple, the instructors presented three state-

ments: “I am a loser,” “I think I am a loser,”

and “I am having the thought that I am a

loser.” Participants used this framework to

recall thoughts and feelings about a recent

event and differentiate between “having a

thought versus believing the thought.” Sug-

gested homework was to use mindfulness dur-

ing a simple daily activity (e.g., eating, brush-

ing teeth). The session concluded with the

Brief Centering Exercise.

Session 3: Introducing values and values-

driven behavior. In Session 3, to illustrate

how values can guide meaningful behavior

(like a compass), the instructors introduced

values-driven behavior. Values-driven behav-

iors are actions that are in line with one’s

values (e.g., doing 30 min of cardio training

to improve conditioning despite fatigue),

whereas emotion-driven behaviors are actions

in response to emotions and may not be in line

with one’s values (e.g., avoiding training be-

cause the athlete ﬁnds it difﬁcult). Partici-

pants identiﬁed a situation, the emotions it

triggered, what they did to try control the

emotions, and the short- and long-term effects

of trying to control the emotions. The session

concluded with the Mindfulness of the Breath

Exercise, an extension of the Brief Centering

Exercise, in which individuals continuously

focus on their breath while noticing the ﬂow

5MINDFULNESS INTERVENTION WITH COLLEGE ATHLETE TEAM

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Table 1

Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment Intervention Session Content

Session theme Session goals Psychoeducation Experiential exercises Suggested homework

Session 1: Introduction Develop rapport, introduce

foundational concepts Rationale of mindfulness, acceptance,

and commitment; acknowledging

negative thoughts–feelings

Brief centering exercise Mindfulness of breath practice,

what I have learned about

performance and myself

Session 2: Mindfulness Introduce concept of

cognitive defusion,

discuss perceived

stressors

Having vs. believing a thought Progressive muscle relaxation;

visualize thoughts,

emotions, and reactions to

past event

Mindful walking, self-

monitoring of mindfulness

practice

Session 3: Goals and

values Differentiate values from

goals, clarify individual

and group values and

goals

Value-driven vs. emotion-driven

behavior Reﬂective writing, discussion

in pairs, mindfulness of

breath

Mindful athletic activity, given

up for emotions form

Session 4: Experiential

acceptance Introduce concept of

experiential acceptance Function of anxiety Recall stressful event with

awareness of bodily

reaction, mindfulness of

breath

Emotion and performance

interference form

Session 5: Commitment Introduce commitment as

ongoing process Commitment as a process Seeing exercise commitment

to values, exercise

mindfulness of breath

Mindfulness practice relevant

to performance goals

Session 6: Behavioral

ﬂexibility Introduce concept of

behavioral ﬂexibility Tolerance of negative affect Task-focused attention Use mindfulness in high-

intensity situation, task-

focused attention exercise

outside of class

Identify different responses

to challengesidentify

different responses to

challenges

Fixed vs. growth mindset Exercise body scan

Session 7: Skill

consolidation Integrate learned concepts How to apply mindfulness to novel

activities Brief centering exercise task-

focused attention exercise Task-focused attention activity

during athletic practice

Session 8: Skill

maintenance Encourage athletes to

apply skills in athletic

performance and

everyday situations

Beneﬁts of practicing mindfulness Mindfulness of breath Post-MAC practice plan form

6 GOODMAN, KASHDAN, MALLARD, AND SCHUMANN

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of air going in and out of the body and the

abdomen rising and falling. Suggested home-

work was to use mindfulness during a speciﬁc

athletic activity (e.g., throwing, catching).

Session 4: Costs of avoidance and beneﬁts

of acceptance. Session 4 began with the

Mindfulness of the Breath Exercise. The in-

structors then introduced the concepts of expe-

riential avoidance and acceptance. They ex-

plained that experiential avoidance is the

effortful attempt to control or eliminate un-

wanted negative thoughts and emotions,

whereas experiential acceptance is the willing-

ness to experience (i.e., not try to change) un-

wanted private events in the pursuit of one’s

values and goals. An imagery exercise was used

to relate these concepts to athletic performance.

Participants were invited to recall a situation in

which they found it difﬁcult or stressful to per-

form well, and to use personally relevant imag-

ery to increase awareness and acceptance of

bodily reactions to negative experiences. For

homework, participants received the Emotion

and Performance Interference Form and were

encouraged to record performance situations

and assess how their emotions interfered with

performance. The session concluded with

Mindfulness of the Breath Exercise.

Session 5: Enhancing commitment.

Session 5 began with the Brief Centering Exer-

cise. To initiate a discussion about commitment,

participants received a handout about growth

mindset versus ﬁxed mindset.

The handout ex-

plained that a growth mindset is an orientation

toward embracing challenges, persisting

through setbacks, and learning from experi-

ences. A ﬁxed mindset, in contrast, is an orien-

tation toward avoiding challenges, easily giving

up, and ignoring feedback. Instructors used

open-ended questions to prompt reﬂection, in-

cluding, “What progress have I made today?”

and “Am I standing in the way of my potential

or trying to avoid difﬁcult emotions?” Partici-

pants completed the Committing to Values ex-

ercise, in which they identiﬁed a performance

value, short-term and long-term goals associ-

ated with that value, and a behavioral change to

achieve desired performance. The suggested

homework was to apply mindfulness practices

relevant to identiﬁed performance goals. The

session concluded with the Mindfulness of the

Breath Exercise.

Session 6: Enhancing ﬂexibility. Session 6

began with the Brief Centering Exercise. Par-

ticipants then paired up and completed the

Task-Focused Attention Exercise, in which they

learned how to redirect their attention from in-

ternal processes (emotions or thoughts) to an

external task. For the Task-Focused Attention

Exercise, one partner shared a story while the

other listened but made no eye contact. Then,

the listening partner recalled the story in as

much detail as possible, while simultaneously

identifying what additional internal or external

stimuli in which he or she was simultaneously

aware. Pairs repeated this process until the lis-

tening partner correctly identiﬁed at least 50%

of the story’s details. Participants then created

opposite action plans in which they identiﬁed

what they were avoiding (e.g., lifting weights),

then created plans to actively pursue them (e.g.,

schedule an even longer period of time to lift

weights). The suggested homework was to use

mindfulness in high-intensity performance situ-

ations (e.g., athletic games) and to complete a

Task-Focused Attention Exercise outside of

session. The session concluded with the Body

Scan Exercise, in which participants attended to

their breath then progressively moved their at-

tention from one area of the body to another.

Session 7: Attention and reinforcing

mindfulness. Session 7 began with the Brief

Centering Exercise. Participants then completed

a Task-Focused Attention Exercise in pairs.

One person counted backward from 100 by 7s

(serial 7s) while they simultaneously listened to

their partner tell a story. The goal was to im-

prove attention to a speciﬁc task despite in-

creases in cognitive demand. Participants were

asked to envision a sporting situation and ex-

plain how they could best direct their attention.

They discussed the different types of attention

necessary in sports (e.g., broad, external atten-

tion such as sizing up the whole court, and

narrow, external attention such as focusing on

catching the ball). The suggested homework

was to engage in a Task-Focused Attention Ex-

ercise during an upcoming athletic practice.

Session 8: Maintaining and enhancing

mindfulness, acceptance, and commitment.

Session 8 began with the Mindfulness of Breath

Instructors included this supplemental handout. It is not

included in Gardner and Moore’s (2007) original protocol.

7MINDFULNESS INTERVENTION WITH COLLEGE ATHLETE TEAM

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Exercise. The group then discussed a ﬁnal re-

view of the intervention. Participants paired up

to discuss how they planned to achieve their

individual performance goals, which was fol-

lowed by a group discussion on how to achieve

team goals. Participants completed the Post-

MAC Practice Plan Form to assess performance

values, goals, obstacles, and avoidant behav-

iors. They were encouraged to use the form to

monitor progress, identify areas for improve-

ment, and use their teammates for support. The

ﬁnal session concluded with Mindfulness of the

Breath.

Yoga. After each mindfulness session, par-

ticipants attended a 60-min group yoga session.

An instructor certiﬁed at the 225-hr level led

Hatha yoga sessions. Hatha yoga refers to a

series of physical exercises known as asanas or

bodily postures that are designed to build phys-

ical and mental strength. The word hatha means

willful or forceful, which refers to the goal of

increasing stamina, strength, and ﬂexibility

through long asanas. Each yoga session began

with a brief welcome during which participants

shared their overall mood and stress. They

warmed up with breathing exercises and low

intensity stretches and then completed a series

of rhythmic exercises, balancing and focus

poses, groin stretches, and restorative poses.

Session closed with a 2-min meditation in a

comfortable pose.

Measures

Mindfulness. The Mindful Attention and

Awareness Scale (MAAS; Brown & Ryan,

2003) was used to assess the frequency of mind-

ful states in everyday life. The MAAS consists

of 15 items (e.g., “I ﬁnd it difﬁcult to stay

focused on what’s happening in the present”)

that assess dispositional mindfulness and are

rated on a scale ranging from 1 (almost always)

to6(almost never). The psychometric validity

of the MAAS is well-supported (Brown &

Ryan, 2003; MacKillop & Anderson, 2007) and

demonstrates incremental validity in uniquely

predicting enhanced self- awareness and psy-

chological well-being above related constructs.

Construct validity has been demonstrated in

predicting changes in mindfulness levels fol-

lowing mindfulness training (Chambers, Lo, &

Allen, 2008) and reductions in stress and rumi-

nation (Shapiro, Oman, Thoresen, Plante, &

Flinders, 2008).

Tolerance of negative affect. The 25-item

Tolerance of Negative Affect States Scale

(TNASS; Bernstein & Brantz, 2012) was used

to assess the capacity to experience and with-

stand speciﬁc negative psychological states.

Items are rated on a scale ranging from 1 (very

intolerant)to5(very tolerant). The TNASS

contains 6 state-speciﬁc subscales: tolerance of

fear/distress, tolerance of sadness/depression,

tolerance of anger, tolerance of disgust, toler-

ance of anxiety/apprehension, and tolerance of

negative social emotional emotions. Factor

analyses have validated the use of these sub-

scale scores, and the full scale had demonstrated

acceptable convergent and discriminant validity

(Bernstein & Brantz, 2012).

Experiential avoidance. The 17-item Ac-

ceptance and Action Questionnaire Version–II

(AAQ-II; Bond et al., 2011) was used to assess

psychological inﬂexibility (i.e., experiential

avoidance). The AAQ-II assesses the degree to

which one is able and likely to tolerate un-

wanted internal experiences (e.g., “My painful

memories prevent me from having a fulﬁlling

life”). Items are rated on a scale ranging from 1

(never true)to7(always true). Construct valid-

ity has been demonstrated in studies predicting

coping with chronic pain (McCracken & Zhao-

O’Brien, 2010) and problematic alcohol use

(Levin et al., 2012). Additional analyses have

concluded that the AAQ-II is a valid and reli-

able measure of psychology inﬂexibility (Fled-

derus, Oude Voshaar, ten Klooster, & Bohlmei-

jer, 2012).

Goal motivation. The Adult Hope Scale

(AHS; Snyder et al., 1991) was used to assess

hope, deﬁned as a positive motivational state

Detailed description of yoga sessions: (a) Welcome:

Each participant shared overall mood and stress. (b) Warm-

up: centering activity (seated breathing or mountain pose),

cat–cow poses, side stretches, three-part breathing exer-

cises, sun salutations (with chair pose). (c) Warrior series

ﬂow: Warrior I, Warrior II, variations of extended side

angle pose, variations of prayer pose. (d) Balancing–focus–

conﬁdence building poses: Crane, Tree, Warrior III, Eagle

pose, Boat pose. (e) Groin stretches: lunges, garland pose,

goddess pose. (f) Restorative poses: spinal twists, child’s

pose, choice of legs up the wall pose or corpse pose with

guided meditations (5–10 min). (f) Closing: easy pose or

half lotus pose with 2-min meditation, appreciations (Na-

maste).

8 GOODMAN, KASHDAN, MALLARD, AND SCHUMANN

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oriented toward achieving goals. The AHS con-

sists of two four-item subscales: Agency, or

goal-directed energy (e.g., “I energetically pur-

sue my goals”) and Pathway, or goal planning

(e.g., “I can think of many ways to get the

things in life that are important to me”). Items

are rated on a scale ranging from 1 (deﬁnitely

false)to8(deﬁnitely true). Good construct va-

lidity and reliability have been demonstrated in

studies predicting coping strategies for individ-

uals diagnosed with breast cancer (Sears, Stan-

ton, & Danoff-Burg, 2003) and college stu-

dents’ athletic performance (Curry, Snyder,

Cook, Ruby, & Rehm, 1997).

Perceived stress. The Perceived Stress

Scale (PSS; Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein,

1983) was used to assess the amount of per-

ceived stress an individual has felt in the past

month. The PSS consists of 14 items (e.g., “In

the last month, how often have you been upset

because of something that happened unex-

pectedly?”), rated on a scale ranging from 0

(never)to4(very often). Predictive validity of

the PSS has been demonstrated with depres-

sion, engagement in healthy behavior, and use

of health services (Cohen & Williamson,

1988).

Commitment to values. The Valued Liv-

ing Questionnaire (VLQ; Wilson et al., 2011)

was used to assess commitment to values

across 10 life domains (e.g., family, friend-

ships, recreation, employment, spirituality).

The VLQ consists of two 10-item subscales

that measure the importance and consistency

an individual places on each life domain.

Items are rated on a scale ranging from 1 (not

at all important or not at all consistent)to10

(extremely important or extremely consis-

tent). A composite score (Importance ⫻Con-

sistency) can also be computed, which helps

quantify the extent to which one is living out

particular values. Construct validity and ac-

ceptable reliability have been demonstrated in

studies predicting quality of life (Michelson,

Lee, Orsillo, & Roemer, 2011) and response

to ACT-based therapy for anxiety (Hayes,

Orsillo, & Roemer, 2010).

Grit. The Short Grit Scale (Grit-S; Duck-

worth & Quinn, 2009) was used to assess

psychological grit, a trait-like perseverance

and passion for long-term goals. The Grit-S

consists of eight items (e.g., “New ideas and

projects sometimes distract me from previous

ones”), rated on a scale ranging from 1 (very

much like me)to5(not like me at all). The

Grit-S has demonstrated construct validity in

studies predicting spelling bee performance

(Duckworth, Kirby, Tsukayama, Berstein, &

Ericsson, 2011), military cadets’ performance

(Eskreis-Winkler, Duckworth, Shulman, &

Beal, 2014), and teacher effectiveness (Duck-

worth, Quinn, & Seligman, 2009).

Cognitive defusion. The Drexel Defusion

Scale (DDS; Forman et al., 2012) was used to

assess the ability to achieve psychological dis-

tance (i.e., defuse) from thoughts and feelings.

The DDS consists of 10 items (e.g., “...Towhat

extent would you normally be able to defuse from

feelings of anger?”), rated on a scale ranging from

0(not at all)to5(very much). The DSS has

demonstrated good psychometric properties, with

a one-factor structure, good internal consistency,

and high convergent validity in both clinical and

nonclinical samples. Construct validity has been

shown in predicting improvements in psycholog-

ical functioning for individuals seeking psycho-

logical treatment (Forman et al., 2012).

Psychological distress. The 21-item De-

pression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-21;

Henry & Crawford, 2005) was used to assess

baseline psychological distress on three di-

mensions: depression, anxiety, and stress.

The DASS-21 prompts individuals to rate the

frequency to which statements about psycho-

logical distress apply on a scale ranging from

0(never)to4(almost always). The DASS-21

has demonstrated reliability as a single factor

(␣⫽.93), and the three subscales also dem-

onstrate acceptable reliability (.88 for Depres-

sion, .82 for Anxiety, and .90 for Stress). The

DASS-21 has also shown good construct va-

lidity (Henry & Crawford, 2005) and good

internal consistency in both community and

clinical samples and across multiple racial

groups (Antony, Bieling, Cox, Enns, & Swin-

son, 1998; Norton, 2007).

Written feedback. We collected written

feedback following the intervention to explore

which components of the program worked best

and what improvements could be made when de-

signing future interventions. Participants re-

sponded to two free-response questions: “What

part of this training do you think will help you

most with your athletic performance?” and “What

feedback, if any, would you like to offer the in-

structors?”

9MINDFULNESS INTERVENTION WITH COLLEGE ATHLETE TEAM

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Results

Experimental Group

We conducted separate repeated-measures t

tests to examine changes from before and after the

intervention (see Table 2).

Given the small sam-

ple size, we conducted effect-size estimates using

Cohen’s d. Following the intervention, partici-

pants in the experimental group reported greater

mindfulness, t(8) ⫽⫺2.88, p⬍.05, d⫽0.48 and

goal-directed energy, t(8) ⫽⫺3.37, p⬍.05, d⫽

0.98, than before the intervention. These effects

were medium to large and large, respectively.

Participants also reported less perceived stress,

t(8) ⫽2.57, p⬍.05, d⫽0.26, a signiﬁcant but

small effect. We also report ﬁndings at trending

levels of signiﬁcance to guide future research en-

deavors to replicate or extend our ﬁndings. We

found a trend for tolerance of negative affect, such

that participants reported greater tolerance of dis-

gust, t(8) ⫽⫺2.20, p⫽.06, d⫽0.50, and states

of anxiety and apprehension, t(8) ⫽⫺1.94, p⫽

.09, d⫽0.61. Although neither of these effects

was signiﬁcant, the analyses yielded medium ef-

fect sizes. No statically signiﬁcant differences

were found for the other tolerance of negative

affect subscales: fear-distress, sadness-depression,

anger and negative social emotions (ps⬎.40). We

also found a trend for the importance of valued

living, such that following the intervention, par-

ticipants reported greater importance of valued life

domains, t(8) ⫽1.97, p⫽.09, d⫽0.76. Consis-

tency of behavior, however, did not change,

t(8) ⫽0.43, p⫽.68, d⫽0.18. Although we

found no signiﬁcant differences in composite

scores, t(8) ⫽0.98, p⫽.36, d⫽1.17, analyses

yielded a large effect size. No differences in re-

ported grit or experiential avoidance were evident.

Group Comparisons

Baseline comparisons revealed that the

groups did not differ in levels of anxiety, stress,

or depression (from DASS subscales), with the

experimental group reporting relatively low lev-

els of anxiety (M⫽0.79, SD ⫽0.51), stress

(M⫽0.97, SD ⫽0.49), and depression (M⫽

0.69, SD ⫽0.51), comparable to the control

group: anxiety (M⫽0.64, SD ⫽0.36), stress

(M⫽0.83, SD ⫽0.47), and depression (M⫽

0.65, SD ⫽0.59); all ps⬎.30.

Consistent with expectations for the control

group, we found no signiﬁcant changes from

pre- to postassessment for any measure (ps⬎

.05). Repeated-measures analyses of variance

(ANOVAs) revealed that compared with the

control group, participants in the experimental

group reported a greater increase in mindful-

ness, F(1, 19) ⫽4.55, p⬍.05, and goal-

directed energy, F(1, 19) ⫽4.94 p⬍.05.

Written Feedback

We explored written excerpts from players (see

Table 3) to identify directions for future interven-

tions. We used a simple count of subject words to

identify themes in responses. In response to the

question, “What part of this training do you think

will help you most with your athletic perfor-

mance?” six players wrote “focus,” “focusing,” or

“shift.” Statements containing these words per-

tained to refocusing or shifting attention to the

present moment. Two players wrote either “team”

or “teammates.” In response to the question,

“What feedback, if any, would you like to offer

the instructors?” Four players wrote “more activ-

ity,” “more hands on activities,” or “mindful ac-

tivity.” Statements containing these words per-

tained to incorporating more experiential activities

into the intervention.

Discussion

This pilot study provides preliminary support

for the utility and feasibility of a brief mindful-

ness-based and yoga intervention for student

athletes. Following the intervention, student

athletes from a men’s NCAA Division I athletic

team reported greater mindfulness, greater goal-

Given our small sample size and missing data, we

addressed issues of nonnormally distributed data by con-

ducting nonparametric tests for all research questions. We

found identical effects. To examine prepost changes within

each group, we conducted Wilcoxon signed-rank tests. Par-

ticipants from the experimental group reported greater

mindfulness (z⫽2.03, p⬍.05), greater goal-directed

energy (z⫽2.56, p⬍.05), less perceived stress (z⫽2.06,

p⬍.05), and greater tolerance of disgust (z⫽1.79, p⬍

.05). At trending of levels of signiﬁcance, participants re-

ported greater tolerance of anxiety and apprehension (z⫽

1.79, p⫽.07) and greater importance of valued living (z⫽

1.86, p⫽.06). No signiﬁcant differences were found for

control group participants. To compare changes between the

two groups, we conducted Mann–Whitney Utests. Experi-

mental group participants reported greater increase in mind-

fulness (z⫽2.10, p⬍.05) and goal-directed energy (z⫽

1.95, p⫽.052).

10 GOODMAN, KASHDAN, MALLARD, AND SCHUMANN

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Table 2

Well-Being Indicators for Experimental and Control Groups Before and After the Intervention

Variable

Experimental group Control group

Pre M(SD) Post M(SD)tdCI for dPre M(SD) Post M(SD)tdCI for d

Mindfulness 3.60 (1.13) 4.08 (0.85) ⫺2.88

ⴱ

0.48 [0.03, 0.93] 4.08 (0.90) 3.88 (1.07) ⫺0.88 0.20 [⫺0.30, 0.70]

DT Fear–distress 3.34 (0.83) 3.53 (0.49) ⫺0.78 0.23 [⫺0.55, 1.01] 3.57 (0.67) 3.58 (1.06) 0.03 ⫺0.01 [⫺0.57, 0.55]

DT Sadness–

depression 3.12 (1.11) 3.46 (0.50) ⫺0.73 0.38 [⫺0.91, 1.67] 3.38 (1.00) 3.36 (1.10) ⫺0.1 0.02 [⫺0.51, 0.55]

DT Anger 3.30 (0.81) 3.58 (0.71) ⫺0.70 0.32 [⫺1.01, 1.65] 3.64 (1.13) 3.62 (1.27) ⫺0.13 0.02 [⫺0.33, 0.37]

DT Disgust 3.38 (0.79) 3.83 (0.80) ⫺2.20

†

0.50 [⫺0.20, 1.20] 3.49 (0.88) 3.59 (1.09) 0.37 ⫺0.10 [⫺0.70, 0.50]

DT Anxiety–

apprehension 3.12 (1.10) 3.69 (0.65) ⫺1.94

†

0.61 [⫺0.18, 1.40] 3.50 (0.89) 3.62 (1.08) 0.32 ⫺0.12 [⫺0.92, 0.68]

DT Negative social

emotions 3.31 (0.76) 3.25 (0.68) 0.34 .07 [⫺0.53, 0.67] 3.21 (0.92) 3.38 (1.13) .84 ⫺0.17 [⫺0.60, 0.26]

Experiential

avoidance 2.91 (1.02) 2.48 (1.23) 1.08 0.41 [⫺0.45, 1.27] 2.12 (0.67) 2.26 (1.11) 0.47 ⫺0.15 [⫺0.85, 0.55]

Goal directed

energy 6.63 (0.58) 7.34 (0.46) ⫺3.37

ⴱ

0.98 [⫺0.16, 2.12] 6.77 (0.63) 6.83 (0.96) 0.30 ⫺0.07 [⫺0.53, 0.39]

Goal planning 6.81 (0.83) 6.81 (1.26) 0 0 [⫺1.10, 1.10] 6.73 (0.66) 6.75 (0.96) 0.11 ⫺0.02 [⫺0.42, 0.38]

Perceived stress 1.79 (0.62) 1.57 (0.76) 2.57

ⴱ

0.26 [⫺0.01, 0.53] 1.59 (0.53) 1.67 (0.49) 0.36 ⫺0.11 [⫺0.71, 0.49]

VL Importance 7.11 (1.95) 8.09 (1.4) 1.97

†

0.76 [⫺0.06, 1.58] 7.09 (1.64) 7.75 (1.52) 1.24 0.53 [⫺0.24, 1.30]

VL Consistency 6.97 (2.12) 7.23 (2.09) 0.43 .18 [⫺0.53, 0.89] 7.50 (1.73) 7.88 (1.49) 0.88 0.30 [⫺0.29, 0.89]

VL Composite 58.20 (28.39) 64.30 (25.67) 0.98 1.17 [0.26, 2.08] 58.19 (21.75) 66.42 (19.24) 1.23 1.82 [0.74, 2.90]

Grit 3.84 (0.68) 3.95 (0.56) ⫺1.18 0.14 [⫺0.20, 0.48] 3.42 (0.59) 3.48 (0.67) 0.49 ⫺0.08 [⫺0.48, 0.32]

Cognitive defusion 3.03 (0.72) 3.21 (1.03) ⫺0.64 0.19 [⫺0.57, 0.95] 2.79 (0.69) 3.01 (0.92) 1.46 ⫺0.25 [⫺0.63, 0.13]

Note. Pre ⫽before the intervention; Post ⫽after the intervention; CI for d⫽conﬁdence interval for effect size; DT ⫽distress tolerance; VL ⫽valued living.

†

p⬍.10.

ⴱ

p⬍.05.

11MINDFULNESS INTERVENTION WITH COLLEGE ATHLETE TEAM

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directed energy, and less perceived stress than

before the intervention. Participants also re-

ported greater tolerance of negative experiences

(at trending levels of signiﬁcance), such that

participants reported greater comfort with dis-

gust and anxiety after the intervention. To en-

sure any effects found were because of the inter-

vention, as a control comparison group, athletes

from various club sports teams from the same

university completed the same questionnaires at

Table 3

Student Athletes’ Written Feedback About the Intervention

Prompt Response

What part of this training do you

think will help you most with

your athletic performance?

The part that would help me the most is the mental exercises where we

close our eyes and concentrate. Also learning how to shift our

attention to the task at hand.

I think that learning how to control my thoughts will help me the most

as far as my athletic performance goes. The way of noticing what

I’m doing and being able to shift at the moment will be a lifesaver.

I think that the meditation and refocusing will keep improving my

performance. A big part of why I may not perform as well as I want

to is that I am beating myself up or anxious. Just accepting the

anxiety and refocusing to the task at hand and being conﬁdent in my

abilities.

The mindfulness-acceptance-commitment training was very helpful. I

think it will help me during the season. Now when I make mistakes

I will not focus on the mistake, I will let it go. This program helped

me focus on the bigger picture. When I make a mistake I will tune

out the negative and focus more on to the next play.

I think that having a team sit together and talk to each other and get to

learn more about the individual is what allows the team to come

closer. Also being able to hear everybody individual goals and team

goals.

Knowing what my teammates goals are so I can help them accomplish

them. Also being able to control my breathing.

Focusing on the present moment. Being able to recognize my thoughts/

acceptance/avoidance.

I think what will help me most is being able to refocus my attention.

Not only in [speciﬁc sport], but being able to focus on everyday

tasks. When and if I ﬁnd myself wandering, I will challenge myself

to focus on the task at hand.

What feedback, if any, would

you like to offer the

instructors?

No feedback in particular. I think they did a great job and tried to

understand the mindset of every person in the room. I enjoy the

class and they weren’t judgmental of any of the information we

shared.

I don’t have anything negative to say, but keep up the wonderful work.

This program was very boring at times. I think the centering exercises

need to be shorter because I tend to lose focus fast. I think that there

needs to be more activity instead of all just talking.

I think that the instructors did a great job and helped us stay positive

and also made it fun for us.

As far as what could be changed I think that more hands on activities

would be great. Maybe some “mindful” games that will help us to

focus our attention or center ourselves. Maybe more videos on

particular studies done of different mindfulness practices.

More hands on activities for the players to do so we can stay engaged

I would love to continue this program. I think this will help me and

my teammates out.

I enjoyed the idea of the program but the actual sessions were not as

interactive as I expected it to be. There was a lot of discussion about

what “mindfulness” is, but not much mindful activity besides the

opening and closing. It would be cool if the training sessions were

conducted somehow incorporated the actual sport.

12 GOODMAN, KASHDAN, MALLARD, AND SCHUMANN

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the pre- and postintervals. Student athletes who

completed the intervention reported greater in-

creases in goal-directed energy and mindfulness

than did student athletes in the control group. In

written feedback following the intervention, sev-

eral players wrote that the mindfulness activities

were the most helpful part of the intervention and

suggested that incorporating more hands-on exer-

cises would improve the intervention.

Consistent with expectations, participants re-

ported greater levels of mindfulness following

the intervention and compared with a control

group. Participants learned foundations of

mindfulness and practiced skills during each

session. The efﬁcacy of mindfulness interven-

tions is well supported (Roemer & Orsillo,

2009), and participants have reported increased

levels of mindfulness in a short period of time

(e.g., Erisman, & Roemer, 2010; Zeidan et al.,

2010). We also found that participants were

better able to tolerate negative experiences (spe-

ciﬁcally, negative affect and disgust) following

the intervention, although this effect did not

reach statistical signiﬁcance. A primary feature

of mindfulness is to allow experiences to occur

without judgment and accept them as they nat-

urally unfold. More speciﬁcally, an open and

receptive attitude promotes acceptance of neg-

ative internal states (Kabat-Zinn, 1990; Shapiro,

Carlson, Astin, & Freedman, 2006; Teasdale,

1999). Such openness is important for athletes,

as the hallmark of competitive sporting environ-

ments is ﬂuctuating demands and opportunities

to fall short of such demands and experience

failure (e.g., missing a shot, receiving a pen-

alty). In a related way, participants reported

lower perceived stress following the interven-

tion, which might point to an increased ability

to cope with negative events.

We found encouraging support for the impor-

tance of incorporating values work into inter-

ventions. Following the intervention, partici-

pants reported increased levels of importance of

valued life domains, which failed to reach sta-

tistical signiﬁcance yet are suggestive in terms

of directing future research and program devel-

opment. Greater awareness and clariﬁcation of

values would be expected to increase salience of

their importance. Because individuals have a

ﬁnite amount of resources to devote to multiple

life domains, particularly time-burdened college

student athletes, it might be helpful to clarify

and identify which are most personally mean-

ingful. In terms of goals, participants reported

greater goal-directed energy following the in-

tervention and compared with the control group.

Research suggests that values exploration plays

a central role in goal attainment (Sheldon &

Elliot, 1999; Sheldon & Houser-Marko, 2001).

In fact, a recent study of an ACT-based inter-

vention revealed that values exploration com-

bined with goal setting resulted in improved

performance, yet goal setting alone did not pre-

dict performance (Chase et al., 2013). Accord-

ingly, clarifying values might motivate goal

pursuit.

Implications for Practitioners

We explored players’ written feedback from

their exit interviews to identify strengths and

areas to build on for future interventions. Sev-

eral players indicated that the intervention could

be improved by including more active, experi-

ential exercises. Long periods of lecturing

where participants remained inactive might

have resulted in boredom and inattention.

Because athletes are accustomed to intense,

frequent exercise, they may prefer to learn

through active and experiential methods, as in-

dicated by a recent study with student athletes

(Groves, Bowd, & Smith, 2010). Practitioners

that conduct interventions with athletes should

harness their propensity toward physical move-

ment. This might provide additional support for

the beneﬁt a complementary mind–body exer-

cise component (e.g., yoga), although this re-

mains to be explicitly tested. Additionally, a

group format might be helpful to build team

morale and trust.

Two players wrote the words “team” or

“teammates” in their response to what they

found most helpful. Completing exercises that

encourage self-disclosure (e.g., see Method,

Session 3: Introducing values and values-driven

behavior section) may increase closeness

among participants in a group (see Collins &

Miller, 1994, for a meta-analytic review). Ac-

tive participation, especially when directed to-

ward a shared task, may facilitate teamwork and

improve group cohesiveness within teams.

Limitations and Future Directions

Our ﬁndings should be interpreted in light of

several limitations that preclude deﬁnitive con-

clusions, including a lack of randomization in

13MINDFULNESS INTERVENTION WITH COLLEGE ATHLETE TEAM

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This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

treatment group assignment and differences in

recruitment of the two groups of student ath-

letes. Athletes in the control group represented

different teams across diverse sports, as op-

posed athletes in the experimental group who

were members of a single team. Researchers

have emphasized that individualizing athletic

intervention programs to each sport is important

to their effectiveness (e.g., Martin & Toogood,

1997). The advantages of interventions may dif-

fer across sports depending on the unique de-

mands of the sport. For example, one study

found differences in observed effects of a mind-

fulness program between elite golfers and

swimmers (Bernier et al., 2009). Another limi-

tation from the vantage point of implementation

of the program is that we did not measure ath-

letic performance. Indeed, it is likely that stu-

dent athletes and coaching personnel would be

more likely adopt an intervention that has been

shown to improve performance. Future research

is needed to determine whether improvements

in psychological well-being and mindfulness

translate into improvements in physical perfor-

mance (e.g., Iso-Ahola, 1995; Jowett & Cramer,

2009). We recommend that subsequent studies

are more adequately powered to document po-

tential differences across intervention and con-

trol groups. A number of potentially interesting

ﬁndings in the current research emerged at only

trending levels of statistical signiﬁcance and

these ﬁndings should not be regarded as reliable

until conﬁrmed in future investigations. Finally,

because we combined psychological training

(MAC program) with mind–body exercises

(yoga), we are unable to determine which com-

ponent of the intervention exerted a greater in-

ﬂuence on the participants. Nevertheless, the

combination of these two approaches may yield

the greatest beneﬁt, insofar as psychological

training and yoga training reinforce mindful-

ness in complementary yet distinct ways.

Our study provides insight into how to best

conduct mindfulness and acceptance-based in-

terventions with student athletes. We provide

preliminary support for the efﬁcacy of a brief

psychological intervention that incorporates

mind–body exercises. We add to the growing

body of support for ACT-based approaches that

teach athletes how to be mindful and accepting

of negative states rather than trying to eliminate,

suppress, or control them. Our examination of

players’ written feedback highlights the need

for practitioners to administer experiential ex-

ercises that invite athletes to actively partici-

pate. To develop the most effective interven-

tions for student athletes, researchers are

encouraged to examine mindfulness and accep-

tance strategies and continue to explore the

mechanisms of psychological interventions that

may beneﬁt not only athletes, but the general

population as well.

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Received February 21, 2014

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Accepted June 4, 2014 䡲

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Mar 2023

O desempenho esportivo é influenciado por múltiplas habilidades. Com o objetivo de aprimorar habilidades psicológicas, diversas intervenções têm sido desenvolvidas, como o treinamento de mindfulness (TI), tornando-se necessário avaliar os efeitos dessas intervenções para futuros direcionamentos. O presente estudo teve como objetivo investigar os efeitos do TI no desempenho esportivo e nas habilidades psicológicas de atletas por meio de uma revisão sistemática. Esta revisão seguiu as recomendações do PRISMA. Foram incluídos estudos randomizados, não randomizados e intervenções pré e pós, que avaliaram o desempenho esportivo e habilidades psicológicas por meio de instrumentos e procedimentos quantitativos, com amostras compostas por atletas profissionais e amadores, disponíveis em português, espanhol e inglês, e publicados entre 2010-2020. As buscas foram realizadas no MEDLINE, PsycNet, Scopus, LILACS, Web of Science e SPORTDiscus. A elegibilidade e a qualidade dos estudos foram avaliadas por dois pesquisadores independentes. As pesquisas identificaram 1579 artigos e, após análise, 32 estudos foram incluídos. Foi possível identificar efeitos positivos do TI em diferentes variáveis: 11 estudos encontraram efeitos positivos no desempenho esportivo, 14 no estado de mindfulness, 9 no estado de fluxo, 5 na redução da ansiedade competitiva, 3 no estresse, 4 na ansiedade geral e 2 no pessimismo. Conclui-se que o TI pode promover o desempenho esportivo e habilidades psicológicas em atletas, porém é necessário desenvolver estudos com melhor qualidade, especialmente no Brasil.

Effect of yoga and mindfulness on psychological correlates in young athletes: A meta-analysis

Article

Full-text available

May 2023
J Ayurveda Integr Med

Background: This meta-analysis planned to assess the impact of yoga and mindfulness practice in reducing stress and anxiety to improve athletes' sports performance. Methods: Several databases were electronically searched for eligible articles till September 2022. Participants aged 18-45 yrs, male and female, and recreational athletes from different sports were included. Athletes' stress, competitive anxiety, and sports performance were measured. The mean difference or standardized mean difference with a 95% confidence interval was calculated in RevMan software 5.4. The fixed effect model was applied to test the statistical significance difference and heterogeneity (p < 0.05). The GRADE pro evidence was also created to assess the quality of evidence. Results: Results were analyzed with pooled data from fifteen articles. Forest plots showed an overall significant effect of yoga and mindfulness on Mindfulness [Z = 4.13 (p < 0.0001)] [(I2 = 48%), MD -2.6, (95% CI, -3.85, -1.37)] and flow state [Z = 9.49 (p < 0.00001)] [(I2 = 85%), SMD 3.13, (95% CI, 2.48, 3.77)]. The insignificant effects were noted on attention and awareness [Z = 1.51 (p = 0.13)] [(I2 = 25%), SMD -0.26, (95% CI, -0.60, 0.80)], and action and acceptance [Z = 0.43 (p = 0.67)] [(I2 = 0%), MD 0.20, (95% CI, -0.69, 1.08)]. We also observed a significant effect for the comparison of stress [Z = 6.56 (p < 0.00001)] [(I2 = 76%), SMD -0.74, (95% CI, -0.97, 0.52)] and an insignificant effect for comparing anxiety [Z = 1.62 (p = 0.11)] [(I2 = 14%), SMD -0.31, (95% CI, -0.69, 0.07)]. Conclusion: The findings of this meta-analysis provides valuable insights to the beneficial or complementary effects of yoga and mindfulness on athletes' psychological health and sports performance.

Effects of a Yoga Program on Perfomance in Rhytmic Gymnastics: A Case Study

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2023

RESUMEN La Gimnasia Rítmica es un deporte que exige habilidades motoras de alto nivel de dificultad y una perfecta ejecución. El yoga es considerado como una terapia de cuerpo y mente que para muchos investigadores influye en la mejora del rendimiento deportivo. En este trabajo analizamos el efecto de un entrenamiento de Yoga sobre del rendimiento deportivo y las variables psicológicas relacionadas con éste. Participaron 30 gimnastas entre 11 y 16 años que realizaron una sesión de Yoga semanal durante 5 meses, además del entrenamiento de Gimnasia Rítmica. Analizamos los cambios en el rendimiento y en las variables psicológicas estudiadas antes y después de la intervención. Los resultados obtenidos indican una mejora significativa de ambos parámetros. Conclusiones: las gimnastas participantes en nuestro estudio mejoran significativamente el rendimiento después de la intervención, lo que puede sugerir, sin poder generalizar, las ventajas de incluir programas de ejercicios de yoga en su preparación.

The relationship between burnout levels and mindfulness of university students-athletes

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2023

Athlete burnout is a common issue that negatively affects the performance and well being of athletes. This study was conducted to examine the relationship between burnout levels and mindfulness of students who are active athletes. Descriptive analysis and correlational research model were utilized in the study. As data collection tools in the study, “Personal Information Form” including demographic information of the students was requested at first. Two scales were used: The “Athlete Burnout Scale,” developed by Raedeke and Smith and adapted into Turkish by Kelecek et al.; The “Athlete Mindfulness Scale,” developed by Thienot et al. and adapted into Turkish by Tingaz. The research group consisted of a total of 378 people, 96 women and 282 men, who were selected by random sampling method, actively practicing sports. In the study, t-test was used for pairwise comparisons and ANOVA test was used for multiple comparisons. Pearson Correlation analysis was used to determine the relationship between mindfulness and burnout levels. In the study, it was found that there were significant differences in burnout levels depending on the gender variable and in some mindfulness sub-dimensions depending on the branch variable. In addition, it was determined that there was a significant negative relationship between burnout levels and mindfulness levels. The study found that active sports students with high mindfulness levels had lower levels of burnout, indicating that mindfulness may play a role in reducing burnout. While there were differences in mindfulness sub-dimensions based on age and sport type, overall mindfulness levels did not differ significantly.

Is a Brief Body Scan Helpful for Adolescent Athletes' Sleep Problems and Anxiety Symptoms?

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2023
Mindfulness

Objectives: The aim of the study was to compare the effects of a brief body scan with relaxation as an active control group to better understand their respective contributions to the reduction of sleep problems and anxiety symptoms among adolescent athletes. Method: Two hundred and six adolescent athletes were recruited during the school year 2016/2017 and randomized into four arms: 4 weeks body scan, 8 weeks body scan, 4 weeks relaxation, and 8 weeks relaxation. Sleep problems and anxiety were measured at baseline and 4, 8, and 16 weeks after baseline. Time trends in sleep problems and anxiety were estimated using linear repeated measures models and compared between the four groups. Results Overall, there were beneficial time changes for sleep problems and anxiety symptoms in all four intervention groups, but significantly so only for anxiety symptoms. Specifically, the reduction of anxiety symptoms varied between − 11% per month for 8 weeks body scan, − 12% per month for 8 weeks relaxation, − 13% per month for 4 weeks relaxation, and − 16% per month for 4 weeks body scan. However, the time trends did not differ by intervention type or duration. Conclusions Both types of interventions had beneficial effects on anxiety independent of length of intervention, suggesting that a brief body scan as well as a brief relaxation could be part of a daily recovery practice for adolescent athletes.

Using an Online-Based Mindfulness Intervention to Reduce Test Anxiety in Physics Students

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2023

Using an 8-week mindfulness intervention, we investigated the mechanisms of mindfulness to address test anxiety in introductory physics II. Our goal was to explore the effectiveness of using an 8-week online mindfulness intervention to address student test anxiety. We used self-report measures to assess participants on mindfulness, emotional regulation, attentional regulation, and physics quiz scores at three-time points—time 1 (pre), time 2 (mid), and time 3. Participants in the mindfulness condition received 8 weeks of mindfulness training while the control group was used as a baseline for comparison with no mindfulness training. The 8-week online-based mindfulness intervention resulted in non-significant changes in test anxiety and quiz scores for the treatment compared to the control. Additionally, results from multiple regression modeling suggest that emotional regulation positively predicted mindfulness at time 3 (T3) of data collection, whereas attentional regulation negatively predicted mindfulness at T3. These findings have both theoretical and practical implications. Our findings suggest more research is needed to investigate the usefulness of mindfulness-based interventions in STEM-related settings.

Who benefits more from mindfulness? A preliminary study exploring moderating effect of personality traits on competition anxiety in athletes

Article

Mar 2023

Objective Mindfulness can help athletes better regulate their emotions, and analyzing personality traits may help identify those who would benefit more from psychological intervention activities to optimize subsequent training effects. This study sought to examine the effects of mindfulness training on athletes’ competition anxiety and to consider the role of personality traits. Methods Fifty athletes (mean age = 21.87 years, SD = 1.62; 23 females and 27 males) were randomly assigned to a mindfulness group (n = 23), which received 8 weeks of mindfulness training, and a control group (n = 27) receiving no intervention. The athletes’ personality traits, mindfulness level, and competition anxiety were measured according to the study plan before and after mindfulness training, and at an 8-week follow up. Results Compared with the control group, mindfulness training had a positive effect on the level of mindfulness and self-confidence in the mindfulness group, as well as a greater improvement in cognitive/somatic state anxiety. Improvements remained stable from the end of training to follow up. Additionally, athletes with high activity and high extraversion had more improvement in mindfulness levels and cognitive/somatic state anxiety, respectively, while athletes with low neuroticism demonstrated greater improvement in self-confidence. Conclusions Mindfulness training helps to reduce athletes’ competition anxieties, and personality traits might affect the improvement effect to a certain extent, which provided a reference for optimizing mindfulness training and developing more personalized psychological training for athletes who display certain personality traits.

Équilibre stress-récupération et pleine conscience

Chapter

Jan 2023

The roles of readiness and dosage in predicting outcomes of a mindful sport performance enhancement intervention with U.S. college student-athletes

Article

Sep 2023
PSYCHOL SPORT EXERC

Mindfulness alapú technikák használata a sportpszichológia területén - Use of mindfulness-based techniques in the field of sports psychology

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2022

Jelen munka fő célja feltárni azokat a mindfulness alapú intervenciókat, amelyek a sportpszichológia területén hatásosnak bizonyultak. A szakirodalmi áttekintés után kiderült, hogy két ilyen technika van jelenleg, Gardner és Moore (2004) mindfulness alapú elfogadás és elkötelezettség megközelítése (Mindfulnes Acceptance and Commitment Approach - MAC), valamint Kaufman, Glass és Arnkoff (2009) tudatos sportfejlesztési programja (Mindful Sport Enhancement Program-MSPE). Az elemzés során megállapítottuk, hogy mindkét módszer mindfulness alapú és esettanulmányokkal alátámasztották a teljesítménynövelő hatékonyságukat sportolói környezetben, azonban más megközelítést is alkalmaznak. Összességében az eddigi vizsgálatok azt mutatják, hogy a mindfulness alapú technikák elősegítik a flow érzés megjelenését, a koncentrációt és a megfelelő érzelemszabályozást, azonban ezek a vizsgálatok nem sportolói mintán történtek így érdemes lenne ebben a környezetben is megvizsgálni. Továbbá hazai viszonylatban még nem tesztelték a tudatos jelenlét alapú beavatkozások hatását sportolókat tekintve, ezáltal hasznos következtetésekkel járhatna az ilyen jellegű kutatások kivitelezése.

The Psychology of Enhancing Human Performance: The Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC) Approach

Book

Jul 2007

Multidimensional Assessment of Emotion Regulation and Dysregulation: Development, Factor Structure, and Initial Validation of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale

Article

Mar 2004

Given recent attention to emotion regulation as a potentially unifying function of diverse symptom presentations, there is a need for comprehensive measures that adequately assess difficulties in emotion regulation among adults. This paper (a) proposes an integrative conceptualization of emotion regulation as involving not just the modulation of emotional arousal, but also the awareness, understanding, and acceptance of emotions, and the ability to act in desired ways regardless of emotional state; and (b) begins to explore the factor structure and psychometric properties of a new measure, the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS). Two samples of undergraduate students completed questionnaire packets. Preliminary findings suggest that the DERS has high internal consistency, good test–retest reliability, and adequate construct and predictive validity.

Self-concordance, goal attainment, and the pursuit of happiness: Can there be an upward spiral?

Article

Jan 2001

Two studies used the self-concordance model of healthy goal striving (K. M. Sheldon & A. J. Elliot, 1999) to examine the motivational processes by which people can increase their level of well-being during a period of time and then maintain the gain or perhaps increase it even further during the next period of time. In Study I, entering freshmen with self-concordant motivation better attained their 1st-semester goals, which in turn predicted increased adjustment and greater self-concordance for the next semester's goals. Increased self-concordance in turn predicted even better goal attainment during the 2nd semester, which led to further increases in adjustment and to higher levels of ego development by the end of the year. Study 2 replicated the basic model in a 2-week study of short-term goals set in the laboratory. Limits of the model and implications for the question of how (and whether) happiness may be increased are discussed.

Cognitive-Behavior Modification

Book

Jan 1977

Donald Meichenbaum

The Case of Jenny: A Freshman Collegiate Athlete Experiencing Performance Dysfunction

Article

Jun 2007

Jessica M. Lutkenhouse

The present case study illustrates the treatment of a 19-year-old female lacrosse player, classified as experiencing Performance Dysfunction (Pdy) by the Multilevel Classification System for Sport Psychology (MCS-SP). The self-referred collegiate athlete was treated using the manualized Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC) protocol (Gardner & Moore, 2004a, 2007). The intervention consisted of eight individual sessions and several follow-up contacts via e-mail. The majority of the sessions addressed clinically related and sport-related concerns, including difficulties in emotion regulation and problematic interpersonal relationships. Based on self-report, coach report, and one outcome assessment measure, the psychological intervention resulted in enhanced overall behavioral functioning and enhanced athletic performance. This case study suggests that following careful case formulation based on appropriate assessment and interview data, the MAC intervention successfully targeted the clearly defined psychological processes underlying the athlete’s performance concerns and personal obstacles, thus resulting in enhanced well-being and athletic performance improvements.

Application of the Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC) Protocol With an Adolescent Springboard Diver

Article

Dec 2009

Lori A. Schwanhausser

This study presents the case of Steve, an adolescent competitive springboard diver. This diver, referred by his coach, received the Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC) approach for performance enhancement. The MAC protocol, originally written for an adult population, was used in modified form (under consultation from the authors) to ensure appropriateness for an adolescent population. Conducted in nine individual sessions, the intervention targeted abilities in attention and value-driven behavior to enhance focus, poise, and overall diving performance. Self-report measures of mindfulness and flow, along with objective measures of diving performance were collected pre- and postintervention. Results indicated increases in mindful awareness, mindful attention, experiential acceptance, flow, and diving performance from pre- to postintervention. This case supports the applicability of the MAC protocol with an adolescent athlete population.

A Cognitive-Behavior Modification Approach to Assessment

Chapter

Jan 1977

Donald Meichenbaum

Although one may disagree with Shapiro and Ravenette’s evaluation of the various tests cited, their quote does sensitize us to the need to develop more explicit ways of assessing our client’s affects, cognitions, and volitions. The present chapter conveys some preliminary attempts at developing this assessment armamentarium, which follow from a cognitive-behavioral treatment approach. Specifically, the present chapter has two purposes. The first is to examine various assessment strategies that have been employed to study psychological deficits. This analysis indicates some shortcomings and an alternative, namely a cognitive-functional analysis approach. The second purpose of the chapter is to describe specific techniques that can be employed to assess more directly the client’s cognitions. Let’s begin with an examination of the current assessment and research strategies.

Stress-Management interventions for female athletes: Relaxation and cognitive restructuring

Article

Apr 2004
INT J SPORT PSYCHOL

Colleen Haney

This study examined the effects of two 6-week stress-management interventions (cognitive restructuring and modified progressive muscle relaxation) for female athletes (n=47) aged 16 to 51. A general self-efficacy questionnaire, trait anxiety inventory, and coping inventory were administered prior to the start of the training, at post treatment, and at 2-month follow-up. Both treatments significantly reduced trait anxiety and increased self-efficacy at post treatment. These changes were maintained at follow-up. As expected, adaptive coping strategies increased at posttreatement for both groups. Maladaptive coping strategy means were reduced in the expected direction for the cognitive group only from pre-test to follow-up. Limitations of this study and future implications are discussed.

Full Catastrophe Living: Using the Wisdom of Your Body and Mind to Face Stress, Pain, and Illness By Jon Kabat-Zinn

Book

Jan 1990

Jon Kabat-Zinn

The will and the ways: Development and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope

Article

Apr 1991

Defining hope as a cognitive set that is composed of a reciprocally derived sense of successful (1) agency (goal-directed determination) and (2) pathways (planning of ways to meet goals), an individual-differences measure is developed. Studies with college students and patients demonstrate acceptable internal consistency and test–retest reliability, and the factor structure identifies the agency and pathways components of the Hope Scale. Convergent and discriminant validity are documented, along with evidence suggesting that Hope Scale scores augmented the prediction of goal-related activities and coping strategies beyond other self-report measures. Construct validational support is provided in regard to predicted goal-setting behaviors; moreover, the hypothesized goal appraisal processes that accompany the various levels of hope are corroborated.

A brief mindfulness and yoga intervention with an entire NCAA Division I athletic team: An initial investigation

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