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A Brief Mindfulness and Yoga Intervention With an Entire NCAA Division I Athletic Team: An Initial Investigation

August 2014
Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice 1(4):339-356

DOI:10.1037/cns0000022

Authors:

Fallon Goodman

George Washington University

Todd B Kashdan

George Mason University

Whereas traditional sports psychology interventions emphasize controlling or reducing distress, mindfulness-based interventions teach tolerance and acceptance of negative thoughts, feelings, and emotions. In the present pilot study, an entire men’s Division I athletic team (n=13) provided voluntary consent and participated in a brief mindfulness-based intervention. Over 5 weeks, the team attended eight 90-min group intervention sessions immediately followed by 1-hr Hatha yoga sessions. Completer analyses showed that following the intervention, participants reported greater mindfulness, greater goal-directed energy, and less perceived stress than before the intervention. Compared with a nonrandomized control group (student athletes from various club sports; n=13), intervention participants reported greater goal-directed energy and mindfulness. We also explored written feedback from players to identify ways to improve the intervention. Implications for practitioners for improving mindfulness-based interventions are discussed.

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Psychology of Consciousness: Theory,

Research, and Practice

A Brief Mindfulness and Yoga Intervention With an Entire

NCAA Division I Athletic Team: An Initial Investigation

Fallon R. Goodman, Todd B. Kashdan, Travis T. Mallard, and Mary Schumann

Online First Publication, August 11, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/cns0000022

CITATION

Goodman, F. R., Kashdan, T. B., Mallard, T. T., & Schumann, M. (2014, August 11). A Brief

Mindfulness and Yoga Intervention With an Entire NCAA Division I Athletic Team: An Initial

Investigation. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice. Advance online

publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/cns0000022

A Brief Mindfulness and Yoga Intervention With an Entire NCAA

Division I Athletic Team: An Initial Investigation

Fallon R. Goodman, Todd B. Kashdan, Travis T. Mallard, and Mary Schumann

George Mason University

Whereas traditional sports psychology interventions emphasize controlling or reducing

distress, mindfulness-based interventions teach tolerance and acceptance of negative

thoughts, feelings, and emotions. In the present pilot study, an entire men’s Division I

athletic team (n⫽13) provided voluntary consent and participated in a brief mindful-

ness-based intervention. Over 5 weeks, the team attended eight 90-min group inter-

vention sessions immediately followed by 1-hr Hatha yoga sessions. Completer anal-

yses showed that following the intervention, participants reported greater mindfulness,

greater goal-directed energy, and less perceived stress than before the intervention.

Compared with a nonrandomized control group (student athletes from various club

sports; n⫽13), intervention participants reported greater goal-directed energy and

mindfulness. We also explored written feedback from players to identify ways to

improve the intervention. Implications for practitioners for improving mindfulness-

based interventions are discussed.

Keywords: mindfulness, intervention, athletes, acceptance and commitment, yoga

College student athletes represent a unique

group potentially at increased risk for emotional

and behavioral difﬁculties (Proctor & Boan-

Lenzo, 2010). In addition to juggling athletic

obligations, academic responsibilities, and in-

terpersonal relationships, student athletes often

are pressed to present the idealized public image

of a college student athlete (Heyman, 1986;

Parham, 1993). Several studies have shown that

student athletes, particularly those playing at

highly competitive levels, engage in riskier be-

haviors (e.g., drug use and binge drinking) com-

pared with their nonathlete peers (Marcello,

Danish, & Stolberg, 1989; Martens, Dams-

O’Connor, & Beck, 2006; Nelson & Wechsler,

2001; Yusko, Buckman, White, & Pandina,

2008). Given that athletic performance and

quality of life can be compromised by stress

unrelated to sports (Haney, 2004), psychologi-

cal interventions might be particularly useful

for athletes.

Traditional Psychological Interventions

With Athletes

Traditional sports psychology, commonly re-

ferred to as psychological skills training (PST;

Meichenbaum, 1977; Whelan, Mahoney, &

Meyers, 1991), emphasizes control of internal

states. Athletes are taught to control or reduce

unwanted thoughts, emotions, and sensations to

increase their potential for achieving an ideal

mental state conducive to optimum perfor-

mance (Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996). A pri-

mary assumption of PST is that decreases in

negative internal experiences (e.g., thoughts,

emotions) minimize distractions and enhance

opportunities for positive experiences and con-

ﬁdence building. Unfortunately, studies have

reported inconsistent ﬁndings regarding

whether reductions in anxiety improve well-

being or athletic performance (for a review, see

Gardner & Moore, 2004).

Fallon R. Goodman, Todd B. Kashdan, Travis T. Mal-

lard, and Mary Schumann, Department of Psychology,

George Mason University.

Fallon R. Goodman and Todd B. Kashdan were ﬁnan-

cially supported by the Center for the Advancement of

Well-Being (CWB), George Mason University. Fallon R.

Goodman is Doctoral Fellow at CWB, and Todd B. Kash-

dan is a Senior Scientist at CWB.

Correspondence concerning this article should be ad-

dressed to Fallon R. Goodman, Department of Psychology,

MS 3F5 George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030.

E-mail: fgoodman@gmu.edu

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2014, Vol. 1, No. 3, 000 2326-5523/14/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/cns0000022

In fact, efforts to control or entirely suppress

negative experiences may be a suboptimal and

even counterproductive strategy for improving

athletes’ performance. An unwillingness to

maintain contact with unpleasant internal

thoughts and emotions is referred to as experi-

ential avoidance (Hayes, Wilson, Gifford, Fol-

lette, & Strosahl, 1996). Although avoiding un-

pleasant experiences can provide temporary

relief from distress, repeated attempts to elimi-

nate or suppress internal experiences often en-

gender a rebound effect of increasing such un-

wanted states (e.g., Farach, Mennin, Smith &

Mandelbaum, 2008; Kashdan et al., in press;

Marx & Sloan, 2005). When dysfunctional reg-

ulatory strategies are used, such as trying to

suppress negative emotions, limited cognitive

resources are depleted or exhausted, which in

turn impairs the ability to adapt to ﬂuctuating

situational demands and promotes a rigid orien-

tation toward experiences called psychological

inﬂexibility. Such rigidity can hinder the pursuit

of valued and meaningful behavior (Hayes,

Strosahl, & Wilson, 1999), is associated with a

variety of mental health problems (see Kashdan

& Rottenberg, 2010 for a review), and may

ultimately be detrimental to athletic perfor-

mance. Accordingly, minimizing or eliminating

experiential avoidance and promoting psycho-

logical ﬂexibility are potentially worthwhile

goals in improving athletic performance.

Mindfulness-Based Interventions With

Athletes

Recent psychological interventions for ath-

letes have turned away from approaches that

emphasize control of internal states (e.g., Daw

& Burton, 1994; Gould & Udry, 1994) in favor

of mindfulness and acceptance-based ap-

proaches. These latter interventions draw on

research from acceptance and commitment ther-

apy (ACT; Hayes, Strosahl, & Wilson, 1999) in

which the core message is to observe and accept

what is beyond one’s control or ability to

change and to commit to actions that are aligned

with personal values. ACT-based approaches

emphasize mindfulness, which is deﬁned as

bringing conscious attention to the present mo-

ment in a receptive, curious manner (Bishop et

al., 2004; Kabat-Zinn, 2003). Individuals are

taught to engage in self-observation by inten-

tionally allowing thoughts, emotions, and

bodily sensations to occur without judgment,

allowing for greater engagement in life as it

naturally unfolds. Researchers have found that

self-reported levels of mindfulness are associ-

ated with adaptive emotion regulation strategies

(Feldman, Hayes, Kumar, Greeson, & Lau-

renceau, 2007), even after controlling for anxi-

ety, stress, and depression (Gratz & Roemer,

2004). Regular mindfulness practice can help

individuals become more adept at guiding at-

tention toward desired stimuli, allocating lim-

ited cognitive resources toward valued ends,

and improving task performance (Slagter et al.,

2007; Zeidan, Johnson, Diamond, David, &

Goolkasian, 2010). It is important to note that

mindful athletes are more likely to experience

ﬂow, a state of energized focus and full involve-

ment, during athletic performance (Bernier,

Thienot, Codron, & Fournier, 2009; Jackson &

Csikszentmihalyi, 1999; Kee & Wang, 2008).

In one study of 13 university athletes, a 6-week

self-administered mindfulness training exercise

increased frequency and duration of ﬂow states

(Aherne, Moran, & Lonsdale, 2011). In another

mindfulness-based intervention, athletes re-

ported increases in trait mindfulness and ﬂow

and decreased task-related worries and task ir-

relevant thoughts (Thompson, Kaufman, De

Petrillo, Glass, & Arnkoff, 2011). Moreover,

researchers have found that regular mindfulness

practice is associated with improvements in

cognitive processing, such as attention orienta-

tion, executive attention, and working memory

(Jha, Stanley, Kiyonaga, Wong, & Gelfand,

2010; van den Hurk, Giommi, Gielen, Speck-

ens, & Barendregt, 2010). In short, training

student athletes in mindfulness and acceptance

might be a better alternative to enhancing per-

formance than more traditional PST.

The Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment

Approach

Gardner and Moore (2004, 2007) developed

the Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment

(MAC) program for athletes. As the name im-

plies, the MAC program has three main com-

ponents: mindfulness, acceptance, and commit-

ment. Participants ﬁrst learn the foundations of

mindfulness through psychoeducation and

group discussions. They practice various expe-

riential exercises to learn how to more ﬂexibly

attend and react to internal experiences. As ath-

2 GOODMAN, KASHDAN, MALLARD, AND SCHUMANN

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letes become increasingly aware of their inter-

nal experiences, they are in a better position to

understand how and when particular experi-

ences impede performance. Awareness facili-

tates understanding of the antecedents, conse-

quences, and contexts in which distress arises

and when it is helpful to rely on acceptance as

opposed to change strategies.

The MAC program places a strong emphasis

on values, which can be deﬁned as guiding life

principles that inﬂuence daily decision making

and serve as the foundation of meaningful

goals. Because individuals do not have the ca-

pacity to highly value everything, given limited

personal resources, values are often prioritized

to determine which values are most important to

achieving relevant goals. The MAC program

helps student athletes evaluate their values

while making an important distinction between

goals and values. Whereas goals pertain to spe-

ciﬁc outcomes, values are continuously con-

structed dynamic patterns of behaviors. For ex-

ample, a basketball player may set the

achievable goal of scoring 20 points each game,

while he may value being a reliable, productive

team member; this value may guide his behav-

ior to achieve his goal. Unfortunately, negative

momentary thoughts and feelings often promote

emotion-driven behaviors that conﬂict and in-

terfere with adhering to values. Because emo-

tions—particularly negative ones—often derail

goal-related efforts, the MAC program teaches

athletes how to use mindfulness skills to in-

crease acceptance of unwanted internal experi-

ences. Accordingly, the basketball player can

learn how to accept unwanted feelings (e.g.,

anxiety) and commit to behavior (e.g., practic-

ing free throw shooting) that is in line with his

value of being a reliable teammate. Together,

awareness and acceptance build commitment

toward values-driven behavior.

Although the MAC approach is based on

empirically supported mindfulness- and accep-

tance-based therapies, research on the efﬁcacy

of the MAC program is scant (for a review, see

Gardner & Moore, 2012). Two open trials have

been published: one with 11 collegiate-level

ﬁeld hockey and volleyball athletes (Wolanin,

2005) and another with seven elite adolescent

golfers (Bernier et al., 2009). Three case studies

were reported with athletes from lacrosse,

swimming, and powerlifting teams (Gardner &

Moore, 2004; Lutkenhouse, 2007; Schwan-

hauser, 2009). Participants in these studies have

generally reported increased levels of mindful-

ness, acceptance, and ﬂow, and several have

found increases in objective measures of ath-

letic performance (Bernier et al., 2009; Gardner

& Moore, 2004) and coaches’ evaluations (Lut-

kenhouse, Gardner, & Moore, 2007). Neverthe-

less, there has yet to be a peer-reviewed study of

the MAC program that includes a controlled

comparison group for team sports. Lutken-

house, Gardner, and Moore (2007) conducted a

large randomized control trial that compared

MAC with PST, but this remains unpublished,

and Bernier et al.’s (2009) controlled trial with

golfers did not evaluate the efﬁcacy of the MAC

program in the context of team sports. The

primary goal of this study is to ﬁll this gap and

contribute to the small but growing body of

literature regarding the efﬁcacy of the MAC

intervention. Because we were especially inter-

ested in student athletes’ well-being, we in-

cluded multiple measures of psychological and

emotional functioning.

Yoga as Physical Practice of Mindfulness

Mindfulness practices can be taught through

mind–body exercises such as yoga. The central

message of yoga is to learn how to listen and

respond to bodily sensations. This awareness

helps individuals move to a comfortable “phys-

ical and mental space” while challenging their

body (Shiffmann, 1996). Various physical

poses and movements are used to increase

awareness of one’s physical and mental states.

Yoga practitioners are shown how to mindfully

focus their attention on the present moment.

Several studies have supported the physical and

psychological beneﬁts of yoga. In a comprehen-

sive review of 81 studies that compared yoga to

other types of physical exercise (e.g., walking,

running, cycling), Ross and Thomas (2010)

found that yoga was equally or more effective at

improving multiple factors related to one’s

well-being, including decreased stress and fa-

tigue. Some of these beneﬁts have been docu-

mented at a physiological level (e.g., decreased

cortisol; Kamei et al., 2000). More frequent

yoga practice has been associated with more

positive emotions, fewer negative emotions,

and increased satisfaction with life (Impett,

Daubenmier, & Hirschman, 2006), and some

studies have observed beneﬁcial effects after a

3MINDFULNESS INTERVENTION WITH COLLEGE ATHLETE TEAM

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single yoga session (e.g., Telles, Gaur, &

Balkrishna, 2009). In addition, yoga-based in-

terventions have been associated with reduc-

tions in levels of depression and anxiety (Kirk-

wood, Rampes, Tuffrey, Richardson, &

Pilkington, 2005; Pilkington, Kirkwood,

Rampes, & Richardson, 2005). When compared

with contemplative practices that lack active

physical activity (e.g., body scanning, medita-

tion), researchers have found yoga to be more

effective at increasing mindfulness and well-

being and reducing perceived stress and anxiety

(Carmody & Baer, 2008).

The Present Study

In this study, we explored the utility, feasibility,

and potential efﬁcacy of a comprehensive mind-

fulness intervention for student athletes. We eval-

uated whether a 5-week intervention could im-

prove the well-being of an entire men’s NCAA

Division I athletic team. We used Gardner and

Moore’s (2007) MAC program to teach athletes

how to be mindful and accepting of negative

thoughts, identify values, and commit to behaviors

that align with their values. We modiﬁed Gard-

ner’s original protocol in two ways. First, we

condensed the 8-week protocol (one session per

week) to 5 weeks (two sessions each week, one

session the ﬁrst and last weeks) to increase the

feasibility and practicality of delivering the inter-

vention. Second, student athletes participated in

60-min yoga classes after each session to incor-

porate more physical movement into the interven-

tion.

Method

Participants

Participants were 26 college student athletes (M

age ⫽20.23, SD ⫽1.53). For the experimental

group, an entire NCAA Division I male Varsity

team (13 student athletes) participated in the in-

tervention (Mage ⫽20.08, SD ⫽1.26). Eleven

(84.6%) of the participants were African Ameri-

can, 1 (7.7%) participant was Caucasian, and 1

(7.7%) participant identiﬁed as other. This study

was approved by the university’s institutional re-

view board and the Director of Athletics. Before

the intervention, researchers met with the student

athletes (without coaching staff) to introduce the

program and address any concerns. Participants

were told that their choice to participate would not

affect their standing with their athletic team or the

university, and at no point would their individual

data be shared with coaching personnel.

Written consent was obtained from all partici-

pants. Although all participants completed the in-

tervention, one participant did not complete pre-

program questionnaires, and four participants did

not complete postprogram questionnaires. Thus,

our ﬁnal sample for analyses in the experimental

group was eight. Those who did not complete

postprogram questionnaires did not signiﬁcantly

differ from those completed the questionnaires on

any of the baseline measures.

Because of our small sample size and the

exploratory nature of this pilot study, we chose

not to use imputation methods for missing data.

Nonetheless, our results should be interpreted

with this consideration.

To evaluate whether any effects were because

of the presence of an intervention, we recruited an

additional group of student athletes. The control

group consisted of 13 male student athletes from

club sports teams (Mage ⫽20.38, SD ⫽1.80).

Six (46.2%) of the participants were Caucasian, 4

(30.8%) participants were Asian, 2 (15.4%) par-

ticipants were Hispanic, and 1 (7.7%) participant

was African American. Participants in the control

group ﬁlled out pre- and postquestionnaires but

did not participate in the intervention. They were

recruited from club sports teams (via ﬂyers) from

the same university to maximize similarity with

the experimental group. Although club teams

compete at a less competitive level than varsity

teams, they often have similar time and energy

demands.

Procedure

Participants in the experimental group were

recruited in coordination with the campus ath-

letic department.

Over 5 weeks, the team

attended eight 90-min mindfulness-based ses-

sions, each followed by 60-min Hatha yoga

sessions. All sessions were voluntary, and

participation had no inﬂuence on the partici-

pants’ standing with their respective athletic

teams or the university. To determine the

efﬁcacy of the intervention, participants com-

Our research team coordinated with athletic department

to offer the intervention to all athletic teams. We chose

teams based on interest and availability.

4 GOODMAN, KASHDAN, MALLARD, AND SCHUMANN

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pleted self-report measures before and after

the intervention. Participants in the control

group were recruited through campus ﬂyers

and Listserv emails for a “study investigating

the relationship between psychological pro-

cesses and student athletes’ well-being.” Con-

trol group participants completed all mea-

sures at two time points 5 weeks apart, but

they did not participate in the intervention.

They were compensated $20 for completing

the measures.

MAC intervention. Two experienced fa-

cilitators led each MAC session. We followed

the procedures outlined in Gardner and

Moore’s (2007) protocol (see Table 1 for a

summary). Instructor 1 has a doctorate in

clinical psychology and is a licensed clinical

psychologist. She has taught university-level

courses on meditation, mindfulness, and

sports psychology. Instructor 2 is a registered

yoga instructor at the 500-hr level and holds

professional certiﬁcations in positive psy-

chology and advanced coaching. She is the

director of a mindfulness living learning pro-

gram and has taught university level courses

on the science and application of mind–body

integration. Participants received homework

assignments at the end of each session. These

assignments were voluntary (although en-

couraged), and no data were collected on ad-

herence or effectiveness.

Session 1: Introducing mindfulness.

Group instructors introduced the MAC ap-

proach and provided an explanation of funda-

mental concepts of mindfulness. Instructors ex-

plained that by being mindfully aware, one is

better able to accept negative internal experi-

ences (e.g., anxiety, anger) while attending to

the external environment (e.g., taking a foul

shot). The instructors then led the Brief Center-

ing Exercise, where participants attended to

their breath, switched their attention to their

surroundings, then back to their body. The goal

is to learn how to ﬂexibly move one’s attention

between internal and external sensations. The

suggested homework was to practice and record

mindful breathing (brief periods of focusing

only on the breath, allowing thoughts to come

and go, and to bring attention back to the

breath). Participants were also asked to com-

plete a worksheet, What I Have Learned About

Performance and Myself, in which they re-

ﬂected on what they learned during the session

and how it related to their performance.

Session 2: Introducing cognitive defusion.

Group instructors began the session with the

Brief Centering Exercise to reinforce a pat-

tern of mindful-based behavior. Instructors

introduced the concept of cognitive fusion,

which is when thoughts and feelings are seen

as truth rather than subjective experiences.

Thoughts and feelings are “fused” with reality

(“I think I am worthless, therefore I truly am

worthless”), so that individuals are unable to

view themselves as experiencing thoughts as

“just thoughts or feelings” and exhaust lim-

ited cognitive resources in the process. One

goal of mindfulness is to create cognitive

defusion, which is a state of mind character-

ized by psychological distance from subjec-

tive experiences (Blackledge, 2007). This dis-

tance allows one to see thoughts and feelings

as ﬂeeting psychological states rather than

factual interpretations of reality. As an exam-

ple, the instructors presented three state-

ments: “I am a loser,” “I think I am a loser,”

and “I am having the thought that I am a

loser.” Participants used this framework to

recall thoughts and feelings about a recent

event and differentiate between “having a

thought versus believing the thought.” Sug-

gested homework was to use mindfulness dur-

ing a simple daily activity (e.g., eating, brush-

ing teeth). The session concluded with the

Brief Centering Exercise.

Session 3: Introducing values and values-

driven behavior. In Session 3, to illustrate

how values can guide meaningful behavior

(like a compass), the instructors introduced

values-driven behavior. Values-driven behav-

iors are actions that are in line with one’s

values (e.g., doing 30 min of cardio training

to improve conditioning despite fatigue),

whereas emotion-driven behaviors are actions

in response to emotions and may not be in line

with one’s values (e.g., avoiding training be-

cause the athlete ﬁnds it difﬁcult). Partici-

pants identiﬁed a situation, the emotions it

triggered, what they did to try control the

emotions, and the short- and long-term effects

of trying to control the emotions. The session

concluded with the Mindfulness of the Breath

Exercise, an extension of the Brief Centering

Exercise, in which individuals continuously

focus on their breath while noticing the ﬂow

5MINDFULNESS INTERVENTION WITH COLLEGE ATHLETE TEAM

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Table 1

Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment Intervention Session Content

Session theme Session goals Psychoeducation Experiential exercises Suggested homework

Session 1: Introduction Develop rapport, introduce

foundational concepts Rationale of mindfulness, acceptance,

and commitment; acknowledging

negative thoughts–feelings

Brief centering exercise Mindfulness of breath practice,

what I have learned about

performance and myself

Session 2: Mindfulness Introduce concept of

cognitive defusion,

discuss perceived

stressors

Having vs. believing a thought Progressive muscle relaxation;

visualize thoughts,

emotions, and reactions to

past event

Mindful walking, self-

monitoring of mindfulness

practice

Session 3: Goals and

values Differentiate values from

goals, clarify individual

and group values and

goals

Value-driven vs. emotion-driven

behavior Reﬂective writing, discussion

in pairs, mindfulness of

breath

Mindful athletic activity, given

up for emotions form

Session 4: Experiential

acceptance Introduce concept of

experiential acceptance Function of anxiety Recall stressful event with

awareness of bodily

reaction, mindfulness of

breath

Emotion and performance

interference form

Session 5: Commitment Introduce commitment as

ongoing process Commitment as a process Seeing exercise commitment

to values, exercise

mindfulness of breath

Mindfulness practice relevant

to performance goals

Session 6: Behavioral

ﬂexibility Introduce concept of

behavioral ﬂexibility Tolerance of negative affect Task-focused attention Use mindfulness in high-

intensity situation, task-

focused attention exercise

outside of class

Identify different responses

to challengesidentify

different responses to

challenges

Fixed vs. growth mindset Exercise body scan

Session 7: Skill

consolidation Integrate learned concepts How to apply mindfulness to novel

activities Brief centering exercise task-

focused attention exercise Task-focused attention activity

during athletic practice

Session 8: Skill

maintenance Encourage athletes to

apply skills in athletic

performance and

everyday situations

Beneﬁts of practicing mindfulness Mindfulness of breath Post-MAC practice plan form

6 GOODMAN, KASHDAN, MALLARD, AND SCHUMANN

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of air going in and out of the body and the

abdomen rising and falling. Suggested home-

work was to use mindfulness during a speciﬁc

athletic activity (e.g., throwing, catching).

Session 4: Costs of avoidance and beneﬁts

of acceptance. Session 4 began with the

Mindfulness of the Breath Exercise. The in-

structors then introduced the concepts of expe-

riential avoidance and acceptance. They ex-

plained that experiential avoidance is the

effortful attempt to control or eliminate un-

wanted negative thoughts and emotions,

whereas experiential acceptance is the willing-

ness to experience (i.e., not try to change) un-

wanted private events in the pursuit of one’s

values and goals. An imagery exercise was used

to relate these concepts to athletic performance.

Participants were invited to recall a situation in

which they found it difﬁcult or stressful to per-

form well, and to use personally relevant imag-

ery to increase awareness and acceptance of

bodily reactions to negative experiences. For

homework, participants received the Emotion

and Performance Interference Form and were

encouraged to record performance situations

and assess how their emotions interfered with

performance. The session concluded with

Mindfulness of the Breath Exercise.

Session 5: Enhancing commitment.

Session 5 began with the Brief Centering Exer-

cise. To initiate a discussion about commitment,

participants received a handout about growth

mindset versus ﬁxed mindset.

The handout ex-

plained that a growth mindset is an orientation

toward embracing challenges, persisting

through setbacks, and learning from experi-

ences. A ﬁxed mindset, in contrast, is an orien-

tation toward avoiding challenges, easily giving

up, and ignoring feedback. Instructors used

open-ended questions to prompt reﬂection, in-

cluding, “What progress have I made today?”

and “Am I standing in the way of my potential

or trying to avoid difﬁcult emotions?” Partici-

pants completed the Committing to Values ex-

ercise, in which they identiﬁed a performance

value, short-term and long-term goals associ-

ated with that value, and a behavioral change to

achieve desired performance. The suggested

homework was to apply mindfulness practices

relevant to identiﬁed performance goals. The

session concluded with the Mindfulness of the

Breath Exercise.

Session 6: Enhancing ﬂexibility. Session 6

began with the Brief Centering Exercise. Par-

ticipants then paired up and completed the

Task-Focused Attention Exercise, in which they

learned how to redirect their attention from in-

ternal processes (emotions or thoughts) to an

external task. For the Task-Focused Attention

Exercise, one partner shared a story while the

other listened but made no eye contact. Then,

the listening partner recalled the story in as

much detail as possible, while simultaneously

identifying what additional internal or external

stimuli in which he or she was simultaneously

aware. Pairs repeated this process until the lis-

tening partner correctly identiﬁed at least 50%

of the story’s details. Participants then created

opposite action plans in which they identiﬁed

what they were avoiding (e.g., lifting weights),

then created plans to actively pursue them (e.g.,

schedule an even longer period of time to lift

weights). The suggested homework was to use

mindfulness in high-intensity performance situ-

ations (e.g., athletic games) and to complete a

Task-Focused Attention Exercise outside of

session. The session concluded with the Body

Scan Exercise, in which participants attended to

their breath then progressively moved their at-

tention from one area of the body to another.

Session 7: Attention and reinforcing

mindfulness. Session 7 began with the Brief

Centering Exercise. Participants then completed

a Task-Focused Attention Exercise in pairs.

One person counted backward from 100 by 7s

(serial 7s) while they simultaneously listened to

their partner tell a story. The goal was to im-

prove attention to a speciﬁc task despite in-

creases in cognitive demand. Participants were

asked to envision a sporting situation and ex-

plain how they could best direct their attention.

They discussed the different types of attention

necessary in sports (e.g., broad, external atten-

tion such as sizing up the whole court, and

narrow, external attention such as focusing on

catching the ball). The suggested homework

was to engage in a Task-Focused Attention Ex-

ercise during an upcoming athletic practice.

Session 8: Maintaining and enhancing

mindfulness, acceptance, and commitment.

Session 8 began with the Mindfulness of Breath

Instructors included this supplemental handout. It is not

included in Gardner and Moore’s (2007) original protocol.

7MINDFULNESS INTERVENTION WITH COLLEGE ATHLETE TEAM

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Exercise. The group then discussed a ﬁnal re-

view of the intervention. Participants paired up

to discuss how they planned to achieve their

individual performance goals, which was fol-

lowed by a group discussion on how to achieve

team goals. Participants completed the Post-

MAC Practice Plan Form to assess performance

values, goals, obstacles, and avoidant behav-

iors. They were encouraged to use the form to

monitor progress, identify areas for improve-

ment, and use their teammates for support. The

ﬁnal session concluded with Mindfulness of the

Breath.

Yoga. After each mindfulness session, par-

ticipants attended a 60-min group yoga session.

An instructor certiﬁed at the 225-hr level led

Hatha yoga sessions. Hatha yoga refers to a

series of physical exercises known as asanas or

bodily postures that are designed to build phys-

ical and mental strength. The word hatha means

willful or forceful, which refers to the goal of

increasing stamina, strength, and ﬂexibility

through long asanas. Each yoga session began

with a brief welcome during which participants

shared their overall mood and stress. They

warmed up with breathing exercises and low

intensity stretches and then completed a series

of rhythmic exercises, balancing and focus

poses, groin stretches, and restorative poses.

Session closed with a 2-min meditation in a

comfortable pose.

Measures

Mindfulness. The Mindful Attention and

Awareness Scale (MAAS; Brown & Ryan,

2003) was used to assess the frequency of mind-

ful states in everyday life. The MAAS consists

of 15 items (e.g., “I ﬁnd it difﬁcult to stay

focused on what’s happening in the present”)

that assess dispositional mindfulness and are

rated on a scale ranging from 1 (almost always)

to6(almost never). The psychometric validity

of the MAAS is well-supported (Brown &

Ryan, 2003; MacKillop & Anderson, 2007) and

demonstrates incremental validity in uniquely

predicting enhanced self- awareness and psy-

chological well-being above related constructs.

Construct validity has been demonstrated in

predicting changes in mindfulness levels fol-

lowing mindfulness training (Chambers, Lo, &

Allen, 2008) and reductions in stress and rumi-

nation (Shapiro, Oman, Thoresen, Plante, &

Flinders, 2008).

Tolerance of negative affect. The 25-item

Tolerance of Negative Affect States Scale

(TNASS; Bernstein & Brantz, 2012) was used

to assess the capacity to experience and with-

stand speciﬁc negative psychological states.

Items are rated on a scale ranging from 1 (very

intolerant)to5(very tolerant). The TNASS

contains 6 state-speciﬁc subscales: tolerance of

fear/distress, tolerance of sadness/depression,

tolerance of anger, tolerance of disgust, toler-

ance of anxiety/apprehension, and tolerance of

negative social emotional emotions. Factor

analyses have validated the use of these sub-

scale scores, and the full scale had demonstrated

acceptable convergent and discriminant validity

(Bernstein & Brantz, 2012).

Experiential avoidance. The 17-item Ac-

ceptance and Action Questionnaire Version–II

(AAQ-II; Bond et al., 2011) was used to assess

psychological inﬂexibility (i.e., experiential

avoidance). The AAQ-II assesses the degree to

which one is able and likely to tolerate un-

wanted internal experiences (e.g., “My painful

memories prevent me from having a fulﬁlling

life”). Items are rated on a scale ranging from 1

(never true)to7(always true). Construct valid-

ity has been demonstrated in studies predicting

coping with chronic pain (McCracken & Zhao-

O’Brien, 2010) and problematic alcohol use

(Levin et al., 2012). Additional analyses have

concluded that the AAQ-II is a valid and reli-

able measure of psychology inﬂexibility (Fled-

derus, Oude Voshaar, ten Klooster, & Bohlmei-

jer, 2012).

Goal motivation. The Adult Hope Scale

(AHS; Snyder et al., 1991) was used to assess

hope, deﬁned as a positive motivational state

Detailed description of yoga sessions: (a) Welcome:

Each participant shared overall mood and stress. (b) Warm-

up: centering activity (seated breathing or mountain pose),

cat–cow poses, side stretches, three-part breathing exer-

cises, sun salutations (with chair pose). (c) Warrior series

ﬂow: Warrior I, Warrior II, variations of extended side

angle pose, variations of prayer pose. (d) Balancing–focus–

conﬁdence building poses: Crane, Tree, Warrior III, Eagle

pose, Boat pose. (e) Groin stretches: lunges, garland pose,

goddess pose. (f) Restorative poses: spinal twists, child’s

pose, choice of legs up the wall pose or corpse pose with

guided meditations (5–10 min). (f) Closing: easy pose or

half lotus pose with 2-min meditation, appreciations (Na-

maste).

8 GOODMAN, KASHDAN, MALLARD, AND SCHUMANN

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oriented toward achieving goals. The AHS con-

sists of two four-item subscales: Agency, or

goal-directed energy (e.g., “I energetically pur-

sue my goals”) and Pathway, or goal planning

(e.g., “I can think of many ways to get the

things in life that are important to me”). Items

are rated on a scale ranging from 1 (deﬁnitely

false)to8(deﬁnitely true). Good construct va-

lidity and reliability have been demonstrated in

studies predicting coping strategies for individ-

uals diagnosed with breast cancer (Sears, Stan-

ton, & Danoff-Burg, 2003) and college stu-

dents’ athletic performance (Curry, Snyder,

Cook, Ruby, & Rehm, 1997).

Perceived stress. The Perceived Stress

Scale (PSS; Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein,

1983) was used to assess the amount of per-

ceived stress an individual has felt in the past

month. The PSS consists of 14 items (e.g., “In

the last month, how often have you been upset

because of something that happened unex-

pectedly?”), rated on a scale ranging from 0

(never)to4(very often). Predictive validity of

the PSS has been demonstrated with depres-

sion, engagement in healthy behavior, and use

of health services (Cohen & Williamson,

1988).

Commitment to values. The Valued Liv-

ing Questionnaire (VLQ; Wilson et al., 2011)

was used to assess commitment to values

across 10 life domains (e.g., family, friend-

ships, recreation, employment, spirituality).

The VLQ consists of two 10-item subscales

that measure the importance and consistency

an individual places on each life domain.

Items are rated on a scale ranging from 1 (not

at all important or not at all consistent)to10

(extremely important or extremely consis-

tent). A composite score (Importance ⫻Con-

sistency) can also be computed, which helps

quantify the extent to which one is living out

particular values. Construct validity and ac-

ceptable reliability have been demonstrated in

studies predicting quality of life (Michelson,

Lee, Orsillo, & Roemer, 2011) and response

to ACT-based therapy for anxiety (Hayes,

Orsillo, & Roemer, 2010).

Grit. The Short Grit Scale (Grit-S; Duck-

worth & Quinn, 2009) was used to assess

psychological grit, a trait-like perseverance

and passion for long-term goals. The Grit-S

consists of eight items (e.g., “New ideas and

projects sometimes distract me from previous

ones”), rated on a scale ranging from 1 (very

much like me)to5(not like me at all). The

Grit-S has demonstrated construct validity in

studies predicting spelling bee performance

(Duckworth, Kirby, Tsukayama, Berstein, &

Ericsson, 2011), military cadets’ performance

(Eskreis-Winkler, Duckworth, Shulman, &

Beal, 2014), and teacher effectiveness (Duck-

worth, Quinn, & Seligman, 2009).

Cognitive defusion. The Drexel Defusion

Scale (DDS; Forman et al., 2012) was used to

assess the ability to achieve psychological dis-

tance (i.e., defuse) from thoughts and feelings.

The DDS consists of 10 items (e.g., “...Towhat

extent would you normally be able to defuse from

feelings of anger?”), rated on a scale ranging from

0(not at all)to5(very much). The DSS has

demonstrated good psychometric properties, with

a one-factor structure, good internal consistency,

and high convergent validity in both clinical and

nonclinical samples. Construct validity has been

shown in predicting improvements in psycholog-

ical functioning for individuals seeking psycho-

logical treatment (Forman et al., 2012).

Psychological distress. The 21-item De-

pression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS-21;

Henry & Crawford, 2005) was used to assess

baseline psychological distress on three di-

mensions: depression, anxiety, and stress.

The DASS-21 prompts individuals to rate the

frequency to which statements about psycho-

logical distress apply on a scale ranging from

0(never)to4(almost always). The DASS-21

has demonstrated reliability as a single factor

(␣⫽.93), and the three subscales also dem-

onstrate acceptable reliability (.88 for Depres-

sion, .82 for Anxiety, and .90 for Stress). The

DASS-21 has also shown good construct va-

lidity (Henry & Crawford, 2005) and good

internal consistency in both community and

clinical samples and across multiple racial

groups (Antony, Bieling, Cox, Enns, & Swin-

son, 1998; Norton, 2007).

Written feedback. We collected written

feedback following the intervention to explore

which components of the program worked best

and what improvements could be made when de-

signing future interventions. Participants re-

sponded to two free-response questions: “What

part of this training do you think will help you

most with your athletic performance?” and “What

feedback, if any, would you like to offer the in-

structors?”

9MINDFULNESS INTERVENTION WITH COLLEGE ATHLETE TEAM

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Results

Experimental Group

We conducted separate repeated-measures t

tests to examine changes from before and after the

intervention (see Table 2).

Given the small sam-

ple size, we conducted effect-size estimates using

Cohen’s d. Following the intervention, partici-

pants in the experimental group reported greater

mindfulness, t(8) ⫽⫺2.88, p⬍.05, d⫽0.48 and

goal-directed energy, t(8) ⫽⫺3.37, p⬍.05, d⫽

0.98, than before the intervention. These effects

were medium to large and large, respectively.

Participants also reported less perceived stress,

t(8) ⫽2.57, p⬍.05, d⫽0.26, a signiﬁcant but

small effect. We also report ﬁndings at trending

levels of signiﬁcance to guide future research en-

deavors to replicate or extend our ﬁndings. We

found a trend for tolerance of negative affect, such

that participants reported greater tolerance of dis-

gust, t(8) ⫽⫺2.20, p⫽.06, d⫽0.50, and states

of anxiety and apprehension, t(8) ⫽⫺1.94, p⫽

.09, d⫽0.61. Although neither of these effects

was signiﬁcant, the analyses yielded medium ef-

fect sizes. No statically signiﬁcant differences

were found for the other tolerance of negative

affect subscales: fear-distress, sadness-depression,

anger and negative social emotions (ps⬎.40). We

also found a trend for the importance of valued

living, such that following the intervention, par-

ticipants reported greater importance of valued life

domains, t(8) ⫽1.97, p⫽.09, d⫽0.76. Consis-

tency of behavior, however, did not change,

t(8) ⫽0.43, p⫽.68, d⫽0.18. Although we

found no signiﬁcant differences in composite

scores, t(8) ⫽0.98, p⫽.36, d⫽1.17, analyses

yielded a large effect size. No differences in re-

ported grit or experiential avoidance were evident.

Group Comparisons

Baseline comparisons revealed that the

groups did not differ in levels of anxiety, stress,

or depression (from DASS subscales), with the

experimental group reporting relatively low lev-

els of anxiety (M⫽0.79, SD ⫽0.51), stress

(M⫽0.97, SD ⫽0.49), and depression (M⫽

0.69, SD ⫽0.51), comparable to the control

group: anxiety (M⫽0.64, SD ⫽0.36), stress

(M⫽0.83, SD ⫽0.47), and depression (M⫽

0.65, SD ⫽0.59); all ps⬎.30.

Consistent with expectations for the control

group, we found no signiﬁcant changes from

pre- to postassessment for any measure (ps⬎

.05). Repeated-measures analyses of variance

(ANOVAs) revealed that compared with the

control group, participants in the experimental

group reported a greater increase in mindful-

ness, F(1, 19) ⫽4.55, p⬍.05, and goal-

directed energy, F(1, 19) ⫽4.94 p⬍.05.

Written Feedback

We explored written excerpts from players (see

Table 3) to identify directions for future interven-

tions. We used a simple count of subject words to

identify themes in responses. In response to the

question, “What part of this training do you think

will help you most with your athletic perfor-

mance?” six players wrote “focus,” “focusing,” or

“shift.” Statements containing these words per-

tained to refocusing or shifting attention to the

present moment. Two players wrote either “team”

or “teammates.” In response to the question,

“What feedback, if any, would you like to offer

the instructors?” Four players wrote “more activ-

ity,” “more hands on activities,” or “mindful ac-

tivity.” Statements containing these words per-

tained to incorporating more experiential activities

into the intervention.

Discussion

This pilot study provides preliminary support

for the utility and feasibility of a brief mindful-

ness-based and yoga intervention for student

athletes. Following the intervention, student

athletes from a men’s NCAA Division I athletic

team reported greater mindfulness, greater goal-

Given our small sample size and missing data, we

addressed issues of nonnormally distributed data by con-

ducting nonparametric tests for all research questions. We

found identical effects. To examine prepost changes within

each group, we conducted Wilcoxon signed-rank tests. Par-

ticipants from the experimental group reported greater

mindfulness (z⫽2.03, p⬍.05), greater goal-directed

energy (z⫽2.56, p⬍.05), less perceived stress (z⫽2.06,

p⬍.05), and greater tolerance of disgust (z⫽1.79, p⬍

.05). At trending of levels of signiﬁcance, participants re-

ported greater tolerance of anxiety and apprehension (z⫽

1.79, p⫽.07) and greater importance of valued living (z⫽

1.86, p⫽.06). No signiﬁcant differences were found for

control group participants. To compare changes between the

two groups, we conducted Mann–Whitney Utests. Experi-

mental group participants reported greater increase in mind-

fulness (z⫽2.10, p⬍.05) and goal-directed energy (z⫽

1.95, p⫽.052).

10 GOODMAN, KASHDAN, MALLARD, AND SCHUMANN

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Table 2

Well-Being Indicators for Experimental and Control Groups Before and After the Intervention

Variable

Experimental group Control group

Pre M(SD) Post M(SD)tdCI for dPre M(SD) Post M(SD)tdCI for d

Mindfulness 3.60 (1.13) 4.08 (0.85) ⫺2.88

ⴱ

0.48 [0.03, 0.93] 4.08 (0.90) 3.88 (1.07) ⫺0.88 0.20 [⫺0.30, 0.70]

DT Fear–distress 3.34 (0.83) 3.53 (0.49) ⫺0.78 0.23 [⫺0.55, 1.01] 3.57 (0.67) 3.58 (1.06) 0.03 ⫺0.01 [⫺0.57, 0.55]

DT Sadness–

depression 3.12 (1.11) 3.46 (0.50) ⫺0.73 0.38 [⫺0.91, 1.67] 3.38 (1.00) 3.36 (1.10) ⫺0.1 0.02 [⫺0.51, 0.55]

DT Anger 3.30 (0.81) 3.58 (0.71) ⫺0.70 0.32 [⫺1.01, 1.65] 3.64 (1.13) 3.62 (1.27) ⫺0.13 0.02 [⫺0.33, 0.37]

DT Disgust 3.38 (0.79) 3.83 (0.80) ⫺2.20

†

0.50 [⫺0.20, 1.20] 3.49 (0.88) 3.59 (1.09) 0.37 ⫺0.10 [⫺0.70, 0.50]

DT Anxiety–

apprehension 3.12 (1.10) 3.69 (0.65) ⫺1.94

†

0.61 [⫺0.18, 1.40] 3.50 (0.89) 3.62 (1.08) 0.32 ⫺0.12 [⫺0.92, 0.68]

DT Negative social

emotions 3.31 (0.76) 3.25 (0.68) 0.34 .07 [⫺0.53, 0.67] 3.21 (0.92) 3.38 (1.13) .84 ⫺0.17 [⫺0.60, 0.26]

Experiential

avoidance 2.91 (1.02) 2.48 (1.23) 1.08 0.41 [⫺0.45, 1.27] 2.12 (0.67) 2.26 (1.11) 0.47 ⫺0.15 [⫺0.85, 0.55]

Goal directed

energy 6.63 (0.58) 7.34 (0.46) ⫺3.37

ⴱ

0.98 [⫺0.16, 2.12] 6.77 (0.63) 6.83 (0.96) 0.30 ⫺0.07 [⫺0.53, 0.39]

Goal planning 6.81 (0.83) 6.81 (1.26) 0 0 [⫺1.10, 1.10] 6.73 (0.66) 6.75 (0.96) 0.11 ⫺0.02 [⫺0.42, 0.38]

Perceived stress 1.79 (0.62) 1.57 (0.76) 2.57

ⴱ

0.26 [⫺0.01, 0.53] 1.59 (0.53) 1.67 (0.49) 0.36 ⫺0.11 [⫺0.71, 0.49]

VL Importance 7.11 (1.95) 8.09 (1.4) 1.97

†

0.76 [⫺0.06, 1.58] 7.09 (1.64) 7.75 (1.52) 1.24 0.53 [⫺0.24, 1.30]

VL Consistency 6.97 (2.12) 7.23 (2.09) 0.43 .18 [⫺0.53, 0.89] 7.50 (1.73) 7.88 (1.49) 0.88 0.30 [⫺0.29, 0.89]

VL Composite 58.20 (28.39) 64.30 (25.67) 0.98 1.17 [0.26, 2.08] 58.19 (21.75) 66.42 (19.24) 1.23 1.82 [0.74, 2.90]

Grit 3.84 (0.68) 3.95 (0.56) ⫺1.18 0.14 [⫺0.20, 0.48] 3.42 (0.59) 3.48 (0.67) 0.49 ⫺0.08 [⫺0.48, 0.32]

Cognitive defusion 3.03 (0.72) 3.21 (1.03) ⫺0.64 0.19 [⫺0.57, 0.95] 2.79 (0.69) 3.01 (0.92) 1.46 ⫺0.25 [⫺0.63, 0.13]

Note. Pre ⫽before the intervention; Post ⫽after the intervention; CI for d⫽conﬁdence interval for effect size; DT ⫽distress tolerance; VL ⫽valued living.

†

p⬍.10.

ⴱ

p⬍.05.

11MINDFULNESS INTERVENTION WITH COLLEGE ATHLETE TEAM

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directed energy, and less perceived stress than

before the intervention. Participants also re-

ported greater tolerance of negative experiences

(at trending levels of signiﬁcance), such that

participants reported greater comfort with dis-

gust and anxiety after the intervention. To en-

sure any effects found were because of the inter-

vention, as a control comparison group, athletes

from various club sports teams from the same

university completed the same questionnaires at

Table 3

Student Athletes’ Written Feedback About the Intervention

Prompt Response

What part of this training do you

think will help you most with

your athletic performance?

The part that would help me the most is the mental exercises where we

close our eyes and concentrate. Also learning how to shift our

attention to the task at hand.

I think that learning how to control my thoughts will help me the most

as far as my athletic performance goes. The way of noticing what

I’m doing and being able to shift at the moment will be a lifesaver.

I think that the meditation and refocusing will keep improving my

performance. A big part of why I may not perform as well as I want

to is that I am beating myself up or anxious. Just accepting the

anxiety and refocusing to the task at hand and being conﬁdent in my

abilities.

The mindfulness-acceptance-commitment training was very helpful. I

think it will help me during the season. Now when I make mistakes

I will not focus on the mistake, I will let it go. This program helped

me focus on the bigger picture. When I make a mistake I will tune

out the negative and focus more on to the next play.

I think that having a team sit together and talk to each other and get to

learn more about the individual is what allows the team to come

closer. Also being able to hear everybody individual goals and team

goals.

Knowing what my teammates goals are so I can help them accomplish

them. Also being able to control my breathing.

Focusing on the present moment. Being able to recognize my thoughts/

acceptance/avoidance.

I think what will help me most is being able to refocus my attention.

Not only in [speciﬁc sport], but being able to focus on everyday

tasks. When and if I ﬁnd myself wandering, I will challenge myself

to focus on the task at hand.

What feedback, if any, would

you like to offer the

instructors?

No feedback in particular. I think they did a great job and tried to

understand the mindset of every person in the room. I enjoy the

class and they weren’t judgmental of any of the information we

shared.

I don’t have anything negative to say, but keep up the wonderful work.

This program was very boring at times. I think the centering exercises

need to be shorter because I tend to lose focus fast. I think that there

needs to be more activity instead of all just talking.

I think that the instructors did a great job and helped us stay positive

and also made it fun for us.

As far as what could be changed I think that more hands on activities

would be great. Maybe some “mindful” games that will help us to

focus our attention or center ourselves. Maybe more videos on

particular studies done of different mindfulness practices.

More hands on activities for the players to do so we can stay engaged

I would love to continue this program. I think this will help me and

my teammates out.

I enjoyed the idea of the program but the actual sessions were not as

interactive as I expected it to be. There was a lot of discussion about

what “mindfulness” is, but not much mindful activity besides the

opening and closing. It would be cool if the training sessions were

conducted somehow incorporated the actual sport.

12 GOODMAN, KASHDAN, MALLARD, AND SCHUMANN

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the pre- and postintervals. Student athletes who

completed the intervention reported greater in-

creases in goal-directed energy and mindfulness

than did student athletes in the control group. In

written feedback following the intervention, sev-

eral players wrote that the mindfulness activities

were the most helpful part of the intervention and

suggested that incorporating more hands-on exer-

cises would improve the intervention.

Consistent with expectations, participants re-

ported greater levels of mindfulness following

the intervention and compared with a control

group. Participants learned foundations of

mindfulness and practiced skills during each

session. The efﬁcacy of mindfulness interven-

tions is well supported (Roemer & Orsillo,

2009), and participants have reported increased

levels of mindfulness in a short period of time

(e.g., Erisman, & Roemer, 2010; Zeidan et al.,

2010). We also found that participants were

better able to tolerate negative experiences (spe-

ciﬁcally, negative affect and disgust) following

the intervention, although this effect did not

reach statistical signiﬁcance. A primary feature

of mindfulness is to allow experiences to occur

without judgment and accept them as they nat-

urally unfold. More speciﬁcally, an open and

receptive attitude promotes acceptance of neg-

ative internal states (Kabat-Zinn, 1990; Shapiro,

Carlson, Astin, & Freedman, 2006; Teasdale,

1999). Such openness is important for athletes,

as the hallmark of competitive sporting environ-

ments is ﬂuctuating demands and opportunities

to fall short of such demands and experience

failure (e.g., missing a shot, receiving a pen-

alty). In a related way, participants reported

lower perceived stress following the interven-

tion, which might point to an increased ability

to cope with negative events.

We found encouraging support for the impor-

tance of incorporating values work into inter-

ventions. Following the intervention, partici-

pants reported increased levels of importance of

valued life domains, which failed to reach sta-

tistical signiﬁcance yet are suggestive in terms

of directing future research and program devel-

opment. Greater awareness and clariﬁcation of

values would be expected to increase salience of

their importance. Because individuals have a

ﬁnite amount of resources to devote to multiple

life domains, particularly time-burdened college

student athletes, it might be helpful to clarify

and identify which are most personally mean-

ingful. In terms of goals, participants reported

greater goal-directed energy following the in-

tervention and compared with the control group.

Research suggests that values exploration plays

a central role in goal attainment (Sheldon &

Elliot, 1999; Sheldon & Houser-Marko, 2001).

In fact, a recent study of an ACT-based inter-

vention revealed that values exploration com-

bined with goal setting resulted in improved

performance, yet goal setting alone did not pre-

dict performance (Chase et al., 2013). Accord-

ingly, clarifying values might motivate goal

pursuit.

Implications for Practitioners

We explored players’ written feedback from

their exit interviews to identify strengths and

areas to build on for future interventions. Sev-

eral players indicated that the intervention could

be improved by including more active, experi-

ential exercises. Long periods of lecturing

where participants remained inactive might

have resulted in boredom and inattention.

Because athletes are accustomed to intense,

frequent exercise, they may prefer to learn

through active and experiential methods, as in-

dicated by a recent study with student athletes

(Groves, Bowd, & Smith, 2010). Practitioners

that conduct interventions with athletes should

harness their propensity toward physical move-

ment. This might provide additional support for

the beneﬁt a complementary mind–body exer-

cise component (e.g., yoga), although this re-

mains to be explicitly tested. Additionally, a

group format might be helpful to build team

morale and trust.

Two players wrote the words “team” or

“teammates” in their response to what they

found most helpful. Completing exercises that

encourage self-disclosure (e.g., see Method,

Session 3: Introducing values and values-driven

behavior section) may increase closeness

among participants in a group (see Collins &

Miller, 1994, for a meta-analytic review). Ac-

tive participation, especially when directed to-

ward a shared task, may facilitate teamwork and

improve group cohesiveness within teams.

Limitations and Future Directions

Our ﬁndings should be interpreted in light of

several limitations that preclude deﬁnitive con-

clusions, including a lack of randomization in

13MINDFULNESS INTERVENTION WITH COLLEGE ATHLETE TEAM

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This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

treatment group assignment and differences in

recruitment of the two groups of student ath-

letes. Athletes in the control group represented

different teams across diverse sports, as op-

posed athletes in the experimental group who

were members of a single team. Researchers

have emphasized that individualizing athletic

intervention programs to each sport is important

to their effectiveness (e.g., Martin & Toogood,

1997). The advantages of interventions may dif-

fer across sports depending on the unique de-

mands of the sport. For example, one study

found differences in observed effects of a mind-

fulness program between elite golfers and

swimmers (Bernier et al., 2009). Another limi-

tation from the vantage point of implementation

of the program is that we did not measure ath-

letic performance. Indeed, it is likely that stu-

dent athletes and coaching personnel would be

more likely adopt an intervention that has been

shown to improve performance. Future research

is needed to determine whether improvements

in psychological well-being and mindfulness

translate into improvements in physical perfor-

mance (e.g., Iso-Ahola, 1995; Jowett & Cramer,

2009). We recommend that subsequent studies

are more adequately powered to document po-

tential differences across intervention and con-

trol groups. A number of potentially interesting

ﬁndings in the current research emerged at only

trending levels of statistical signiﬁcance and

these ﬁndings should not be regarded as reliable

until conﬁrmed in future investigations. Finally,

because we combined psychological training

(MAC program) with mind–body exercises

(yoga), we are unable to determine which com-

ponent of the intervention exerted a greater in-

ﬂuence on the participants. Nevertheless, the

combination of these two approaches may yield

the greatest beneﬁt, insofar as psychological

training and yoga training reinforce mindful-

ness in complementary yet distinct ways.

Our study provides insight into how to best

conduct mindfulness and acceptance-based in-

terventions with student athletes. We provide

preliminary support for the efﬁcacy of a brief

psychological intervention that incorporates

mind–body exercises. We add to the growing

body of support for ACT-based approaches that

teach athletes how to be mindful and accepting

of negative states rather than trying to eliminate,

suppress, or control them. Our examination of

players’ written feedback highlights the need

for practitioners to administer experiential ex-

ercises that invite athletes to actively partici-

pate. To develop the most effective interven-

tions for student athletes, researchers are

encouraged to examine mindfulness and accep-

tance strategies and continue to explore the

mechanisms of psychological interventions that

may beneﬁt not only athletes, but the general

population as well.

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Received February 21, 2014

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Accepted June 4, 2014 䡲

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Apr 2024

O desempenho esportivo é influenciado por múltiplas habilidades. Com o objetivo de aprimorar habilidades psicológicas, diversas intervenções têm sido desenvolvidas, como o treinamento de mindfulness (TI), tornando-se necessário avaliar os efeitos dessas intervenções para futuros direcionamentos. O presente estudo teve como objetivo investigar os efeitos do TI no desempenho esportivo e nas habilidades psicológicas de atletas por meio de uma revisão sistemática. Esta revisão seguiu as recomendações do PRISMA. Foram incluídos estudos randomizados, não randomizados e intervenções pré e pós, que avaliaram o desempenho esportivo e habilidades psicológicas por meio de instrumentos e procedimentos quantitativos, com amostras compostas por atletas profissionais e amadores, disponíveis em português, espanhol e inglês, e publicados entre 2010-2020. As buscas foram realizadas no MEDLINE, PsycNet, Scopus, LILACS, Web of Science e SPORTDiscus. A elegibilidade e a qualidade dos estudos foram avaliadas por dois pesquisadores independentes. As pesquisas identificaram 1579 artigos e, após análise, 32 estudos foram incluídos. Foi possível identificar efeitos positivos do TI em diferentes variáveis: 11 estudos encontraram efeitos positivos no desempenho esportivo, 14 no estado de mindfulness, 9 no estado de fluxo, 5 na redução da ansiedade competitiva, 3 no estresse, 4 na ansiedade geral e 2 no pessimismo. Conclui-se que o TI pode promover o desempenho esportivo e habilidades psicológicas em atletas, porém é necessário desenvolver estudos com melhor qualidade, especialmente no Brasil.

Examining the effects of the Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC) programme on sport-specific dispositional mindfulness, sport anxiety, and experiential acceptance in Martial Arts

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2024

The aim of the study was to examine effects of the Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC) programme on sport-specific dispositional mindfulness, sport anxiety, and experiential acceptance, compared to an inactive control group, in a population of Martial Arts (MA) athletes. Twenty-three MA athletes were subjected to the MAC intervention, and 22 MA athletes comprised the control group. To analyse potential differences in the outcome variables between the two groups, Bayesian repeated measures analysis of variance (RM-ANOVA) was used. Findings showed that the MAC-group had greater increases over time in the sport-specific mindfulness subscales awareness and acceptance and acceptance, compared to the control group. In contrast, no interaction effects were found for present moment attention (AMQ), experiential acceptance (BEAQ), and sport anxiety (SAS-2). Overall, the present study adds further information and understanding about the effectiveness and implementation of the MAC programme.

The effects of yoga-psychological skills training on mental health coping in injured young athletes: A case study

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2024
INT J SPORT PSYCHOL

Sports injuries among young athletes are associated with increased mental health risks. This case study explored the effects of a 10-week yoga program combined with psychological skills training (PST) on mental health coping in injured young athletes. Ten male soccer players (Mage = 16.2 ± 0.92) who had sustained sports injuries in the past year participated in the yoga-PST program. Pre-and post-intervention questionnaires assessed coping skills tailored to athletes' mental health (e.g., learned resourcefulness, psychological skills in sports, and post-sport injury stress). The intervention led to significant improvements in mental health coping skills, including problem-focused coping (+14%), goal setting (+19%), hyperarousal reduction (-40%), and re-experience reduction (-35%). Cohen's d results indicated positive impacts on the sub-domains of coping skills. The study suggests that yoga-PST intervention can enhance mental health coping in injured young athletes, fostering positive coping responses and potentially preventing long-term mental health issues.

Effect of mindfulness and/or yoga practices on selected psychological parameters of sportsperson: A meta-analysis

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2022

The Impact of Yoga on Athletes' Mental Well-Being: An Experimental Study

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2024

Background Athletes have a variety of obstacles that might shrink their chances of getting adequate rest, including competing and training times, travel, stress, academic responsibilities, and overtraining. Furthermore, athletes have been reported to have poor self-reports of their sleep length and quality. The study aims to assess the impact of yoga practice on sleep quality, stress, anxiety, psychological rigidity, and experience avoidance. Methods A pre- and post-test randomized design was applied for the research. Forty-four recreational athletes (age 18-45 years) were selected per the inclusion criteria from the athletes studying at Banaras Hindu University. Exclusion criteria are a likely severe psychiatric disorder, chronic illness, substance abuse, disability, endocrine or metabolic disorders, and history of using psychotropic drugs and smoking. The Yogic intervention contains the Pranayama and meditation, which was practiced for six weeks in the intervention group. Outcome variables were stress, sleep, anxiety, mindfulness, psychological rigidity, and experience avoidance. The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), Sport Competition Anxiety Test, Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS), and Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-II (AAQ-II) were applied to measure the outcomes. Results The majority of the participants (30 (68%)) were male, and 44 (100%) had more than two years of sports experience. Of the participants, 18 (40.90%) had a habit of 3-5 hours of internet surfing. We noticed that there was a significant mean difference from pre- to post-intervention in terms of stress, sleep, anxiety, mindfulness, psychological rigidity, and experience avoidance (p < 0.0001). Conclusion The results concluded positive effects of yoga on athletes' stress, sleep, anxiety, mindfulness, psychological rigidity, and experience avoidance in athletes. Stress alleviation and reduced anxiety are the strongest predictors of improving psychological flexibility skills in athletes' daily lives. Improving mindfulness and supporting good sleep patterns could be good indicators of improving psychological rigidity and experience avoidance.

Optimisation of stress regulation through yoga as a complementary mental preparation method for top tennis players: A case study focused on performance and mental well-being

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2024

The presented paper investigates the impact of a one-year yoga intervention on stress regulation among top tennis players. The participants in this study consist of 39 top tennis players who are members of the VICTORIA University Sports Centre of the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic. The targeted tennis players integrated two 60-minute dynamic vinyasa yoga sessions each practice week into their normal tennis routines. This was designed to provide physical and mental benefits to athletes, focussing on stress regulation and improved focus. Assessments were performed before and after the intervention to determine changes in stress regulation, competition anxiety, and the accuracy of the service. To measure stress regulation, the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) and the Competition Anxiety Inventory for Tennis Players (CAI-T) were used. The accuracy of the tennis player’s service was evaluated quarterly. The evaluation of the data sets showed changes in the regulation of anxiety and stress of tennis players. Furthermore, a paired sample t-test showed a significant impact of the yoga intervention on stress regulation. PSS scores showed a reduction, and also the CAI-T test scores showed a significant downward trend. Service accuracy was improved. A paired t-test confirmed that this improvement is statistically significant. We can conclude that the yoga intervention increases tennis players’ performance and well-being.

A 6-Week Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment Intervention to Improve Professional Ballet Dancers' Psychological States Around Performance

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2024
J Dance Med Sci

Background: Mindfulness and acceptance-based approaches have been trialled in professional sport. The present pilot study was a randomized controlled trial with professional ballet dancers investigating the effectiveness of the Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC) approach, developed for athletes, compared to an education program which included topics relevant to ballet and performance. Methods: Participants included 16 professional ballet dancers (2 men and 14 women) who were randomly assigned into either the MAC or education group for 1 session per week, for 6 weeks. Participants were assessed pre-and post-intervention using the Mindfulness Inventory for Sport (MIS) and the Acceptance Action Questionnaire (AAQ-II). Within 2 weeks of the final mindfulness session, all participants completed a semi-structured interview. Results: No differences were found when comparing the questionnaire responses between pre- and post- intervention, nor between the MAC group and the control group at post intervention for all subscales. Although dancers reported in the interviews that the sessions were valuable, they advised their ability to dedicate time to mindfulness ongoing would be challenging. Conclusions: Mindfulness interventions, as explored in this study, show promise to promote the well-being of professional ballet dancers. For consistent and ongoing mindfulness practice, future designs should seek to embed mindfulness practice into dancer and company schedules.

Integrating Physio-Yogic Exercises for Rotator Cuff Tendinopathy in Indian Overhead Athletes: A Comprehensive Approach

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2024

Background Athletes affected by rotator cuff tendinopathy experience discomfort, stiffness, reduced range of motion, diminished athletic performance, and decreased quality of life. This study aimed to determine the efficacy of physio-yogic exercises in reducing pain and disability, increasing range of motion, and improving quality of life in Indian overhead athletes with rotator cuff tendinopathy. Methods Sample from 45 athletes was divided into three groups scapular recruitment exercises, physio-yogic exercises, and yoga asanas. Pre-intervention readings of the Shoulder Pain and Disability Index (SPADI), Athlete Quality of Life Scale (ALQS), and Shoulder Active Range of Motion (AROM) were taken at day 1 and post-intervention readings were taken at the end of week 8. The paired Student’s t-test was used to compare the values of the outcome measures for the preintervention and postintervention within the groups. Analysis of variance was used to compare the mean values of change in the outcome measures from preintervention to postintervention between the groups. Post hoc test was conducted to compare the postintervention values of the outcome measures between the groups. Results Total scores of SPADI (p < 0.0001), ALQS (p < 0.0001), and Shoulder AROM (p < 0.0001) demonstrated statistically significant improvements in the physio-yogic exercise group. Conclusion The physio-yogic exercise protocol for rotator cuff tendinopathy is a unique regimen that combines the positive effects of yoga asanas and the advantages of scapular recruitment exercises. Thus, the physio-yogic exercise protocol can further promote the rehabilitation program for rotator cuff tendinopathy.

Effects of mindfulness-based programs on competitive anxiety in sports: A meta-analysis

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2024
CURR PSYCHOL

This review aimed to investigate the effects of mindfulness-based programs (MBP) on competitive anxiety among athletes. SPORTDiscus, CNKI, Web of Science, PubMed, and ProQuest databases were searched for relevant studies published by July 2023. R packages were used for this meta-analysis. The Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) was applied to assess the methodological study quality. A total of 20 articles were included in this meta-analysis. Meta-results showed a medium-to-large effect of the MBP in reducing athletes’ competitive anxiety (g = -0.67, 95% CI [-0.92, -0.42]). The subgroup analyses revealed that the effectiveness of the MBP on competitive anxiety was robust regardless of MBP type, sport, age, and gender. However, the MBP effectiveness might be more prominent for non-Western athletes compared to Western athletes, and for high-level athletes (e.g., regional or national) compared to low-level athletes (e.g., local or university), as well as when interventions lasted more than 7 weeks. Additionally, separate meta-analyses revealed moderate-to-large effects in terms of cognitive anxiety (g = -0.76, 95% CI [-1.32, -0.19]) and somatic anxiety (g = -0.84, 95% CI [-1.26, -0.42]), as well as a small to moderate effect for self-confidence (g = 0.45, 95% CI [0.15, 0.75]).In conclusion, the MBP consistently and effectively reduces competitive anxiety levels among athletes. In the future, high-quality, adequately powered studies are needed to further explore the effects of MBP on the internal dimensions of competitive anxiety and understand the impact of various factors (e.g., MBP type, competitive level and country) on MBP effectiveness.

Efeito da meditação mindfulness no esporte de alto rendimento: uma revisão de escopo

Article

Full-text available

May 2024

É superficial dizer que a prática de esportes é uma questão física, uma vez que após inúmeros estudos começamos a ter um entendimento mais amplo sobre a importância da mente sobre os aspectos da mente quanto ao desenvolvimento satisfatório nas competições. O aprendizado de habilidades psicológicas, tal como o aprendizado das habilidades técnicas e táticas, deve ser praticado regularmente e refinado a partir de seu emprego sistemático. O objetivo do presente estudo foi realizar uma revisão de escopo na literatura existente sobre os efeitos da meditação mindfulness nas respostas psicológicas e fisiológicas em atletas de alto rendimento e de ambos os sexos. A busca foi realizada em maio de 2024 nas bases de dados da Nursing and Allied Health (CINAHL), Cochrane Library, PubMed® e Scielo, retornando com 32 artigos, aceitos pelos critérios de inclusão, sendo analisados. Foram incluídos no estudo atletas de ambos os sexos que utilizavam como abordagem principal o mindfulness. Neste contexto foi avaliado, como desfechos, o desempenho fisiológico (concentração de cortisol, creatina quinase, lactato desidrogenase, testosterona, resposta imunológica, variabilidade da frequência cardíaca, frequência cardíaca de repouso e volume máximo de oxigênio), respostas psicológicas (níveis de ansiedade e depressão) e índices de desempenho muscular (número de repetições máximas, volume total de treino e carga mobilidade ao longo de testes de repetições máximas). Observou-se que a meditação mindfulness apresentou melhora na qualidade do sono, aumento na tolerância a dor, redução nos níveis séricos de cortisol sanguíneo, aumento da confiança, redução do estresse e ansiedade. A literatura de fato começa a se aprofundar sobre a meditação relacionada ao desempenho físico-esportivo, mas ainda assim novas pesquisas precisam ser aplicadas para que traga mais embasamento científico afim de favorecer esporte de alto rendimento de forma eficiente e segura. Baseado nas respostas encontradas nesta revisão sistemática, a meditação mindfulness parece ser uma interessante estratégia a ser incorporada no âmbito esportivo, principalmente por observar respostas positivas na capacidade psicológica dos atletas. Palavras-chaves: atenção plena, desempenho atlético, meditação, saúde mental.

Self-Disclosure and Liking: A Meta-Analytic Review

Article

Full-text available

Nov 1994

Self-disclosure plays a central role in the development and maintenance of relationships. One way that researchers have explored these processes is by studying the links between self-disclosure and liking. Using meta-analytic procedures, the present work sought to clarify and review this literature by evaluating the evidence for 3 distinct disclosure–liking effects. Significant disclosure–liking relations were found for each effect: (a) People who engage in intimate disclosures tend to be liked more than people who disclose at lower levels, (b) people disclose more to those whom they initially like, and (c) people like others as a result of having disclosed to them. In addition, the relation between disclosure and liking was moderated by a number of variables, including study paradigm, type of disclosure, and gender of the discloser. Taken together, these results suggest that various disclosure–liking effects can be integrated and viewed as operating together within a dynamic interpersonal system. Implications for theory development are discussed, and avenues for future research are suggested.

Self-Concordance, Goal Attainment, and the Pursuit of Happiness: Can There Be an Upward Spiral?

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2001

Two studies used the self-concordance model of healthy goal striving (K. M. Sheldon & A. J. Elliot, 1999) to examine the motivational processes by which people can increase their level of well-being during a period of time and then maintain the gain or perhaps increase it even further during the next period of time. In Study I, entering freshmen with self-concordant motivation better attained their 1st-semester goals, which in turn predicted increased adjustment and greater self-concordance for the next semester's goals. Increased self-concordance in turn predicted even better goal attainment during the 2nd semester, which led to further increases in adjustment and to higher levels of ego development by the end of the year. Study 2 replicated the basic model in a 2-week study of short-term goals set in the laboratory. Limits of the model and implications for the question of how (and whether) happiness may be increased are discussed.

The Psychology of Enhancing Human Performance: The Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC) Approach

Book

Jul 2007

Multidimensional Assessment of Emotion Regulation and Dysregulation: Development, Factor Structure, and Initial Validation of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale

Article

Mar 2004

Given recent attention to emotion regulation as a potentially unifying function of diverse symptom presentations, there is a need for comprehensive measures that adequately assess difficulties in emotion regulation among adults. This paper (a) proposes an integrative conceptualization of emotion regulation as involving not just the modulation of emotional arousal, but also the awareness, understanding, and acceptance of emotions, and the ability to act in desired ways regardless of emotional state; and (b) begins to explore the factor structure and psychometric properties of a new measure, the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS). Two samples of undergraduate students completed questionnaire packets. Preliminary findings suggest that the DERS has high internal consistency, good test–retest reliability, and adequate construct and predictive validity.

Cognitive-Behavior Modification

Book

Jan 1977

Donald Meichenbaum

The Case of Jenny: A Freshman Collegiate Athlete Experiencing Performance Dysfunction

Article

Jun 2007

Jessica M. Lutkenhouse

The present case study illustrates the treatment of a 19-year-old female lacrosse player, classified as experiencing Performance Dysfunction (Pdy) by the Multilevel Classification System for Sport Psychology (MCS-SP). The self-referred collegiate athlete was treated using the manualized Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC) protocol (Gardner & Moore, 2004a, 2007). The intervention consisted of eight individual sessions and several follow-up contacts via e-mail. The majority of the sessions addressed clinically related and sport-related concerns, including difficulties in emotion regulation and problematic interpersonal relationships. Based on self-report, coach report, and one outcome assessment measure, the psychological intervention resulted in enhanced overall behavioral functioning and enhanced athletic performance. This case study suggests that following careful case formulation based on appropriate assessment and interview data, the MAC intervention successfully targeted the clearly defined psychological processes underlying the athlete’s performance concerns and personal obstacles, thus resulting in enhanced well-being and athletic performance improvements.

Application of the Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC) Protocol With an Adolescent Springboard Diver

Article

Dec 2009

Lori A. Schwanhausser

This study presents the case of Steve, an adolescent competitive springboard diver. This diver, referred by his coach, received the Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC) approach for performance enhancement. The MAC protocol, originally written for an adult population, was used in modified form (under consultation from the authors) to ensure appropriateness for an adolescent population. Conducted in nine individual sessions, the intervention targeted abilities in attention and value-driven behavior to enhance focus, poise, and overall diving performance. Self-report measures of mindfulness and flow, along with objective measures of diving performance were collected pre- and postintervention. Results indicated increases in mindful awareness, mindful attention, experiential acceptance, flow, and diving performance from pre- to postintervention. This case supports the applicability of the MAC protocol with an adolescent athlete population.

A Cognitive-Behavior Modification Approach to Assessment

Chapter

Jan 1977

Donald Meichenbaum

Although one may disagree with Shapiro and Ravenette’s evaluation of the various tests cited, their quote does sensitize us to the need to develop more explicit ways of assessing our client’s affects, cognitions, and volitions. The present chapter conveys some preliminary attempts at developing this assessment armamentarium, which follow from a cognitive-behavioral treatment approach. Specifically, the present chapter has two purposes. The first is to examine various assessment strategies that have been employed to study psychological deficits. This analysis indicates some shortcomings and an alternative, namely a cognitive-functional analysis approach. The second purpose of the chapter is to describe specific techniques that can be employed to assess more directly the client’s cognitions. Let’s begin with an examination of the current assessment and research strategies.

Stress-Management interventions for female athletes: Relaxation and cognitive restructuring

Article

Apr 2004
INT J SPORT PSYCHOL

Colleen Haney

This study examined the effects of two 6-week stress-management interventions (cognitive restructuring and modified progressive muscle relaxation) for female athletes (n=47) aged 16 to 51. A general self-efficacy questionnaire, trait anxiety inventory, and coping inventory were administered prior to the start of the training, at post treatment, and at 2-month follow-up. Both treatments significantly reduced trait anxiety and increased self-efficacy at post treatment. These changes were maintained at follow-up. As expected, adaptive coping strategies increased at posttreatement for both groups. Maladaptive coping strategy means were reduced in the expected direction for the cognitive group only from pre-test to follow-up. Limitations of this study and future implications are discussed.

One Year Follow-Up of Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE) with Archers, Golfers, and Runners

Article

Jun 2011

The purpose of the present investigation was to evaluate the long-term effects of mindful sport performance enhancement (MSPE), a program designed to improve athletic performance and psychological aspects of sport. One-year follow-up assessments were conducted on archers, golfers, and long-distance runners (N = 25) who attended Kaufman, Glass, and Arnkoff’s (2009) and De Petrillo, Kaufman, Glass, and Arnkoff’s (2009) MSPE workshops. Across the athlete groups, participants reported significant increases in the ability to act with awareness (an aspect of trait mindfulness) and overall trait mindfulness from pretest to follow-up, along with significant decreases in task-related worries and task-irrelevant thoughts (both aspects of cognitive interference during sport). The long-distance runners exhibited significant improvement in their mile times from pretest to follow-up, with significant correlations between change in runners’ performance and trait variables. Results suggest that MSPE is a promising interv...

A Brief Mindfulness and Yoga Intervention With an Entire NCAA Division I Athletic Team: An Initial Investigation

Abstract

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