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Mobility Model for WBANs
Abstract
Mobility models play a vital role on the accuracy of simulations in Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs). In this paper, we propose a mobility model for the movement of nodes placed on the human body. During routine activities, body exhibits different postures like standing, sitting, laying, etc. We form a mathematical model for the movement of nodes according to the posture pattern. Postures change from one state to another depending upon probabilities. During movement, the distance between nodes and sink is changed which affects the energy consumption of nodes. We implement the proposed mobility model in multi-hop and forwarder based routing techniques and study their performance parameters.
... Targeted Clients 7.8% [36], [37], [38], [39], [40] Architecture Sensor type and Mobile Control Unit 12.5% [41], [42], [43] [44], [45], [46], [47], [48] Wireless Communication 12.5% [49], [50], [51] , [52], [53], [54], [55], [56] Techniques Applied Markov Model 6.3% [57], [58], [59], [ [67], [68], [69], [70], [71], [72], [73], [74], [75], [76] Game Theory 3.1% [77]. [78] Cooperative Communication 4.7% [79], [80], [81] Challenges 6.3% [73], [82], [83] Vital Monitoring is a routine check-up that measures fundamental physiological parameters such as body temperature, heart rate, blood oxygen saturation, blood pressure, and breathing rate. ...
... A Markov model describes the stationary stochastic process and can easily be used in Individual-based RPMS to describe the user"s postures such as standing, sitting, lying down, walking, and running. The authors of [57] modelled postures according to a Markov chain, as shown in FIGURE 18. According to Sharma et al., as the human body is mobile, it makes the distance between the sink and the nodes in RPMS to change. ...
... Based upon Ref. [31], the dynamical sensors schedule was constrained by Markov decision processing. [57] FIGURE19: Markov model for walking into three posture state [58] b. Mobility Model For Individual-Based RPMS Individualized RPMS have the advantage of not limiting human movements, e.g. they allow users to walk at their leisure. ...
Research in Remote Patient Monitoring Systems (RPMS) is considered to be one of the most crucial fields since it deals with human lives. The rise in usage of RPMS has increased since the emergence of the pandemic. Even though there is a rise in these systems, there are some challenges, such as mobility, heterogeneous networks, standardization of RPMSs, automation, and Quality of Service (QoS). Our discussion focuses on RPMS systems for physiological parameter monitoring in the areas of their applications, architecture, and challenges. Thus, an in-depth review of RPMS and the analysis of these data are performed in order to understand where the current RPMS literature stands. The literature shows that research in these RPMS is concentrated on two or more of the following areas: applications, architecture, methodologies, and their performance. It appears that prior to 2020, researchers focused on nearly all aspects of RPMS until the pandemic. Then there was a shift in RPMS research to focus more on the applications and architectures of these systems. As a result, more companies are developing mobile RPMS. In this paper, we present a detailed of various existing RPMS with areas of focus on their application, architecture, technology applied, and challenges faced. We further provided a comparative and statistical analysis of the existing literature, and, finally, an overview of Quality of Service (QoS) as one challenge of RPMS is provided. The surveyed QoS requirements based on traffic type, data quality, device quality and network metrics are provided, with the aim of providing the current trend for researchers and industries to adapt to the best approach in the design of quality-aware RMPS. We then conclude the work by providing future work, which, when adopted, will brighten the future of RPMS deployment.
... The development of such networks demands extensive planning strategy along with superior tactical approaches for its working capabilities. This effective development motivates the existence of many real-time application scenarios such as environmental control [2], underwater networks [3], battlefield surveillance [4], medical and health-care systems [5,6], and many more [7][8][9][10][11]. ...
... To optimize resources, a sensible decision is to deploy an equal percentage of nodes over different regions to ensure minimization of coverage holes, and elongation of network lifetime. Therefore, in this scenario, we propose to deploy 20% of the nodes in region R 1 and the rest 80% of the nodes to be distributed evenly over R 2,3,..., 8,9 regions as shown in Fig. 4(b). This nodes' deployment always depend upon the network field area and number of nodes. ...
... Hence, for any other network configuration, an adjusted percentage can be calculated to optimize communication among nodes, and to avoid energy and coverage holes. Following the deployment of nodes and prior network initialization, the election of CHs is carried out in all R 2,3,..., 8,9 regions. Since the use of CHs in clustering techniques plays an important role to improve network lifespan, effective criterion for CHs election is equally necessary for further improving performance of the network. ...
In this paper, we propose a novel framework for performance optimization in Internet of Things (IoT)-based next-generation wireless sensor networks. In particular, a computationally-convenient system is presented to combat two major research problems in sensor networks. First is the conventionally-tackled resource optimization problem which triggers the drainage of battery at a faster rate within a network. Such drainage promotes inefficient resource usage thereby causing sudden death of the network. The second main bottleneck for such networks is that of data degradation. This is because the nodes in such networks communicate via a wireless channel, where the inevitable presence of noise corrupts the data making it unsuitable for practical applications. Therefore, we present a layer-adaptive method via 3-tier communication mechanism to ensure the efficient use of resources. This is supported with a mathematical coverage model that deals with the formation of coverage holes. We also present a transform-domain based robust algorithm to effectively remove the unwanted components from the data. Our proposed framework offers a handy algorithm that enjoys desirable complexity for real-time applications as shown by the extensive simulation results.
... Some current WWSN routing algorithms were developed by studying the influence of the human body's posture on the routing algorithm of a wireless body area networks (WBANs). 5,6 Existing routing algorithms for wireless sensor networks (WSNs) and mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) have also been studied to improve the link stability and communication frequency between nodes. [7][8][9] However, these routing algorithms are not suitable for large-scale fire scenarios. ...
Advances in wearable technology and the proliferation of wearable devices have led to the rapid development of wearable wireless sensor networks (WWSNs) in the fields of medical monitoring and disaster relief, which have gradually become a key technology for the Internet of Medical Things. This study focused on the safety of rescuers in the event of a large‐scale fire and applied a WWSN to monitor and transmit their physiological information. User mobility is a huge problem for routing in a WWSN: the topology changes rapidly and routing should be adjusted accordingly, but node movement can easily fracture links that need to be repaired, which takes time and can cause routing holes. Thus, mainstream routing algorithms are presently unsuitable for fire rescue. To solve the routing hole problem, a hole processing and trust value‐based mobile adaptive routing algorithm (MARA) is proposed comprising two parts: location‐aided routing for multiple request zones (LAR‐MRZ) and route maintenance algorithm based on the trust value (RMA‐TV). Simulation results showed that MARA provided an excellent performance in terms of the packet delivery rate and delay and demonstrated good adaptability for a WWSN in a fire scenario.
... There is a probability from a posture state to another one. The work in Ref. [29] presented a Markov model for postures, just as shown in Fig. 2. Liu et al. divided the walking process into three posture states and designed a Markov model for them, just as shown in Fig. 3, where M(0), M(1) and M(2) represent the three posture states respectively [30]. ...
Recently, wearable devices have got increasing popularity in wide applications in medical and disaster rescue efforts to ensure the health and safety of users, which facilitates the development of the Internet of Medical Things (IoMT). Due to the posture alteration and mobility of users, the topology of the IoMT changes frequently, which increases the difficulty for resource allocation and routing strategy. In this paper, we respectively probe into the health monitoring architectures of the IoMT for both individual and group, allowing the monitored users to move at will. Furtherly, combined with the diversity of disaster rescuers, we build an IoMT-based disaster rescuer health monitoring system with searchers, doctors and porters. For each application, we point out the enabling technologies and demonstrate the existing researches. It is worth noting that the complexity of environment and high mobility of rescuers increase the probability of route breakage. Thus, this paper creatively addresses effective routing repair solutions for route breakage in IoMT-based disaster rescuer health monitoring system by exploiting the mobility of rescuers. Finally, we forecast three most likely directions in the field of IoMTs.
... In [180], authors propose a mobility model for the movement of nodes placed on the human body by calculating the distance between Sink node and sensor nodes when human body is in movement. Authors start by selecting the actual posture and use probabilities for changes from a posture to another one. ...
The rapid advances in sensors and ultra-low power wireless communication has enabled a new generation of wireless sensor networks: Wireless Body Area Networks (WBAN).
In WBAN, tiny devices, deployed in/on or around human body, are able to detect and collect the physiological phenomena of the human body (such as: temperature, blood pressure, ECG, SpO2, etc.), and transmit this information to a collector point (i.e Sink) that will process it, take decisions, alert and reply.
WBAN is a recent challenging area. There are several concerns in this area ranging from energy efficient communication to designing delay efficient protocols that support nodes dynamic induced by human body mobility. Links have a very short range and a quality that varies with the wearer’s posture. The transmission power is kept low to improve devices autonomy and to reduce wearers electromagnetic exposition. Consequently, the effect of body absorption, reflections and interference cannot be neglected and it is difficult to maintain a direct link (one-hop) between the Sink and all WBAN nodes. Thus, multi-hop communication represents a viable alternative.
In this work we investigate energy-efficient multi-hop communication protocols in WBAN. We are interested in WBAN where sensors are placed on the body. We focus on two communication primitives: broadcast and converge-cast. We analyze several strategies inspired from the area of DTN and WSN. These investigations open new and challenging research directions to design novel protocols for multi-hop communication including a cross-layer approach.
... In Ref. [12], the authors proposed a new mobility model for the movement of nodes affixed to the human body based on different postures such as standing, sitting, and laying down. Although this model can identify different bodily postures, it cannot represent the state of transformation between different postures. ...
Existing mobility models have limitations in their ability to simulate the movement of Wireless Body Area Network (WBAN) since body nodes do not exactly follow either classic mobility models or human contact distributions. In this paper, we propose a new mobility model called Body Gauss–Markov Mobility (BGMM) model, which is oriented specially to WBAN. First, we present the random Gauss-Markov mobility model as the most suitable theoretical basis for developing our new model, as its movement pattern can reveal real human body movements. Next, we examine the transfer of human movement states and derive a simplified mathematical Human Mobility Model (HMM). We then construct the BGMM model by combining the RGMM and HMM models. Finally, we simulate the traces of the new mobility model. We use four direct metrics in our proposed mobility model to evaluate its performance. The simulation results show that the proposed BGMM model performs with respect to the direct mobility metrics and can effectively represent a general WBAN-nodes movement pattern.
... Amit Samanta et al, [8] proposed a distributed sub channel allocation scheme with load balance to improve network performance. ...
In wireless body area networks (WBANs), movement of nodes plays a very important role in designing an energy efficient routing algorithm. The topology of a BAN changes due to the movement of nodes, the distance between the nodes and sink varies and also energy consumption of the nodes also changes. In this paper, we propose an energy efficient threshold based data transmission using forwarder node technique based on mobility of nodes for heterogeneous wireless body area networks. Data transmission takes place only if threshold conditions applied for the data to be transmitted and required energy for data transmission are satisfied, thereby individual nodes energy is preserved. Child node selects parent node as a forwarder node based on cost function metric with high residual energy and less distance node for a successful data transmission to sink. Comparison results are obtained using MATLAB tool, justifies that MT-SIMPLE has less energy consumption, path loss, propagation delay and is more efficient in terms of stability, residual energy and throughput compared to existing protocols.
... A new routing protocol in wireless sensor networks implemented for a heterogeneous body, which thermal threshold-based adaptive mobility took place with M-attempt protocol. Sandhu et al. [11] provided a mobile model in BAN and presented a mathematical model in order to stimulate nodes due to changing state. Yousaf et al. [4] introduced CEMob and emergency transfer of data to support mobility in BANs. ...
Due to increasing developments of medical science, early detection and receiving exact information in treatment of diseases and even preventing them are very important. Body Area Networks (BANs), a subset of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), can deliver vital signs of patients to physician by collecting and analysis of patients' data and with applying different types of medical sensors. In this paper, a new link aware and energy efficient routing algorithm is introduced. In this algorithm, packets are divided into two categories: high-priority and low-priority packets and used for efficient next hop selection node. Selecting the next hop node based on the parameters such as the number of hops, delay and path loss is carried out. Results of simulation show that proposed algorithm improve average energy consumption and throughput compared to the similar routing algorithm.
... Good examples of such adaptations are shown in [46], where they model mobility scheme is from traces of real postural changes in humans, two phases are derived: a posture selection phase from postural change probabilities and a nodes movement phase based on the posture selected. Meanwhile in [47] the model is built upon RPGMM and RGMM models, and by observing some correlations present in human movement. ...
Cross-layer design is considered a powerful alternative to solve the complexities of wireless communication in wireless body area networks (WBAN), where the classical communication model has been shown to be inaccurate. Regarding the energy consumption problem, we have prepared a current survey of the most relevant scientific publications on energy-efficient cross-layer design for WBAN. In this paper, we provide a comprehensive review of the advances in cross-layer approaches, protocols and optimizations aimed at increasing the network lifetime by saving energy in WBANs. Subsequently, we discuss the relevant aspects and shortcomings of these energy-efficient cross-layer techniques and point out the open research issues and challenges in WBAN cross-layer design. In this survey, we propose a taxonomy for cross-layer approaches to fit them into categories based on the protocols involved in the cross-layer scheme. A novel classification is included to clarify the theoretical concepts behind each cross-layer scheme; and to group similar approaches by establishing their differences from the other strategies reviewed. Our conclusion considers the aspects of mobility and channel modeling in WBAN scenarios as the directions of future cross-layer research for WBAN and telemedicine applications.
In this paper, we propose a novel framework for performance optimization in Internet of Things (IoT)-based next-generation wireless sensor networks. In particular, a computationally-convenient system is presented to combat two major research problems in sensor networks. First is the conventionally-tackled resource optimization problem which triggers the drainage of battery at a faster rate within a network. Such drainage promotes inefficient resource usage thereby causing sudden death of the network. The second main bottleneck for such networks is the data degradation. This is because the nodes in such networks communicate via a wireless channel, where the inevitable presence of noise corrupts the data making it unsuitable for practical applications. Therefore, we present a layer-adaptive method via 3-tier communication mechanism to ensure the efficient use of resources. This is supported with a mathematical coverage model that deals with the formation of coverage holes. We also present a transform-domain based robust algorithm to effectively remove the unwanted components from the data. Our proposed framework offers a handy algorithm that enjoys desirable complexity for real-time applications as shown by the extensive simulation results.
KeywordsCoverage holesDenoisingEnergy efficiencyEnergy holesSparse representationsWireless sensor networks
In recent years, Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs) have achieved significant attention due to their potential applications in health care. In these networks, mobility models of human body and routing protocols largely affect the network lifetime. In this thesis, our main contribution is the proposition of a mobility model for the analysis of mobile human body while the other contributions are three proposed energy efficient routing protocols for WBANs. Mobility models play significant role in analysis of WBANs as they provide information about the distance between node and sink at any time instant. The distance between node and sink affects energy consumption, delay and path loss. In subject to more realistic scenarios, we propose mathematical models for five different postures; standing, sitting, walking, running, and laying. Nodes have different movement pattern in all of these postures. Now coming towards the first proposed routing protocol; Forwarding data Energy Efficiently with Load balancing (FEEL), in which a forwarder node is selected which reduces the transmission distance between node and sink, thereby reducing the energy consumption of nodes. In order to minimize propagation delay,
Electro Cardio Graphy (ECG) and glucose level measuring nodes directly send their data to the sink. FEEL protocol is applicable for continuous monitoring of patients. However, continuous monitoring of patients is unnecessary in some applications like, temperature monitoring, etc. So, we also propose Reliable Energy Efficient Critical data routing (REEC) for critical data transmission in WBANs. In REEC, two forwarder nodes are selected on the basis of cost function and are used for relaying the data towards sink. In order to overcome the unbalanced load problem on forwarder nodes, the selection of forwarder nodes is rotated in each round. We also propose a novel routing protocol for Balanced Energy Consumption (BEC) and enhancing the network lifetime in WBANs. In BEC, relay nodes are selected based on a cost function. The nodes send their data to their nearest relay nodes to route it to the sink. Furthermore, the nodes send only critical data when their energy becomes less than a specific threshold. In order to distribute the load uniformly, relay nodes are rotated in each round based on a cost function. Simulations show improved results of our proposed protocols as compared to the selected existing protocols in terms of stability period, network lifetime and throughput.
In wireless body area networks (WBAN), the sensors are usually attached on or implanted in the human body to monitor different vital signals. During routine activities, there is high mobility in WBANs, which results in frequent changes of the network topology. An accurate mobility model plays a vital role in protocol simulation and performance evaluation for WBANs. In this paper, we propose JMMM, a mobility model for WBANs according to the movement of human joints. Via mimicking the real motions of the human body, the proposed model can model the movement of any nodes in any place on body more accurately, and the changes in distance between different nodes are more realistic compared to previous models, which is of great importance in accurate simulation for WBANs. Moreover, the model is configurable, thus it is usable for a large variety of applications.
Energy hole problem is a critical issue for data gathering in wireless sensor networks. Sensors near the static sink act as relays for far sensors and thus will deplete their energy very quickly, resulting energy holes in the sensor field. Exploiting the mobility of a sink has been widely accepted as an efficient way to alleviate this problem. However, determining an optimal moving trajectory for a mobile sink is a non-deterministic polynomial-time hard problem. Thus, this paper proposed a mobile sink-based adaptive immune energy-efficient clustering protocol (MSIEEP) to alleviate the energy holes. A MSIEEP uses the adaptive immune algorithm (AIA) to guide the mobile sink-based on minimizing the total dissipated energy in communication and overhead control packets. Moreover, AIA is used to find the optimum number of cluster heads (CHs) to improve the lifetime and stability period of the network. The performance of MSIEEP is compared with the previously published protocols; namely, low-energy adaptive clustering hierarchy (LEACH), genetic algorithm-based LEACH, amend LEACH, rendezvous, and mobile sink improved energy-efficient PEGASIS-based routing protocol using MATLAB. Simulation results show that MSIEEP is more reliable and energy efficient as compared with other protocols. Furthermore, it improves the lifetime, the stability, and the instability periods over the previous protocols, because it always selects CHs from high-energy nodes. Moreover, the mobile sink increases the ability of the proposed protocol to deliver packets to the destination.
A good mobility model is an essential prerequisite for performance evaluation of protocols for wireless networks with node mobility. Sensor nodes in a Wireless Body Area Network (WBAN) exhibit high mobility. The WBAN topology may completely change because of posture changes and movement even within a certain type of posture. The WBAN also moves as a whole in an ambient network. Therefore, an appropriate mobility model is of great importance for performance evaluation. This paper presents a comprehensive configurable mobility model MoBAN for evaluating intra-and extra-WBAN communication. It implements different postures as well as individual node mobility within a particular posture. The model can be adapted to a broad range of applications for WBANs. The model is made available through http://www.es.ele.tue.nl/nes/, as an add-on to the mobility framework of the OMNeT++ simulator. Two case studies illustrate the use of the mobility model for performance evaluation of network protocols.
Wireless body area networks (WBANs) offer many promising new applications in the area of remote health monitoring. An important element in the development of a WBAN is the characterization of the physical layer of the network, including an estimation of the delay spread and the path loss between two nodes on the body. This paper discusses the propagation channel between two half-wavelength dipoles at 2.45 GHz, placed near a human body and presents an application for cross-layer design in order to optimize the energy consumption of different topologies. Propagation measurements are performed on real humans in a multipath environment, considering different parts of the body separately. In addition, path loss has been numerically investigated with an anatomically correct model of the human body in free space using a 3-D electromagnetic solver. Path loss parameters and time-domain channel characteristics are extracted from the measurement and simulation data. A semi-empirical path loss model is presented for an antenna height above the body of 5 mm and antenna separations from 5 cm up to 40 cm. A time-domain analysis is performed and models are presented for the mean excess delay and the delay spread. As a cross-layer application, the proposed path loss models are used to evaluate the energy efficiency of single-hop and multihop network topologies.
In this paper we study the so-called random,waypoint (RWP) mobility model in the context of cellular networks. In the RWP model the nodes, i.e., mobile users, move along a zigzag path consisting of straight legs from one waypoint to the next. Each waypoint is assumed,to be drawn from the uniform distribution over the given convex domain. In this paper we characterise the key performance measures, mean handover rate and mean sojourn time from the point of view of an arbitrary cell, as well as the mean handover rate in the network. To this end, we present an exact analytical formula for the mean arrival rate across an arbitrary curve. This result together with the pdf of the node location, allows us to compute all other interesting measures. The results are illustrated by several numerical examples. For instance, as a straightforward application of these results one can easily adjust the model parameters in a simulation so that the scenario matches well with, e.g., the measured sojourn times in a cell. Keywords: random waypoint model, mobility modelling, cellular networks, handovers
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) has progressed quickly and found its wide applications recently because of mobility, flexibility, extensible and low cost. WLAN has become very important part of future communication. Quality of Service is a hot-point of research about wireless network. Two wireless network loss models, namely random uniformed model and Gilbert-Elliott model, are analyzed. The theoretic results were verified by simulation empirical results. The applications of both models are therefore proved.
Wireless distributed microsensor systems will enable the reliable monitoring of a variety of environments for both civil and military applications. In this paper, we look at communication protocols, which can have significant impact on the overall energy dissipation of these networks. Based on our findings that the conventional protocols of direct transmission, minimum-transmission-energy, multi-hop routing, and static clustering may not be optimal for sensor networks, we propose LEACH (Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy), a clustering-based protocol that utilizes randomized rotation of local cluster based station (cluster-heads) to evenly distribute the energy load among the sensors in the network. LEACH uses localized coordination to enable scalability and robustness for dynamic networks, and incorporates data fusion into the routing protocol to reduce the amount of information that must be transmitted to the base station. Simulations show the LEACH can achieve as much as a factor of 8 reduction in energy dissipation compared with conventional outing protocols. In addition, LEACH is able to distribute energy dissipation evenly throughout the sensors, doubling the useful system lifetime for the networks we simulated.
A mathematical formulation is developed for systematic tracking of
the random movement of a mobile station in a cellular environment. It
incorporates mobility parameters under the most generalized conditions,
so that the model can be tailored to be applicable in most cellular
environments. This mobility model is used to characterize different
mobility-related traffic parameters in cellular systems. These include
the distribution of the cell residence time of both new and handover
calls, channel holding time, and the average number of handovers. It is
shown that the cell residence time can be described by the generalized
gamma distribution. It is also shown that the negative exponential
distribution is a good approximation for describing the channel holding
time
In this paper, we present a survey of various mobility models in both cellular networks and multi-hop networks. We show that group motion occurs frequently in ad hoc networks, and introduce a novel group mobility model - Reference Point Group Mobility (RPGM) - to represent the relationship among mobile hosts. RPGM can be readily applied to many existing applications. Moreover, by proper choice of parameters, RPGM can be used to model several mobility models which were previously proposed. One of the main themes of this paper is to investigate the impact of the mobility model on the performance of a specific network protocol or application. To this end, we have applied our RPGM model to two different network protocol scenarios, clustering and routing, and have evaluated network performance under different mobility patterns and for different protocol implementations. As expected, the results indicate that different mobility patterns affect the various protocols in different ways. In particular, the ranking of routing protocols is influenced by the choice of mobility pattern.
A group mobility model for ad hoc wireless networks
- Xiaoyan Hong
Hong, Xiaoyan, et al. "A group mobility model for ad hoc wireless
networks." Proceedings of the 2nd ACM international workshop on
Modeling, analysis and simulation of wireless and mobile systems. ACM,
1999.