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A Qualitative Analysis of Experiential Challenges Associated with Meditation Practice
Abstract
Although empirical interest in meditation has flourished in recent years, few studies have addressed possible downsides of meditation practice, particularly in community populations. In-depth interviews were conducted with 30 male meditators in London, UK, recruited using principles of maximum variation sampling, and analysed using a modified constant comparison approach. Having originally set out simply to inquire about the impact of various meditation practices (including but not limited to mindfulness) on men’s wellbeing, we uncovered psychological challenges associated with its practice. While meditation was generally reported to be conducive to wellbeing, substantial difficulties accounted for approximately one quarter of the interview data. Our paper focuses specifically on these issues in order to alert health professionals to potential challenges associated with meditation. Four main problems of increasing severity were uncovered: Meditation was a difficult skill to learn and practise; participants encountered troubling thoughts and feelings which were hard to manage; meditation reportedly exacerbated mental health issues, such as depression and anxiety; and in a few cases, meditation was associated with psychotic episodes. Our paper raises important issues around safeguarding those who practise meditation, both within therapeutic settings and in the community.
... By cultivating mindfulness, one enhances their ability to "look more closely" at their cognitive processes (metacognitive awareness or decentring; Eberth et al, 2019;Lomas et al, 2015, but see Lykins, Baer, & Gottlob, 2012;Chambers, Lo, & Allen, 2008) which may lead to insights about how the mind works (Dahl et al., 2015), and may also help one perceive previously unnoticed associations between different thoughts and feelings (Eberth et al., 2019;Dahl et al., 2015). One aspect of mindfulness that has been shown to correlate with insight is decentring (Ireland, 2013), whereby mental activity is "perceived" separately without being absorbed in it (Ostafin & Kassman, 2012;Eberth et al., 2019). ...
... Without proper integration, this can lead to negative long-term effects, such as anxiety, depression or suicidal ideation (Yates et al., 2015;Grabovac, 2015;Kornfield, 1979;Lazarus, 1976;Cebolla et al., 2017). Some instances of dissociative states and psychosis onset after intense meditation retreats have also been reported (Kuijpers et al., 2007;Lomas et al., 2015;Lustyk et al., 2009; see also Lindahl et al., 2017;Lutkajtis, 2021). Meditative traditions generally emphasize the importance of an ethical, preparative, and integrative framework in supporting meditative practices to minimize the extent of such debilitating consequences (Lutkajtis, 2021). ...
Occasionally, a solution or idea arrives as a sudden understanding - an insight. Insight has been considered an "extra" ingredient of creative thinking and problem-solving. Here we propose that insight is central in seemingly distinct areas of research. Drawing on literature from a variety of fields, we show that besides being commonly studied in problem-solving literature, insight is also a core component in psychotherapy and meditation, a key process underlying the emergence of delusions in schizophrenia, and a factor in the therapeutic effects of psychedelics. In each case, we discuss the event of insight and its prerequisites and consequences. We review evidence for the commonalities and differences between the fields and discuss their relevance for capturing the essence of the insight phenomenon. The goal of this integrative review is to bridge the gap between the different views and inspire interdisciplinary research efforts for understanding this central process of human cognition.
... adverse effects related to intensive meditation practice during meditation retreats, some of which were severe enough to necessitate additional treatment (e.g., Lomas et al., 2015;Lustyk et al., 2009). Thus, important clinical questions have arisen regarding the potential adverse effects of unpleasant experiences during mindfulness meditation and mindfulness interventions in general, and in intensive mindfulness meditation training in retreats in particular (Baer et al., 2019;Cebolla et al., 2017;Lindahl et al., 2017). ...
... This may be because intensive mindfulness training during retreats enable multiple opportunities to practice more adaptive ways to process and respond to such peak unpleasant experiences when they occur during meditation (e.g., through self-compassion and acceptance; Baer et al., 2019). Accordingly, participants having such experiences during retreats may be better trained to more adaptively respond to these experiences in their lives after the retreat (Lomas et al., 2015). ...
Objective: We sought to address a growing debate regarding the adverse and salutary impact of unusual, extraordinary, or intense subjective experiences during mindfulness interventions. To do so, we empirically characterized such peak experiences during an intensive mindfulness meditation intervention and their impact post-intervention. Method: We conducted a preregistered prospective intervention study among 96 adults who registered to a six-day mindfulness meditation retreat and 47 matched-controls. Controls were selected from a pool of 487 people recruited from the same community of meditators as retreat participants and systematically matched to retreat group on age and lifetime meditation experience. Measures included the Peak Meditative Experience Scale (PMES) and the Impact of PMES (I-PMES). Results: Seventeen peak experiences that were predominantly pleasant (e.g., deep and unusual peace, aha! moment) occurred more frequently among retreat participants than among matched-controls in daily living (ps < .05; mean φ = .33). In contrast, 14 peak experiences that were mostly unpleasant (e.g., flashbacks, overwhelming sadness) occurred at similar rates in both groups (ps > .05). At two-week follow-up, the perceived impact of all pleasant and most unpleasant peak experiences was more salutary than adverse (ps ≤ .015; M Cohen’s d = 1.61). Conclusions: Peak experiences that resulted from intensive mindfulness meditation training were primarily pleasant and had a large salutary impact post-retreat. Inconsistent with conclusions from uncontrolled studies, findings document that intensive mindfulness meditation training may not contribute to unpleasant peak experiences, and even when they occurred their impact was typically more salutary than adverse.
... While there is considerable evidence for the benefits of mindfulness, both by itself and when integrated into various psychotherapies (Cavanagh et al., 2014;Germer et al., 2013;Khoury et al., 2013;Pollak et al., 2014), there are also increasing concerns with the potential problems noted above with mindfulness and its potential to have distressing effects (Shapiro, 1992;Farias & Wikholm, 2015;Lindahl et al., 2017;Cebolla et al., 2017;Aizik-Reebs et al., 2021;Baer et al., 2019; for a review see Taylor et al., 2022). Lomas et al. (2015) argued that meditation is a difficult skill to learn and practice, troubling thoughts and feelings can arise that can be hard to manage, and some meditations exacerbate mental health issues (depression and anxiety). Britton et al. (2021) administered the meditation experiences interview developed by Lindahl et al. (2017). ...
Objectives
The aim of the study was to develop a new self-report scale to explore the “fears, blocks and resistances of mindfulness”. Currently, there is no scale to identify individuals who may struggle with engaging in mindfulness.
Method
A total of 522 participants were invited to take part in the study from three countries: Australia ( n = 199), Portugal ( n = 160), and the UK ( n = 163). Participants completed a range of self-report scales including the newly developed Fears and Resistances to Mindfulness (FRM), Fears of Compassion, Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scales, Forms of Self-criticising/Attacking and Self-Reassuring, and the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire.
Results
Factor analyses suggested the scale comprised 2 factors. One was related to fears of paying attention to what arises within one’s mind. The second factor was related to resistances, i.e. that mindfulness is a waste of time. Seven items were filler items, and 5 items were identified as problematic due to low communalities or cross-loading; therefore from the original 31 items, 19 were retained in the final scale, which demonstrated excellent internal consistency (McDonald’s Ω = 0.90 for both scales), good construct validity, and temporal stability. Blocks to mindfulness did not emerge as a separate factor.
Conclusions
This is the first study to specifically explore fears and resistances to mindfulness and their associations with fears of compassion, self-criticism, and mental health difficulties. Data suggested that fears and resistances are distinct constructs and should be measured independently. The new measure can offer insights in to fears and resistances to mindfulness, and future research can explore how to work with them.
Preregistration
This study was not preregistered.
... Additionally, direct engagement with negative thoughts during mindfulness practice might lead to an escalation of distress and a cycle of negative reinforcement (Bishop, 2002). This results in disengagement from the practice (Lomas et al. 2014). ...
... Meditation in modern thought and culture has been closely associated with the goal of attaining unusual experiences and states of consciousness (Sharf, 2000;Tweed, 2005;McMahan, 2008;Payne, 2012;Harrington and Dunne, 2015). However, the familiar and mundane experiences of the mind and body (or mind-body) engaged in learning to meditatefrustration, difficulty, mind wandering, falling asleep, selfevaluation, physical discomfort-can also be a common part of learning to meditate and are relevant to novices' learning processes Lomas et al., 2015). In an introductory course, novice meditators are generally tasked with (1) becoming familiar with the skills and strategies for practicing compassion meditation, (2) learning a framework of concepts and goals in which devoting time and energy to compassion meditation makes sense, and (3) internalizing and habituating compassionate perspectives and responses through repeated practice. ...
... It was also explained that participation in the study was anonymous and all data would be processed and presented in a generalized form. In addition, to reduce the possible risk of worsening of their psychological state from the practice of mindfulness students with diagnosed mental disorders such as clinical depression, bipolar disorder, PTSD and other were excluded from the sample (Lindahl et al., 2017;Lomas et al., 2015). All the participants provided verbal consent. ...
According to Russian researchers, university studies is among the most stressful activities for a person. First-year university students are particularly vulnerable to stress. The use of mindfulness-based programs to help students reduce and manage stress is gaining popularity around the world. Previous research has shown that such programs can improve the psychological well-being of students by reducing levels of anxiety and depression. In addition, students in helping majors, such as psychology students, would greatly benefit from mastering the skills of managing stress, as anxiety and stress are pertinent to their future profession. This pilot case study assesses the effectiveness of a brief mindfulness training aimed at improving Russian students’ mental and physical health. The participants were 83 first-year undergraduate students from the Psychology Department of the Ural Federal University named after B.N. Yeltsin. Data collection was completed in November 2019. A non-randomized controlled trial was conducted using a brief mindfulness training. The results show that the participants in the experimental group demonstrated significantly lower levels of depression (η2 = .07, p = .00) and significantly higher levels of subjective happiness (η2 = .02, p = .02) than participants in the control group. Also, the participants in the experimental group showed marginally significant lower levels of anxiety (η2 = .02, p = .06). Frequent mindfulness meditation practice and the study of theoretical materials were associated with higher rates of psychological well-being of students. The findings suggest that mindfulness training may be an effective tool in addressing psychological challenges experienced by first-year students of the Psychology Department of Ural Federal University.
... Various authors (e.g. Aizik-Reebs et al., 2021;Baer et al., 2021;Hirshberg et al., 2022;Lomas et al., 2015) have stated that we should not be complacent about harm and that further research is needed but that any harm from mindfulness meditation tends to occur infrequently, transiently and manageably. Goldberg et al. (2021) reported some slightly more frequently occurring and longer-lasting trauma reactions and generally these have tended to have been reported more frequently in retreat situations than in less intensive mindfulness programmes. ...
This paper reports on the experience of the first cohort of cognitive behaviour therapists completing the first delivery of a UK government-funded mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) teacher-training. Trainees completed a new curriculum approved by NHS England and commissioned by Health Education England (HEE) that enabled them to teach MBCT in Improving Access to Psychological Therapies (IAPT) services in England and to meet the criteria for registration for the British Association of Mindfulness-Based Approaches (BAMBA). The components of the training are described. Mixed quantitative and
qualitative methods were used to assess the experiences of those trainees who completed that training. High levels of satisfaction were reported and the ‘embodiment’ of the trainers and supervisors was flagged as particularly significant. The retreat was experienced as a core component of the training that helped deepen mindfulness practice. Various challenges were identified, including from the
retreat, technical difficulties and challenges with completion for a minority of trainees. Learning from the difficulties and responses to them are reported.
Objective: The aims of this pilot study were: first, to assess the impact of a brief classroom-based mindfulness program on students' reported levels of mindfulness, well-being, and stress; and, second, to understand students' experiences of participating in the program.Participants: Students at a private midwestern research-intensive university, 133 (16%) students completed either the study's pretest or post-test survey.Methods: The study had an observational design using pre- and post-test survey responses from students taking courses from faculty who were trained to facilitate brief classroom-based mindfulness activities.Results: Students who participated in the semester-long program reported reduced levels of stress and increased mindfulness. Qualitative data indicate that students found the program to be beneficial.Conclusions: Brief classroom-based mindfulness activities led by faculty may have benefits for students in higher education settings. More research is recommended to better understand the impact of mindfulness in the classroom on students and faculty.
This paper reports on the experience of the first cohort of cognitive behaviour therapists completing the first delivery of a UK government-funded mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) teacher-training. Trainees completed a new curriculum approved by NHS England and commissioned by Health Education England (HEE) that enabled them to teach MBCT in Improving Access to Psychological Therapies (IAPT) services in England and to meet the criteria for registration for the British Association of Mindfulness-Based Approaches (BAMBA). The components of the training are described. Mixed quantitative and qualitative methods were used to assess the experiences of those trainees who completed that training. High levels of satisfaction were reported and the ‘embodiment’ of the trainers and supervisors was flagged as particularly significant. The retreat was experienced as a core component of the training that helped deepen mindfulness practice. Various challenges were identified, including from the retreat, technical difficulties and challenges with completion for a minority of trainees. Learning from the difficulties and responses to them are reported.
Key learning aims
(1) To understand the experience of trainees on an MBCT training programme for CBT therapists in Improving Access to Psychological Therapy (IAPT) services in England.
(2) To identify key features of a training for CBT therapists that were experienced as helping or hindering learning.
(3) To understand the content and issues involved in delivering a mindfulness-based cognitive therapy training.
Do not pursue the past. Do not lose yourself in the future. The past is history. The future yet to come. Looking deeply at life as it is in the very here and now, the practitioner dwells unshaken and free in heart. We must be diligent today, as death may strike tomorrow, for there is no bargaining with the lord of death.–The Buddha, 2,500 BCEThe principal Buddhist suttas on mindfulness include the ānāpānasati sutta, satipatthāna sutta, mahasatipatthāna sutta, and kāyagatāsati sutta. Irrespective of whether they prefer to practise mindfulness from a Buddhist or secular perspective, most dedicated mindfulness practitioners are familiar with many of the core teachings outlined in these suttas (e.g., use of the breath as a mindfulness anchor, mindfulness of the body and its constituents, maintaining mindful awareness during daily activities, etc.). However, one key aspect of the abovementioned suttas that often seems to be overlooked by mindfulness practitioners is the emphasis these teach
This chapter discusses meditation; its psychological, behavioral, and physiological effects; and how it can be effectively incorporated into the routine care of individuals who require mental and medical interventions. The relaxation response is the biological consequence of a wide variety of mental focusing techniques, one of which is meditation. A variety of techniques can be used to elicit the relaxation response, including meditation, progressive muscle relaxation, autogenic training, yoga, exercise, repetitive prayer, and the presuggestion phase of hypnosis. Although all of these strategies result in the same physiological response, two components appear to be essential to achieving the relaxation response: mental focusing and adopting a passive attitude toward distracting thoughts. For many patients with psychological disturbances who might be hesitant to enter therapy, relaxation response training is a nonthreatening intervention that can be introduced prior to other more rigorous forms of therapy such as cognitive therapy or medication. Meditation and other modes of eliciting the relaxation response can be a means of preparing for standard psychotherapy by allowing the patient to observe thoughts and mental events. Relaxation-response training can also be used to facilitate behavior modification goals. The relaxation response has been associated with improvements in many medical conditions including hypertension, cardiac arrhythmias, chronic pain, insomnia, side effects of cancer therapy, side effects of AIDS therapy, infertility, and preparation for surgery and X-ray procedures.
This article describes the concept of posttraumatic growth, its conceptual foundations, and supporting empirical evidence. Posttraumatic growth is the experience of positive change that occurs as a result of the struggle with highly challenging life crises. It is manifested in a variety of ways, including an increased appreciation for life in general, more meaningful interpersonal relationships, an increased sense of personal strength, changed priorities, and a richer existential and spiritual life. Although the term is new, the idea that great good can come from great suffering is ancient. We propose a model for understanding the process of posttraumatic growth in which individual characteristics, support and disclosure, and more centrally, significant cognitive processing involving cognitive structures threatened or nullified by the traumatic events, play an important role. It is also suggested that posttraumatic growth mutually interacts with life wisdom and the development of the life narrative, and that it is an on-going process, not a static outcome.
