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Socio-economy of marine ornamental fishery and its impact on the population structure of the clown anemonefish Amphiprion ocellaris and its host anemones in Spermonde Archipelago, Indonesia
... There is often a higher price for rare species or rare color morphs, which increases pressure on the species and populations that are the most susceptible (Militz et al. 2018). Numerous papers point to significant effects of collecting anemonefish on abundance (Shuman et al. 2005;Jones et al. 2008;Frisch and Hobbs 2009;Madduppa et al. 2014). For example, Shuman et al. (2005) show a large depletion of anemonefish numbers in areas subject to collecting in the Philippines, compared with unfished areas. ...
... For example, Shuman et al. (2005) show a large depletion of anemonefish numbers in areas subject to collecting in the Philippines, compared with unfished areas. Similarly, the collecting of A. ocellaris has a huge negative impact on abundance at Spermonde Archipelago (Madduppa et al. 2014). Here there is also a reduced genetic diversity in A. ocellaris that can be attributed to aquarium fish collecting (Madduppa et al. 2018). ...
... Marine reserves or no-take marine protected areas established to protect biodiversity are known to protect anemonefishes where they can be well-managed. Several studies have shown higher numbers of anemonefishes in marine reserves compared to adjacent areas subject to collecting (Shuman et al. 2005;Jones et al. 2008;Madduppa et al. 2014). Scott et al. (2011) showed a long-term increase in FIGURE 25.4 Relationships between the number of anemone species occupied (Index of Specialization) and a) geographic range as extent of occurrence (EOO, million km 2 ) (glm, p = 0.017, t = 2.56) and b) known depth range (m) (glm, p < 0.001, t = 4.06) for 27 anemonefish species. ...
... Being the key stakeholders of the industry, fish collectors, middlemen and exporters, the main operational components of the marine ornamental reef fishery in Trincomalee link with input suppliers and supportive services to form the value chain. Key findings of the present work on value chain are in agreement with the findings of Manejar and Guiehem (2018), Ferse et al. (2012) and Madduppa et al. (2014). However, some other studies have documented disagreements with the present findings in the production flow. ...
... However, some other studies have documented disagreements with the present findings in the production flow. The present study unfolds that individual fish collectors (Madduppa et al. 2014), due to the presence of several types of middlemen/patrons, such as transport middlemen, big patron, and small/fishing patrons. Of them, fishing patrons have linked to the export companies through an intermediary, while other middlemen/patrons directly connect with the export companies (Ferse et al. 2012). ...
Marine ornamental fishery began in the 1930s in Sri Lanka has developed into a multi-million-dollar industry at present. This study was carried out from February 2019 to February 2021 focusing on marine aquarium fishing communities in Trincomalee, eastern Sri Lanka, to analyze the value chain of marine ornamental reef fishery. Stakeholders were identified through the snowball sampling technique. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and participant observations. The market chain of marine reef fishery in Trincomalee consisted of approximately 600 fishers, 11 middlemen and 21 exporters. Two local aquaria played a minor role in the market chain by purchasing 2% of the total fish collection from middlemen. Government authorities & non-governmental organizations, equipment & other service suppliers and supporters were key components in the input flow. The price of fish and invertebrates increased by ten times through the production flow from fishers to exporters. The study indicated that the price determination process for species through the production flow should be modified to get a considerably higher profit for the fishers.
... The socioeconomic status of a fishery is directly linked with environmental degradation, thereby closely related to poverty in developing countries [9]. Thus, socioeconomic data provide an economic valuation of a fishing ground [10]. ...
... Fisher income is solely based on the fish species collected, and the Sampur fishers gain comparatively higher income due to the higher abundance of high-valued invertebrates such as Red fire shrimp (Lysmata debelius), Hippolis cleaner shrimp (Lysmata amboinensis) and sea anemones in the reef. However, as a whole, the average income of a fisher per month, which is between 30,000 -120,000 LKR (≈150-600 USD) in Trincomalee, is far higher than that of reef fishers elsewhere such as South Sulawesi and Spermonde Archipelago, Indonesia [9,37]. Fisher income varies throughout the fishing season corresponding with changes in the size and variety of species being collected. ...
Marine ornamental reef (MOR) fishery in Sri Lanka expanded to the commercial level only after the 1950 s. Although MOR fishery is contributing significantly to the socio-economic development of the country, studies are scarce to assess the socio-economic status of fishers engaged in the fishery. The present study aimed to assess the socio-economic development of MOR fisher communities in the Trincomalee district, which is considered a hotspot for the MOR fishery in Sri Lanka through the lenses of the Human Development Index (HDI). Fisher communities associated with reefs at Sampur, Pulmodai and Kuchchaweli in Trincomalee were comprehensively studied focussing on full-time reef fishers (n = 90). Results indicated that the fisher income was several folds higher than the minimum monthly wage of workers in the country (10,000 LKR, ≈50 USD). Higher income gained by MOR fishers (30,000–300,000 LKR, ≈150–1500 USD) was conspicuously reflected by having high human, physical and health capital, all of which resulted from high financial capital. Income showed slight variations amongst communities based on the species being fished. Consequently, study communities held high Schooling Index (SI), Health System Index (HSI) and Economic index (EI) all of which are modified sub-indices of the common HDI. Human Development Index linked to Ornamental Fisheries (HDIOF) which is the weighted sum of SI, HIS and EI shows a medium level development in the MOR fisher communities at Trincomalee. The present study affirms that HDIOF is a promising indicator to elucidate the socio-economic status of the MOR fisher communities in Sri Lanka.
... Even though marine ornamental fishery is not the main source of income in Spermonde, it covers 13%e43% of the expenses of island households and is thus economically important. Indeed, on one studied island, marine ornamental fishery even covered 84% of the household expenses (Madduppa et al., 2014b). By far, the most collected marine ornamental species is the anemonefish A. ocellaris, which is very popular due to the animation film "Finding Nemo." ...
... The resulting high fishing pressure has a very strong impact on these target species, and underwater surveys show significantly lower densities on reefs with high exploitation (HE) in comparison with reefs with low exploitation (LE) rates. Also, body length and group size of the anemonefish A. ocellaris were significantly smaller at HE sites than at LE sites (Madduppa et al., 2014b). High fishing pressure also has negative implications for the genetic diversity of the anemonefish A. ocellaris. ...
Ecological and social processes of the Spermonde Archipelago, South Sulawesi, Indonesia, have been intensively studied during the Science for the Protection of Indonesian Coastal Ecosystems (SPICE) program. The archipelago is of specific interest to better understand how intensive exploitation of marine resources results in the degradation of reef systems. The projects specifically targeted (1) ecological processes in coral reefs, (2) genetic structure of populations, and (3) social–ecological dynamics relating to resource use, social networks, and governance structures. A modeling component emphasized (4) the integration of different ecological, social, and environmental components. Results indicated that reef resources in the Spermonde Archipelago are intensively exploited and further stressed by pollution effluents from hinterland processes. The lack of alternative livelihoods perpetuates dependencies within the patron–client system of the artisanal fisheries and supports high exploitation and also destructive resource uses. Greater inclusion of local stakeholders in the governance may result in better conservation practices, sustainable resource use, and improved livelihoods for the people.
Abstrak
Selama proyek SPICE, aspek ekologis dan sosial di perairan Kepulauan Spermonde, Sulawesi Selatan, Indonesia, dipelajari secara intensif. Kepulauan dan perairan ini mengundang banyak perhatian untuk lebih memahami bagaimana tingkat pemanfaatan sumber daya laut yang intensif berakibat pada degradasi sistem terumbu karang. Kerangka kerja proyek penelitian SPICE, secara khusus, menargetkan kajian-kajian mengenai (a) proses ekologis dalam sistem terumbu karang, (b) struktur genetik populasi untuk menentukan konektifitasnya, dan (c) dinamika sosial-ekologi yang berkaitan dengan penggunaan sumber daya, jejaring sosial dan struktur tata kelola. Komponen pemodelan juga dimasukkan kedalam kajian mengenai (d) integrasi berbagai komponen ekologi, sosial dan lingkungan dalam karakterisasi sistem sosial-ekologis. Hasil-hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa sumber daya terumbu karang di Kepulauan Spermonde sangat tereksploitasi dan terancam juga oleh limbah polusi dari proses di daratan. Kurangnya mata pencaharian alternatif memperkuat ketergantungan para nelayan tradisional pada sistem patron-klien dan meningkatkan penggunaan sumber daya yang tidak berkelanjutan dan merusak. Keikutsertaan pemangku kepentingan lokal yang lebih erat dalam tata kelola sumber daya alam Kepulauan Spermonde sangat memungkinkan hasil praktik konservasi yang lebih baik, penggunaan sumber daya berkelanjutan, dan peningkatan mata pencaharian bagi masyarakat.
... Although there is no evidence that collecting and fishing for the pet trade has led to extinction of some marine species, local depletion is well documented (Lunn and Moreau, 2004;Nañola et al., 2011;Madduppa et al., 2014). ...
... Collectors of ornamental marine biota are usually smallscale fishermen from tropical countries who work alone or in small family groups, and who supply these animals to intermediaries and middlemen, and consequently to large wholesale/exporter companies (Wabnitz et al., 2003). Despite suggested activities aimed at improving sustainable exploitation (Tlusty et al., 2013;Calado et al., 2014;Madduppa et al., 2014;Leal et al., 2016a,b), some local collectors still use very destructive techniques including application of potassium and sodium cyanide to capture fish (see Rubec et al., 2001). ...
Trade with marine species as ornamentals is an important sector of the international pet trade. The vast majority of these species are collected from the wild and one of the top supplying countries is Indonesia. Detailed evidence on trade with marine resources in Indonesia is lacking or it is hardly accessible. Moreover, the exploitation of ornamental species seems to be mostly uncontrolled. This study presents detailed characteristics of such trade for Indonesia, including the offered species, their sizes, prices, and conservation status, based on data and information obtained from wholesalers in 2018. The main provinces of marine wildlife collecting are also identified. In total, 777 marine vertebrate and invertebrate species were traded, belonging to 174 families including two species classified as endangered: Banggai cardinal fish ( Pterapogon kauderni ) and zebra shark ( Stegostoma fasciatum ). Commonly traded was red lionfish ( Pterois volitans ), known to be a successful invader. The volume of ornamental marine fish exported from Indonesia in period 2015–2019 was 3 353 983 kgs sold for 33 123 218 USD. The province of Bali was identified as the main exporter of ornamental marine fish within Indonesia. These findings should help to establish sustainable exploitation of marine resources in relation to conservation and wildlife management.
... Improper fishing methods will destroy the ecosystem, and species over-harvesting as demand is the critical problem associated with the trade (Uthaya et al., 2014). The clown anemonefish trade has increased the fishing pressure, which has indirectly caused the rapidly declining population of clown anemonefish (Madduppa et al., 2014); (Pirarat et al., 2011). ...
Clown anemonefish (Amphiprion ocellaris) is one of the most popular ornamental coral reefs. The marine ornamental fish trade has increased fishing pressure. It has a considerable impact on the clown anemonefish's declining population. The ability of each fish species to tolerate the salinity is a vital consideration in aquaculture marine organisms as it gives information on primary environmental necessities. This study aimed to analyze the clown anemonefish growth performance by modifying different salinity levels through survival rate, specific growth rate, and feed conversion ratio parameters. The experiment was conducted with a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) to investigate the effect of salinity on clown anemonefish growth performance with six treatments (24, 26, 28, 30, 32, and 35 ppt) and three replications. Water quality parameters in this study observed include pH, temperature, and dissolved oxygen. The clown anemonefish reared with six different salinity treatments for 30 days showed that there was a significantly different effect on SGR (p value = 0.007) but no significant differences in FCR (p value = 0.189) and survival rates (p value = 0.458). The considerable effect of salinity on specific growth rates explains that the amount of energy used in the osmoregulation process disrupts a portion of growth energy. The optimal growth performance of clown anemonefish was in a 24 ppt salinity treatment, accompanied by other water quality parameters such as temperature, dissolved oxygen, and pH, which ranged from 26.5 – 32oC; 4.9 - 5.6 ppm; and 7.9 - 8.2, respectively.Keywords: Amphiprion ocellaris, clown anemonefish, growth performance, salinity
... The sea urchin collection methods used by respondents are similar to those reported previously from eastern Indonesia and elsewhere (Nurhasan and Rahim, 2011;Furkon et al., 2019Furkon et al., , 2020Tamti et al., 2021), with most collecting activity taking place at low tide in shallow coastal waters with simple tools such as tongs (especially for long-spined urchins) or no gear other than some form of receptacle. However, it is worrying that crowbars were used by some respondents in two regions (the Moluccas and one in Nusa Tenggara) and most respondents in Papua, especially when used to collect a variety of food and ornamental fish as well as invertebrates such as the boring clam Tridacna crocea, sea cucumbers, and abalone (Haliotis sp.) by breaking open or overturning the coral or other substrate, this tool can cause widespread and serious damage to the habitat where it is used, especially shallow reefs and reef flats (EC-PREP, 2005;UNEP, 2005;Lowe, 2006;Clifton et al., 2010;Madduppa et al., 2014;Lampe et al., 2017;Yusuf and Moore, 2020), and also seagrass meadows (Sjafrie et al., 2021). ...
Sea urchins have long been an important component of gleaning invertebrate fisheries and are valued for their highly nutritious gonads. Sea urchin fisheries are often unreported and unregulated, despite increasing indications of overexploitation. Data on the post-harvest utilization of sea urchins are limited, particularly in the Indo-Pacific region. This study at 12 sites across four regions in Indonesia (Sulawesi, Moluccas, Nusa Tenggara, Papua) aimed to provide an overview of sea urchin utilization in eastern Indonesia. Data were collected from July to September 2020 using a questionnaire with a snowballing sampling method. There were 187 respondents (62.6% male and 37.4% female) ranged in age from 3-76 years old, and most had been collecting sea urchins for more than five years. Respondents mostly collected the sea urchins from coral reef or seagrass habitats. Four genera (Tripneustes, Diadema, Echinometra and Echinothrix) were identified. Mean catch ranged from 32 (Makassar) to 169 (Maluku Tengah) individual sea urchin per collection. Most respondents knew local names for sea urchins, especially those they collected. Almost 70% respondents used their catch mainly for home consumption, and only 4.8% respondents mainly selling their catch. Most urchins sold were whole or crudely de-spined, typically fetching IDR 500-1000 each. Additional post-harvest processing before sale included removing the gonads from the test and/or cooking, with a unit price of IDR 5,000-25,000/product. Commonly consumed raw, urchins were sometimes cooked (mostly barbecued). These data indicate a need for efforts towards socio-ecologically appropriate sea urchin conservation and fisheries management to address the widespread indications of increasing exploitation levels and declining sea urchin populations.
... Its popularity leads to the exploitation of this species' wild population. The densities A. ocellaris are significantly lower in coral reefs with high exploitation than in reefs with low exploitation (Madduppa et al., 2014). A study by Lam et al. (2020) has confirmed the lymphocystis disease virus from the captive-bred clownfish Amphiprion percula from South Sulawesi by sequencing a portion of the DNA polymerase (DNAPol) gene. ...
The orange clownfish, Amphiprion percula, is a popular fish in the global marine ornamental trade. In March 2021, several orange clown fish at Batam Mariculture Development Center exhibited lethargic behavior with wart-like nodules on the fins suggesting a viral disease infection. This study aimed to detect the suspected viral disease agent from the clownfish and determine its genotype based on the major capsid protein gene. The fish tissues with wart-like nodules were collected and fixed in 96% ethanol. The DNA was extracted from the tissues and used as the template for the amplification of the major capsid protein (MCP) and myristylated membrane protein (MMP) genes using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The nucleotide sequences of the PCR products were analyzed for their homology using the Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST). Multiple alignments of the amino acid sequence of MCP were performed using MEGA-X to determine the genotype. The PCR amplification produced the expected bands for detecting MCP, MMP and DNAPol genes. These results indicated the presence of Lymphocystis disease virus (LCDV), designated as LCDV-Oc-Btm. The sequencing of MCP and MMP genes produced the 1221 and 407 nucleotides, respectively. The BLAST analysis showed the highest identity was obtained with the species of LCDV-1 (LCDV-Sa strain) at 91.04 % and 88.19 % for MCP and MMP, respectively. The UPGMA phylogenic tree showed LCDV-Oc-Btm differs from the existing genotype and can be assigned as a new genotype. This study concludes that LCDVOc-Btm is a novel species of lymphocystis disease virus.
... Amphiprion percula represented 84.8% of the Total Allowable Catch (TAC) for the species in Papua New Guinea, suggesting that the level of collection pressure is likely to indicate overfishing of this species, as actual catch numbers are usually higher than the reported figures. Overfishing has also been documented to occur in the Philippines (Shumanet al. 2005) and Indonesia (Madduppa et al. 2014(Madduppa et al. , 2018. In India, within the Gulf of Mannar region, an analysis reveals that Amphiprion sebae was the most collected marine ornamental species, making up 19.95% (33,197 individuals) of the total fish collected (Prakash et al. 2017). ...
... The trade of marine ornamentals is a global multimillion-dollar industry that is rapidly expanding (Wabnitz et al. 2003). There are already concerns about overexploitation in some areas of the world due to the fishery being highly selective and harvesting from limited areas, leading to localized depletions or extinctions of target anemones and anemonefish species (Edwards and Shepherd 1992;Gasparini et al. 2005;Shuman et al. 2005;Madduppa et al. 2014). In addition, some fisheries still employ destructive practices like cyanide (Madeira et al. 2020b). ...
... The Pomacentridae family, including the genus Amphiprion, accounts for about half of the catch, with the green damselfish Chromis vividis and A. ocellaris being the most marketable (Monticini 2010). Actually, several studies reported that A. ocellaris densities, total body length and group size became small (Maddupa et al. 2014) and genetic diversity of A. ocellaris is reduced (Maddupa et al. 2018). ...
Anemonefishes are some of the most popular marine ornamental fishes. Due to the adverse impacts of commercial fishing on the wild populations of anemonefishes, a more suitable and efficient captive breeding programme must be promoted. In the wild, anemonefishes are protandrous sex-changing fish, but when two immature individuals with ambisexual gonads are raised together in captivity, the two differentiate directly into a male and a female, to form a breeding pair. However, not all the formed pairs spawn, explaining the great care required in captive breeding. This behaviour appears to be counter-adaptative, as anemonefish social groups form randomly in the wild, and such phenomenon would disturb their breeding success. This study evaluated the behavioural and physiological differences between breeding and nonbreeding pairs of false clown anemonefish Amphiprion ocellaris under captive conditions. Behavioural observations revealed that nonbreeding females monopolized the shelter provided, whereas breeding females allowed breeding males to use the shelter and the pair frequently stayed together in the shelter. Both nonbreeding and breeding females possessed mature ovarian tissue and similar level of plasma estradiol concentrations, but nonbreeding males had a smaller amount of testicular tissue and lower plasma 11-ketotestosterone levels compared to breeding males.
... Some fish species with vulnerable (VU), endangered (EN), and critically endangered (CR) conservation status are still traded in Indonesia, especially sharks and rays, for instance, Alopias pelagicus, A. superciliosus, Isurus paucus, Prionace glauca, Maculabatis gerrardi and Rhina ancylostoma (Dharmadi et al. 2015;Sembiring et al. 2015;Prasetyo et al. 2021). In addition to this, previous reports have shown that some coral reef fish that play an important role in the reef ecosystem, such as families Acanthuridae, Siganidae, Pomacentridae, and Scaridae, are still sold in huge numbers with improper or negligent management (Campbell et al. 2014;Ferse et al. 2014;Madduppa et al. 2014). ...
In this study, we first report a systematic checklist of commercial marine fish species from Weh Island, Indonesia, including notes on their distribution pattern, conservation status, and commercial value. Fish sampling was conducted at three major fish markets in Weh Island, and these specifically were Cangkoan Fish Market, Kuta Timu Fish Market, and Balohan Fish Market. A total of 50 fish species belonging to 8 orders and 24 families were documented. Carangidae (12%, 6 species) was the predominant family, followed by the Scaridae (10%, 5 species) and other families (78%, 22 families, 39 species). Based on the IUCN red list, commercial marine fish species in Weh Island were dominated by the "Least Concern" category (78%, 39 species), followed by the "Not Evaluated" (14%, 7 species), the "Near Threatened" (4%, 2 species), and the "Data Deficient" (4%, 2 species). The market price of the fish ranged from 0.34 USD/kg to 6.19 USD/kg, with three fish families included in the high commercial value, namely the Clupeidae, Carcharhinidae, and Serranidae.
... As a result, the coastal regions in China discharge more and more pollutants, which seriously threat the marine ecoenvironment. erefore, it is of practical significance to measure the coordinated and coupled development (CCD) and evaluate the sustainable development of the marine economic-ecological complex system (MEECS) [5][6][7][8][9][10]. e coordinated development of marine economy and ecoenvironment is critical to the national strategies for ocean and regional coordinated development [11][12][13][14]. ...
The development of marine economy has stimulated the need for marine natural products and services, as well as the demand and utilization intensity of marine resources. As a result, the coastal regions start to discharge more and more pollutants, posing a serious threat to marine ecoenvironment. Because of the interactions between marine economy and marine ecology, it is of practical significance to study the marine economic-ecological complex system (MEECS). However, the relevant studies have several common defects: the incomplete data statistics system, the limited attention on development law or action mechanism, and the lack of long-term quantitative and empirical analysis. To overcome these defects, this paper tries to measure the coordinated and coupled development (CCD) and evaluate the sustainable development of MEECS. Specifically, an ecology-dominated coordinated development model was proposed for the complex system, and a differential equation model was established to describe the dynamic coordinated development of the complex system. Through data envelopment analysis (DEA), the sustainable development of the complex system was evaluated based on its input-output efficiency. Through experiments, the outputs of decision-making units (DMUs) of our model were obtained, and the development of the subsystems in MEECS was evaluated comprehensively to verify the effectiveness of our algorithm.
... In addition to their ecological roles, fishes living in a coral reef environment can be grouped into three categories based on their roles: target (mostly large fishes of economic value, consumed by humans), indicator (fishes associated with coral reef health), and major (other, mostly small fishes often present in high numbers) (Dewi and Sukandar 2018;English et al. 1997). Coral reef fishes are important for food security and as economic commodities, especially in fishing communities (Madduppa et al. 2014). The distribution and abundance of reef fish are important parameters, especially in areas with high fish biodiversity, to inform the management and utilization of these fish communities which typically support multi-species fisheries (Anderson et al. 2019;Friedlander et al. 2007;McCoy et al. 2010;Varkey et al. 2012). ...
Coral reef fishes perform a range of vital ecosystem functions, and can serve as indicators of ecological stress and resilience. However, many species are not observed when using Underwater Visual Census (UVC) during biomonitoring, and therefore overall biodiversity is often underestimated. Environmental DNA (eDNA) is proposed as an advanced and non-invasive next-generation biomonitoring method for determining the presence of aquatic organisms such as fish. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the community structure of coral fish from three different marine protected area reef zones (utility zone, open access zone, core zone) around Lombok Island using eDNA metabarcoding. Biological community composition, richness, and diversity were evaluated based on reads from mid-column water and sediment samples. A total of 58 species were identified from the eDNA samples using the Multiplex Barcode Research And Visualization Environment (mBRAVE) pipeline. The Shannon–Wiener index (H') showed significantly higher species diversity in the core zone than the utility and open access zones. There was no significant between-zone difference in community structure (ANOSIM, R = 0.11 < 0.25). NMDS analysis using the Bray–Curtis test showed significant between-zone differences in species diversity and abundance (PERMANOVA Adonis Pr (> F) = 0.001, p < 0.05). Based on the high number of fish species detected in this study, eDNA can be recommended as an alternative tool or as a complement to visual survey methods for biological monitoring and diversity assessment of remote reefs, with less stringent requirements in terms of field conditions (e.g. visibility) and taxonomic expertise.
... This study used the anemonefish, Amphiprion ocellaris, to compare the effects on reproduction when exposed to cool-white and warm-white colour temperatures of light at a spectra representative of common public sources of direct light, such as low-pressure sodium vapour lamps (warm) and LED lights (cool). A. ocellaris waschosen for this study as they are a common coral reef fish generally found at shallow depths between 1 and 11 m, restricted by the range of their symbiont anemone (Madduppa et al., 2014). Although factors such as turbidity and suspended sediment can affect the depth to which various wavelengths of light can penetrate, it is realistic that A. ocellaris could be exposed to chronic artificial light pollution at the wavelengths chosen. ...
Artificial light at night (ALAN) is increasingly recognised as a major threat to conservation, causing physiological and behavioural impacts on species adapted to a predictable day-night cycle, including the disruption of reproductive processes. This study investigates the influence of spectral composition of ALAN on Amphiprion ocellaris reproductive success. We compared spawning frequency, clutch size, embryo quality and hatching success of A. ocellaris exposed to ALAN with warm-white and cool-white spectra to fish held in control (12 h day: 12 h night) conditions. The presence of ALAN, regardless of light colour treatment, increased the interval (number of days) between spawning events, and eggs developing under ALAN were smaller than eggs developing under control conditions. Hatching success was influenced by both the presence of ALAN and spectral composition of the light, with fewer embryos hatching under cool-white light compared to warm-white light treatments. As light pollution continues to spread, more research is needed to understand the extent of the impacts of ALAN on marine organisms and to identify effective management strategies.
... Thousands of fishers across the country are involved in the trade as part of their fishing portfolio, but still relatively little is understood about how the trade contributes to fisher livelihoods (Ferse et al 2012). The trade has also been controversial due to instances of overcollection resulting in decreased local wild populations, for example, in Indonesia (Madduppa et al 2014), the Philippines (Shuman et al 2005), Australia (Whitehead et al 1986), and Hawaii (Tissot & Hallacher 2003) as well as the use of harmful neurotoxins to aid in collecting certain species of aquarium fish (Rubec 1986;Halim 2002;Murray et al 2020). Here we look at a case in Indonesia where there is an emerging fishery of a species that may potentially avoid some of these concerns while adding to local fishers' ability to diversify their livelihoods, which can be critical to the well-being of remote coastal communities (Ferse et al 2012). ...
We present one year of buying and selling data of the yellow coral goby (Gobiodon okinawae) in Banggai Laut District, Banggai Archipelago, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. This data is the first to demonstrate that this species is being captured and exported from the region to be sold in the global saltwater aquarium trade. We present frequency, volume, mortality, as well as profit margin for collecting and selling this species. We also describe first-hand observation of how these fish are typically caught in the region. Additionally, we argue that harvesting the yellow coral goby presents a potentially sustainable alternative or additional source of income for fishers, especially compared to targeting another popular aquarium species in the region, the royal blue tang (Paracanthurus hepatus). For the former species, fishers use a large scoop net known as a "serok", while for the latter, fishers often use illegal chemical anesthetics. While more still needs to be understood about the trade in yellow coral goby in Banggai Laut District, this data provides initial insight into the trade and its livelihood and sustainability potential.
... They understand the behavior of O. spilurus swimming in groups against the current on the riverbank when the river is inflow (6d). Set net is generally used as fishing gear in marine waters (Madduppa et al. 2014) and used in Nujiang River, China (Pan et al. 2017). It is considered environmentally friendly fishing gears (Bubun et al. 2015;Salim et al. 2019). ...
Kurniawan A, Pramono DY, Indrayati A, Hermanto, Triswiyana I. 2020. Short communication: Differences in local perceptions of Osteochilus spilurus (Cyprinidae: Labeoninae) from several islands in Indonesia. Asian J Ethnobiol 3: 79-84. Osteochilus spilurus is native freshwater fish on the islands of Sundaland, Indonesia. No study has been reported on this fish utilization other than in the Belitung Islands, so another local perception of Indonesian island needs to be investigated. Local recreational fishing in Palangkaraya, Pontianak, and Pekanbaru and fishers in Palangkaraya, Eastern and western of Belitung, Southern and Central Bangka, and North Lampung were the sources of local knowledge. We obtained data using a Facebook app survey to see local recreational fishers' awareness, interviews with one fisherman in each region, and a literature review for Belitung public perception. There is a different awareness of people from East Belitung to other regions. In East Belitung, knowledge of O. spilurus has a link to the local culture. Fishermen have the most relevant fishing gear expertise for the catch of O. spilurus, based on environmental factors and fish behavior. Large-scale fishing, consuming, and trade of it only takes place in East Belitung. It has an impact on the use of non-environmentally sustainable mesh size nets that threaten their natural survival.
... Indonesia exported 22.2% of ornamental fishes only once, in 2013 (Figure 4b and Figure S4a,b).Animals 2020, 10, (a) Average wholesale value in million USD of freshwater and marine fishes for the global export compared with import to Europe, the United States, and Japan[4,7,12,15- 17,29,33,34,36,37,40,41,43,44,46,48,49,51-59]. (b) Average wholesale value in million USD of freshwater and marine fishes for global import compared with exports from Indonesia, the Philippines, and Sri Lanka[1,12,[15][16][17]20,29,33,41,44,50,52,53,[60][61][62][63][64][65][66][67] ...
The multi-billion dollar trade in ornamental fishes has rarely been reliably monitored. Almost all coral reef fishes are wild-caught, and few scientific analyses have attempted to elicit exact quantities and identify species involved. The consequences of the removal of millions of these fishes are poorly understood. This article collates and examines available information, including scientific studies and formal publications, in order to create a more accurate picture of this commerce. We demonstrate that it is almost impossible to analyse the trade in marine ornamental fishes due to a lack of data, and that available data for marine species is frequently combined with that for freshwater species. Figures range from 15 to 30 million coral reef fishes being traded annually, but could be as high as 150 million specimens. The global value of this trade was only estimated for 1976 and 1999 between USD 28–40 million. This review highlights the urgent need to introduce a specific harmonised system tariff code and for a global monitoring system, such as the Trade Control and Expert System already in use in Europe, in order to gather accurate and timely information on the number and species of marine ornamental fishes in commerce, where specimens originated, and whether they were wild-caught or captive-bred.
... This species is also collected for the marine ornamental trade. For example, in the Spermonde Archipelago, Indonesia [44] and the Philippines [45], and collection may well extend to the Banggai Archipelago. ...
The Banggai cardinalfish Pterapogon kauderni is an endangered endemic species with an exceptionally small native distribution and an unusual life history. A paternal mouthbrooder with direct development, symbiosis with benthic organisms (referred to as microhabitat), is crucial to its survival. This is especially so for postflexion larvae (recruits), after their release from the male parent's buccal cavity. Microhabitat preference in P. kauderni has been studied empirically based on a survey of wild populations. This study adopted an ex-situ experimental approach to P. kauderni microhabitat preference using two well established behavioural trial methods: choice flume and choice tank. The experimental animals were sourced from the introduced P. kauderni population in Palu Bay, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. The choice flume method was applied at the Central Sulawesi Marine and Fisheries Service Hatchery in Mamboro, Palu, with microhabitats Diadema setosum and D. savignyi. The choice box method was applied at the Universitas Hasanuddin Centre for Research and Development in Makassar, South Sulawesi, Indonesia, with microhabitats Heteractis crispa, Entacmaea quadricolor, D. savignyi and D. setosum. The results indicate the most to least preferred preference hierarchy of D. savignyi, D. setosum, H. crispa, E. quadricolor. While the preference for the sea anemone H. crispa compared to E. quadricolor is consonant with empirical in situ studies on P. kauderni, the observed preference for D. savignyi over D. setosum was unexpected, and points to the need for further research. Observations made during the trials also raise the possibility that imprinting may occur and influence subsequent microhabitat preference.
... In the Banggai Archipelago, this large and fleshy anemone has been more heavily collected (mostly for human consumption) than any other anemone, especially since 2007. This species is also collected for the marine ornamental trade, for example in the Spermonde Archipelago, Indonesia [17] and the Philippines [18], and collection may well extend to the Banggai Archipelago. ...
The iconic symbiosis with clownfish is not the only sea anemone-fish association. Several tropical sea anemones provide microhabitat for the Endangered (IUCN Red List) Banggai cardinalfish Pterapogon kauderni. Microhabitat loss from declining sea anemone populations is a serious threat to native P. kauderni populations or evolutionarily significant units (ESUs). One measure advocated to maintain and rehabilitate these P. kauderni ESUs is to restore microhabitat abundance. The objective of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of the asexual propagation of wild anemone broodstock with the subsequent release. Two species with which P. kauderni commonly associates ( Heteractis crispa and Entacmaea quadricolor ) were identified through field surveys. Parent anemones were bisected, cutting through the center of the oral disc. Propagules (half anemones) were placed in empty clam shells as hard substrate. Treatments provided different levels of protection from potential predators, in aquaria ( P. kauderni present/absent), concrete tanks ( P. kauderni and Diadema urchins excluded/not excluded) or in a net cage on the natural substrate (fish and invertebrate fauna including P. kauderni and Diadema setosum ). The cut edges of sectioned anemones joined together within seconds, with wounds typically healing in around 7 days and joins hard to see after 3-4 weeks. Growth was faster and long-term survival higher in the net cage compared to tanks for uncovered and covered anemones. The results indicate the potential for this propagation method in the context of P. kauderni conservation and suggest sectioned anemones should be moved to the natural rehabilitation areas once capable of adhering firmly to a hard substrate.
... However, limited study was found related to reproductive biology of coral-reef fishes in Southeast Asia although it is the biggest exporter (51% of exports) of marine ornamental species (Dominguez and Botella 2014) especially in Indonesia and Philippines. Most of the studies in Philippines and Indonesia were related to the socio-economy of marine ornamental fishery and its impact on the population structure of coral-reef fishes (Maduppa et al. 2014) and population impact of collecting coral-reef fishes for marine aquarium trade (Shuman et al. 2005). However, there are also limited information on the reproductive characteristics of coral-reef fishes in Malaysia, although several information available on feeding ecology (Arai et al. 2015a, b, c;Amalina et al. 2016). ...
In order to understand the reproductive ecology of coral-reef fishes, fecundity which is the physiological maximum potential reproductive output, was examined in eleven families of coral-reef fishes in the east coast of Peninsula Malaysia. Three families, Pomacentridae, Monodactylidae and Chaetodontidae, with five species, Amphiprion ocellaris, Amphiprion perideraion, Abudefduf bengalensis, Monodactylus argenteus and Chaetodon octofasciatus, could collect female specimens, while all specimens were male in eight out of eleven families with sixteen species. Mean fecundities ranged from 693 to 122,247 with the lowest fecundity was found in Pomacentridae, and Chaetodontidae had the highest fecundity. Amphiprion ocellaris and A. perideraion practice parental care with demersal spawners, and such unique reproductive ecology might produce lower number of eggs to be able to increase their reproductive success compared to other coral reef fishes spawned pelagic eggs. This study provides an insight of baseline knowledge of the reproductive biology of coral-reef fishes for future studies of important fish species in coral ecosystem.
... Kegiatan destructive dan overfishing menjadi ancaman bagi terumbu karang dan seluruh ekosistem yang terkait [2]. Diperlukan manajemen strategis dalam menangangi efek negatif terhadap penangkapan ikan hias [11] Seiiring dengan berjalan kegiatan penelitian ini dilakukan pula monitoring terhadap jumlah hasl tangkapan ikan dengan metode melalui coral nanny program. Hasil menunjukkan bahwa pada awal kegiatan terjadi penurunan hasil tangkapan Gambar 6. Hasil tangkapan dengan metode coral nanny Hal ini sesuai dengan penelitian yang menunjukkan bahwa jika pola penangkapan yang bersifat destructive dilanjutkan akan berdampak penurunan terus menerus terhadap jumlah penangkapan (low fish abundance). ...
Potassium cyanide together with hookah compressor is commonly practiced by fisherman to stunt the target fishes those hide inside a coral reef complex in Bangsring, Banyuwangi. Currently fisher group faced severe decrease in fish catches and significant damage in coral reef habitat. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to conduct coral reef rehabilitation and construct project initiative as new alternative livelihood called marine eco-tourism by coral nanny program. This research compared old method (using potassium cyanide, long hoses hookah compressor and no coral reef rehabilitation) and coral nanny method (not using potassium cyanide, short hoses and coral reef rehabilitation). This study also investigated socioeconomics impact from coral nanny program and recorded ornamental fish catch. Coral nanny revealed a significant indicator of growth in coral transplant within 12 months period, the coral structured was occupied by a variety of ornamental fish and recent observation of potassium cyanide practice no longer used by fisherman. Up to January 2014 the project has succeeded both from coral transplantation and marine eco-tourism. Coral adopter and marine eco-tourism earning asset about 8,200,000 IDR and 12,800,000 IDR respectively, and fifty fishermen gained 3,880 (around 19,000,000 IDR/month) ornamental fishes in average. Based on findings of this study, we address that contributed in the process of shifting the use of coral reefs, from extractive into non-extractive use is mostly clear that more wisely utilizing the resources will provide a better promise to our livelihood.
... Ikan C. octofasciatus lebih sering ditemukan di karang dari Genus Acropora sebagai tempat tinggal, reproduksi dan makan (Wibowo et al. 2015). Menurut Madduppa et al. (2014), karang dari ordo Acroporidae memiliki kandungan protein yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan karang dari ordo lain, seperti Fungidae dan Porites. ...
... In the Philippines, only reproductive seasonality and fecundity of A. clarkii was examined (Holtswarth et al. 2017) whereas only self-recruitment of anemone fishes and the impact of marine ornamental fishery were examined in Indonesia (Madduppa 2012). Most of the studies in the Philippines and Indonesia were related to the socioeconomy of marine ornamental fishery and its impact on the population structure of anemone fishes (Maduppa et al. 2014), the interaction structure between anemones and anemone fishes (Ricciardi et al. 2010), and the population impact of collecting sea anemones and anemone fishes for marine aquarium trade (Shuman et al. 2005). In Malaysia, studies have focused on embryonic development (liew et al. 2006), sexual dimorphism on the morphometric characteristics (Abol-Munafi et al. 2011b), and gonad histology of the protandrous anemone fish (Abol-Munafi et al. 2011a). ...
In order to understand the reproductive ecology of the anemone fishes, Amphiprion ocellaris and A. perideraion, the maturation variables gonadosomatic index (GSI) and fecundity were examined throughout the year on the eastern coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Fecundity of A. ocellaris and A. perideraion ranged from 67 to 1889 and from 120 to 2653, respectively. The monthly GSI fluctuated in both species. The highest GSI values were found in April for both species suggesting that their spawning season peak occurred in this month. The fecundity was lower compared to the other coral reef fish species, which produce tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands eggs. Anemone fishes practice parental care, which might favor lower numbers of eggs compared to other coral reef fishes, which do not provide care and spawn pelagic eggs. This might emphasize the importance of social structure and pairing in regulating gonad maturation and mating success. Anemone fishes are in high demand for marine aquarists and they have become increasingly popular targets for collection. Our findings will be useful for biologists and resources managements in formulating effective strategies for the conservation and aquaculture of these fishes.
... Anemones and anemonefishes are major components of the global marine ornamentals trade and are heavily exploited on many Indo-Pacific reefs (Shuman et al., 2005;Fujita et al., 2014). Indeed, a growing body of evidence suggests that many wild populations of anemones and anemonefishes have been depleted due to over-fishing and (or) bleaching, and thus are in urgent need of effective management interventions to halt further population declines and facilitate recovery (Hattori, 2002;Shuman et al., 2005;Jones et al., 2008;Madduppa et al., 2014;Thomas et al., 2015;Scott and Hoey, 2017). Despite this, little is presently known about recovery potential of anemone and anemonefish populations (Scott et al., 2011), which limits the ability of decision-makers to navigate management trade-offs and to direct conservation efforts. ...
Thermally-induced bleaching events pose significant impacts on coral reefs but current understanding of the bleaching effects on host sea anemones and mutualistic anemonefishes is limited compared to those of scleractinian corals and their associates. Such information is especially lacking in Southeast Asia, despite the region harbouring the highest diversity of host anemones and anemonefishes. In this study, we documented bleaching prevalence and recovery of host anemones and quantified changes in anemonefish abundance at two coral reefs in Singapore during and after the 2016 mass bleaching event. Of the 260 host anemones surveyed, 16% were bleached in July 2016. All Entacmaea quadricolor bleached, in contrast to Heteractis magnifica (1%) and Stichodactyla mertensii (0%). Five months after the warming event, the bleached E. quadricolor had significant size reductions at both sites despite 10% of them regaining pigmentation. In March 2017, recovery rates of E. quadricolor significantly differed between the study sites. Recovered host anemones increased in size while the bleached ones remained the same or continued shrinking. The between-site differences in recovery of bleached E. quadricolor influenced the abundance of associated Amphiprion frenatus, highlighting the importance of bleaching status and associated host anemone size in supporting viable anemonefish populations. Our study represents the first quantitative assessment of anemone bleaching and post-bleaching recovery in Southeast Asia. Considering the increasing frequency and severity of extreme warming events, our findings stress an urgent need to understand climate change impacts on non-scleractinian host organisms and their associates to implement effective management and enhance reef biodiversity conservation.
Global ornamental fish transportation ranging from hours to days can produce multiple stress factors impact fish health and cause mortality. Clownfish, particularly Amphiprion ocellaris , are among the most traded saltwater ornamental fish. Vibrio includes several pathogenic strains that affect aquatic animals. Consequently, prophylactic treatment of the water or fish is recommended. In this study, six Vibrio strains including V. alginolyticus , V. parahaemolyticus and V. harveyi isolated from sick A. ocellaris and one V. harveyi strain from a sick East Asian fourfinger threadfin ( Eleutheronema rhadinum ) were tested for their sensitivity to a popular disinfectant, chlorine dioxide (ClO 2 ). The results showed that 0.25 ppm ClO 2 effectively suppressed five of the seven tested Vibrio strains for 24 h; however, 0.1 ppm ClO 2 is safer for A. ocellaris . Meanwhile, ClO 2 2.5 ppm reduced the bacterial counts to below 3.3 × 10 ⁵ CFU/mL for 24 hours. The LC 50 of ClO 2 for A. ocellaris was 0.87 ppm at 10 min and 0.72 ppm at 24 h post treatment. Mild changes in water quality, including dissolved oxygen (DO), temperature and pH, were recorded during the trial. More research is necessary to understand the sensitivity of various aquatic animal pathogens to ClO 2 and its toxicity to different aquatic animals.
The local diversity and global richness of coral reef fishes, along with the diversity manifested in their morphology, behaviour and ecology, provides fascinating and diverse opportunities for study. Reflecting the very latest research in a broad and ever-growing field, this comprehensive guide is a must-read for anyone interested in the ecology of fishes on coral reefs. Featuring contributions from leaders in the field, the 36 chapters cover the full spectrum of current research. They are presented in five parts, considering coral reef fishes in the context of ecology; patterns and processes; human intervention and impacts; conservation; and past and current debates. Beautifully illustrated in full-colour, this book is designed to summarise and help build upon current knowledge and to facilitate further research. It is an ideal resource for those new to the field as well as for experienced researchers.
The local diversity and global richness of coral reef fishes, along with the diversity manifested in their morphology, behaviour and ecology, provides fascinating and diverse opportunities for study. Reflecting the very latest research in a broad and ever-growing field, this comprehensive guide is a must-read for anyone interested in the ecology of fishes on coral reefs. Featuring contributions from leaders in the field, the 36 chapters cover the full spectrum of current research. They are presented in five parts, considering coral reef fishes in the context of ecology; patterns and processes; human intervention and impacts; conservation; and past and current debates. Beautifully illustrated in full-colour, this book is designed to summarise and help build upon current knowledge and to facilitate further research. It is an ideal resource for those new to the field as well as for experienced researchers.
The local diversity and global richness of coral reef fishes, along with the diversity manifested in their morphology, behaviour and ecology, provides fascinating and diverse opportunities for study. Reflecting the very latest research in a broad and ever-growing field, this comprehensive guide is a must-read for anyone interested in the ecology of fishes on coral reefs. Featuring contributions from leaders in the field, the 36 chapters cover the full spectrum of current research. They are presented in five parts, considering coral reef fishes in the context of ecology; patterns and processes; human intervention and impacts; conservation; and past and current debates. Beautifully illustrated in full-colour, this book is designed to summarise and help build upon current knowledge and to facilitate further research. It is an ideal resource for those new to the field as well as for experienced researchers.
Anemones are important aquaculture targets for the marine aquarium trade. We explore survival and growth of whole (W) and half (H) bubble‐tip anemones (Entacmaea quadricolor) under: no food (−F−N), directed feeding (+F−N) and/or providing dissolved nutrients (−F+N, +F+N). Treatment effects were assessed using multiple endpoints including: survivorship, weight loss, behaviour and symbiotic‐community responses. Survival analysis confirms highly significant differences among treatments. All treatments resulted in weight loss, but only +F−N resulted in significantly lower weight loss than ‐F+N. All anemones were highly mobile; however, no significant differences for days active, upside down and detached were recorded and the vast majority of anemones did not expel zooxanthellae. Zooxanthellae and chlorophyll pigment concentrations varied over time indicating host‐symbiont plasticity. Cutting does not affect zooxanthellae number or pigment concentrations, but dissolved nutrient delivery significantly reduces zooxanthellae numbers and the chlorophyll C concentration per zooxanthellae cell compared with controls. Cutting is a simple culture method that should be routinely used, but more precise regulation of nutrient delivery and feeding is required before they can be incorporated. Finally, for hobbyists to make informed decisions about choosing an anemone, we recommend a review of E. quadricolor's and other species’ suitability for long‐term aquarium captivity.
The existence of reef fish is certainly closely related to the existence of reefs coral because the ecosystem is a habitat for reef fish. Coral reefs are ecosystems that are commonly found on small islands in the tropics including the Seribu Islands. The Seribu Islands are a group of 110 islands located off the coast of Jakarta and up to 80 kilometers north of the Java Sea. In this study, we examined the species distribution and diversity of reef fish species on two different distance location in Jakarta Bay using environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding analysis from two sites which are Untung Jawa Island and Harapan Island. The 4L eDNA seawater samples were collected at a depth of 8-9 meters at each site and then analysis using specific primer (MiFish U) of 12S rRNA. Overall, the higher species richness was found on Harapan Island (52 species) followed by Untung Jawa Island (11 species). The Shannon-Wiener Index also showed Harapan Island has higher reef fish diversity based on three taxonomic level (family, genus, and species). There were only five mutual reef fish species found in the two locations, namely Atherinomorus aetholepis, Auxis thazard, Cephalopholis sexmaculata, Epinephelus chlorostigma, and Plectropomus areolatus. The results of these findings in this current study are in line with anthropogenic pressure different where Untung Jawa Island is the closer one to Jakarta Bay than the Harapan Island that located relatively far from Jakarta Bay.
Populations of anemonefish species often show signs of local isolation due to limited dispersal potential and oceanographic conditions. Additionally, anthropogenic pressure, such as overharvesting and coral reef exploitation causes reduced population size, eventually leading to local extinction. The understanding of the genetic population structure, as well as the influence of both historical and current connectivity, is required to design effective marine protected area (MPA) networks. In this study, the genetic structure of Clark’s Anemonefish (Amphiprion clarkii) based on 209 individuals from 16 samples sites in the Indo-Malay Archipelago (IMA) is assessed through mitochondrial control region (mtCR) sequences and eight nuclear microsatellite loci. Results provided evidence of a significant genetic structure (mtCR: Φst = 0.42, Φct = 0.64; microsatellites: Fst = 0.01, Fct = 0.05). Genetic breaks were identified among Western (Padang Karimunjawa), Central (Sulawesi, Borneo, Bali, Komodo, Timor) and Eastern (Biak) IMA populations, with almost no gene flow. This matches with patterns obtained for congeneric and other coral reef taxa. Due to the restricted connectivity among these three regions, it is suggested to consider them as separate management areas in the design of MPA networks.
1. Marine aquarium organisms represent some of the highest value products that can be harvested from coral reefs. Collection is extremely selective, and sea anemones are often targeted, leading to reduced densities and localized extinctions in some locations. Currently, there is a lack of information about species' popularity and survival in captivity, and consumer attitudes towards sustainability.
2. This study surveyed aquarists and businesses (n = 445) from 39 countries between February and October 2018 to help fill these knowledge gaps.
3. Respondent groups indicated similar preferences. The three most desired species were Entacmaea quadricolor, Stichodactyla tapetum and Heteractis magnifica. Size preferences for anemones were typically smaller (tentacle crown diameter of 100-200 mm) than their maximum sizes. Survival time in captivity was generally 12 months or longer, and 20% lived more than 10 years.
4. Respondents indicated that they would prefer to buy captive-bred rather than wild-harvested anemones (aquarists 95%, businesses 94%) and would pay more for the former (aquarists 79%, businesses 70%).
5. While potential propagation methods have been established for E. quadricolor, other popular anemones within the marine aquarium trade may also be good candidates for captive breeding. Mariculture could provide alternative livelihoods, reduce collection pressure on wild populations and facilitate the recovery and conservation of depleted anemone populations, particularly in developing island nations from where the majority of anemones are currently sourced.
This study aims to analyze several variables that affect the growth and decline of the Indonesian economy during the period 2009-2018. The variables that affect are limited to only three, namely FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) or foreign direct investment, exports, and foreign debt. Meanwhile, the variable that causes the decline is the failure to understand the development economic theory approach to fail to apply it in the field. The type of research used is explanatory research with a quantitative approach. The location of this research was conducted at the World Bank. This study's population is the entire time-series data from FDI, exports, foreign debt, and Indonesia's economic growth. The sampling technique collects time-series data for ten years (one decade), namely the years 2009-2018 so that there are 40 samples. The data analysis used is multiple linear regression analysis. The data analysis results in this study indicate that the variables consisting of FDI, exports, foreign debt simultaneously have a significant effect on Indonesia's economic growth. Partially FDI Indonesia's economic development is being impacted significantly. Indonesia's economic development is strongly driven by exports. The effect of external debt on Indonesia's economic growth is important.
Solutions for the ornamental marine fish trade in the Philippines.
Full-cycle mariculture roadblocks and opportunities for red grouper species in the Philippines.
Populations of anemonefish species often show signs of local isolation due limited dispersal potential and oceanographic conditions. Additionally, anthropogenic pressure, such as overharvesting and coral reef exploitation causes reduced population size, eventually leading to local extinction. The understanding of the genetic population structure, as well as the influence of both historical and current connectivity, is required to design effective marine protected area (MPA) networks. In this study, the genetic structure of Clark's Anemonefish (Amphiprion clarkii) populations of the Indo-Malay Archipelago (IMA) is assessed through mitochondrial control region (mtCR) sequences and nuclear microsatellites. Results provided evidence of a significant genetic structure (mtCR: Phist = 0.42039, Phict = 0.63852; microsatellites: Fst = 0.01449, Fct = 0.05199). Genetic breaks were identified among Western (Padang Karimunjawa), Central (Sulawesi, Borneo, Bali, Komodo, Timor), and Eastern (Biak) IMA populations, which matches with patterns obtained for congeneric and other coral reef taxa. Due to the restricted connectivity among these three regions, it is suggested to consider them as separate management areas in the design of MPA networks.
This book has one chapter in aquaculture development and 8 chapters in the global fisheries management. Aquaculture chapter describes how to use orange and potato peels as fish feed material. Fisheries chapters include the use of tax to manage a multigear fishery , Pan-Arctic fisheries, trawl selectivity, oil and gas platforms vs. fish and fisheries, Brown Seaweeds fishery, Blue Swimming Crab fishery, SUISAN fisheries education in Japan, and Carangids taxonomy in Pakistan.
The local diversity and global richness of coral reef fishes, along with the diversity manifested in their morphology, behaviour and ecology, provides fascinating and diverse opportunities for study. Reflecting the very latest research in a broad and ever-growing field, this comprehensive guide is a must-read for anyone interested in the ecology of fishes on coral reefs. Featuring contributions from leaders in the field, the 36 chapters cover the full spectrum of current research. They are presented in five parts, considering coral reef fishes in the context of ecology; patterns and processes; human intervention and impacts; conservation; and past and current debates. Beautifully illustrated in full-colour, this book is designed to summarise and help build upon current knowledge and to facilitate further research. It is an ideal resource for those new to the field as well as for experienced researchers.
Eco-labeling is the agent of change of marine ornamental fishing pattern in North Bali by promoting environmental and raising issues regarding inequality in the social, economic, political, and ecological dimension of marine ornamental fish fisherman's livelihood. There are several actors involved in the eco-labeling issues namely, state, non-governmental organization (NGO), private sectors and fishermen. The paper aims to analyze the characteristic of actors, their interest, and their impacts on marine ornamental fish trade and its certification of eco-labeling by using actor-approach analysis. This research was mix methods both qualitative in nature and quantitative approach. This study reveals that exporters are the most powerful price and demand controller in Les marine ornamental fish trade, while middlemen were on the second stage on this steps. Middlemen controlled over Les fishermen income, with such regulation that fishermen only captured a number of fishes and type of fishes that middlemen ordered in a day. It means that fishermen income limited by middlemen orders. State is as if to be alineated from the Les marine environmental changes as well as state's role in the marine ornamental trade. State has unclear interest on marine ornamental fish trade, even though Marine and Fisheries Services Buleleng and Industry and Commerce Services Bali Province attempted to looking for a position to role the trade.
Eco-labelling is the agent of change of marine ornamental fishing pattern
in North Bali by promoting environmental friendliness and raising issues
regarding inequality in social, economic, political, and ecological dimension of
marine ornamental fish fisher's livelihood. There are several actors involved in
the eco-labelling issues, namely state, non-governmental organization (NGO),
private sectors, and fishers. This paper aims to analyze the characteristic of
actors, their interest, and their impacts on marine ornamental fish trade and its
certification of eco-labelling. Price disparity between ornamental fish fisher and
exporters on the economic dimension is unbeneficial to the fishers. Plus, the
inability of fisher to participate in determining the price attributes to the lack of
political ability of fisher on this trade. Since ornamental fish fisher switched from
using cyanide to catch fish with environmental friendly way as using, ecologically,
they savor the benefits of this. Yet the absence of the state's roles in this cause new
chaos. This research was qualitative in nature and collected primary and
secondary data using a case approach. As the conclusion, fisher’s still being
marginalized in politicized environment.
The local diversity and global richness of coral reef fishes, along with the diversity manifested in their morphology, behaviour and ecology, provides fascinating and diverse opportunities for study. Reflecting the very latest research in a broad and ever-growing field, this comprehensive guide is a must-read for anyone interested in the ecology of fishes on coral reefs. Featuring contributions from leaders in the field, the 36 chapters cover the full spectrum of current research. They are presented in five parts, considering coral reef fishes in the context of ecology; patterns and processes; human intervention and impacts; conservation; and past and current debates. Beautifully illustrated in full-colour, this book is designed to summarise and help build upon current knowledge and to facilitate further research. It is an ideal resource for those new to the field as well as for experienced researchers.
The local diversity and global richness of coral reef fishes, along with the diversity manifested in their morphology, behaviour and ecology, provides fascinating and diverse opportunities for study. Reflecting the very latest research in a broad and ever-growing field, this comprehensive guide is a must-read for anyone interested in the ecology of fishes on coral reefs. Featuring contributions from leaders in the field, the 36 chapters cover the full spectrum of current research. They are presented in five parts, considering coral reef fishes in the context of ecology; patterns and processes; human intervention and impacts; conservation; and past and current debates. Beautifully illustrated in full-colour, this book is designed to summarise and help build upon current knowledge and to facilitate further research. It is an ideal resource for those new to the field as well as for experienced researchers.
The local diversity and global richness of coral reef fishes, along with the diversity manifested in their morphology, behaviour and ecology, provides fascinating and diverse opportunities for study. Reflecting the very latest research in a broad and ever-growing field, this comprehensive guide is a must-read for anyone interested in the ecology of fishes on coral reefs. Featuring contributions from leaders in the field, the 36 chapters cover the full spectrum of current research. They are presented in five parts, considering coral reef fishes in the context of ecology; patterns and processes; human intervention and impacts; conservation; and past and current debates. Beautifully illustrated in full-colour, this book is designed to summarise and help build upon current knowledge and to facilitate further research. It is an ideal resource for those new to the field as well as for experienced researchers.
The local diversity and global richness of coral reef fishes, along with the diversity manifested in their morphology, behaviour and ecology, provides fascinating and diverse opportunities for study. Reflecting the very latest research in a broad and ever-growing field, this comprehensive guide is a must-read for anyone interested in the ecology of fishes on coral reefs. Featuring contributions from leaders in the field, the 36 chapters cover the full spectrum of current research. They are presented in five parts, considering coral reef fishes in the context of ecology; patterns and processes; human intervention and impacts; conservation; and past and current debates. Beautifully illustrated in full-colour, this book is designed to summarise and help build upon current knowledge and to facilitate further research. It is an ideal resource for those new to the field as well as for experienced researchers.
The local diversity and global richness of coral reef fishes, along with the diversity manifested in their morphology, behaviour and ecology, provides fascinating and diverse opportunities for study. Reflecting the very latest research in a broad and ever-growing field, this comprehensive guide is a must-read for anyone interested in the ecology of fishes on coral reefs. Featuring contributions from leaders in the field, the 36 chapters cover the full spectrum of current research. They are presented in five parts, considering coral reef fishes in the context of ecology; patterns and processes; human intervention and impacts; conservation; and past and current debates. Beautifully illustrated in full-colour, this book is designed to summarise and help build upon current knowledge and to facilitate further research. It is an ideal resource for those new to the field as well as for experienced researchers.
The local diversity and global richness of coral reef fishes, along with the diversity manifested in their morphology, behaviour and ecology, provides fascinating and diverse opportunities for study. Reflecting the very latest research in a broad and ever-growing field, this comprehensive guide is a must-read for anyone interested in the ecology of fishes on coral reefs. Featuring contributions from leaders in the field, the 36 chapters cover the full spectrum of current research. They are presented in five parts, considering coral reef fishes in the context of ecology; patterns and processes; human intervention and impacts; conservation; and past and current debates. Beautifully illustrated in full-colour, this book is designed to summarise and help build upon current knowledge and to facilitate further research. It is an ideal resource for those new to the field as well as for experienced researchers.
The local diversity and global richness of coral reef fishes, along with the diversity manifested in their morphology, behaviour and ecology, provides fascinating and diverse opportunities for study. Reflecting the very latest research in a broad and ever-growing field, this comprehensive guide is a must-read for anyone interested in the ecology of fishes on coral reefs. Featuring contributions from leaders in the field, the 36 chapters cover the full spectrum of current research. They are presented in five parts, considering coral reef fishes in the context of ecology; patterns and processes; human intervention and impacts; conservation; and past and current debates. Beautifully illustrated in full-colour, this book is designed to summarise and help build upon current knowledge and to facilitate further research. It is an ideal resource for those new to the field as well as for experienced researchers.
The local diversity and global richness of coral reef fishes, along with the diversity manifested in their morphology, behaviour and ecology, provides fascinating and diverse opportunities for study. Reflecting the very latest research in a broad and ever-growing field, this comprehensive guide is a must-read for anyone interested in the ecology of fishes on coral reefs. Featuring contributions from leaders in the field, the 36 chapters cover the full spectrum of current research. They are presented in five parts, considering coral reef fishes in the context of ecology; patterns and processes; human intervention and impacts; conservation; and past and current debates. Beautifully illustrated in full-colour, this book is designed to summarise and help build upon current knowledge and to facilitate further research. It is an ideal resource for those new to the field as well as for experienced researchers.
Many studies, using various marker systems, have been conducted on the genetic population structure of marine organisms to reveal connectivity among locations and dispersal capabilities. Although mitochondrial sequence markers are widely used, their accuracy is controversially discussed in the context of small scale population genetic discrimination. In the present study, the genetic population structure of the False Clown Anemonefish (Amphiprion ocellaris) in the Indo-Malay Archipelago was revealed by screening six microsatellite loci. Results were congruent to previous mitochondrial control region results, with three major genetic breaks within the Indo-Malay Archipelago. Similar to the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analysis, microsatellite data showed a correlation of genetic structure to historical ocean basin separation during Pleistocene sea level low stands, geographic distance, and dominant current patterns. However, microsatellite divergences are not as deep as the mtDNA divergence, suggesting either that admixture of mtDNA lineages is slower than that of nuclear microsatellites, providing a rather historic picture of separation, or the stronger differentiation signal is due to lower effective population sizes presented by mtDNA. As well, the microsatellite analysis did not give a better reso- lution on the small scale as expected. This study showed that depending on the genetic markers used, different stages of population separation might be illuminated.
“Located between the Pacific and Indian Oceans and between the Asian and Australian continents, the seas of the Indonesian Archipelago have a significant role in global weather patterns and oceanic circulation. The dynamic interplay between geological, physical, chemical and biological processes has given rise to one of the most diverse marine regions on the planet. The exceptional marine and coastal ecosystem diversity of the Indonesian Archipelago, coupled with monsoonal tropical climate, provides hundreds of habitats that support thousands of marine species. This treasure of marine biodiversity has sustained the people of the archipelago for thousands of years. Current population pressures and rapid economic development have, however, placed many of the natural resources at risk due to overexploitation, lack of management and environmental degradation. Development and implementation of ecologically sound management plans for sustainable use of Indonesian marine resources are essential, as is the understanding of the various physical, chemical, biological and ecological processes that maintain the integrity of marine ecosystems.
The challenging task of documenting Indonesia’s marine realm is presented here in a two-volume set, the result of worldwide literature reviews and extensive new field observations.
The first volume provides a review of geology, physical oceanography and meteorology of the archipelago. Coral reefs, one of the most important, yet least known ecosystems in Indonesia are introduced in this volume through discussions of the geologic history of reefs, followed by a review of the major theories of coral reef formation, development and their worldwide distribution. Corals and other coral reef-associated organisms are then examined. The chapter on foraminifera, major producers of present and past carbonate deposits, presents some little-known Indonesian assemblages. Next the authors look at the natural environmental factors that affect coral reef development and survival. A chapter on coral reef growth and development concludes the first volume.
The second volume discusses the origin, formation and distribution of various reef types in the Indonesian Archipelago, and provides new estimates on their extent. The second volume also provides a review of the ecology of the Indonesian seagrass, mangrove and open-ocean ecosystems. The chapter on marine biodiversity focuses on a number of marine and coastal habitats and threatened marine organisms. The final two chapters discuss what recent effects the human race has had on marine resources, and what we can do to protect and preserve our marine and coastal zones for generations to come.” XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX Individual Chapters can be accessed through the “LINKED DATA” tab below
Introduction The mating and social structure of clownfishes are strongly influenced by the distribution pattern of sea anemones as the clownfish depends upon the host anemones in the wild (Moyer and Sawyers, 1973; Allen, 1975; Thresher, 1984; Ochi and Yanagisawa, 1987; Ochi, 1989a, b). The sex reversal is also another peculiar behaviour in anemone fish community, and protandric sex inversion was Abstract The influence of gonadal maturation and nesting success of the anemone fish Amphiprion ocellaris was analyzed through mating system removal. Four experiments viz., (i) Sex change of active male to female in the absence of active female, (ii) Juveniles in the presence of a functional male that was changing sex from male to female, (iii) Juvenile in the presence of a functional female, and (iv) Same length group juvenile fishes (total length: 50 mm) without the presence of adult fishes, were carried out. The gonad of male in experiment (i) showed first perceptible sign of sex inversion after 1 to 2 weeks. After 25 weeks the testicular zone almost disappeared and the gonad looked like maturing ovary with perivitellogenic oocytes and oocytes at various stages of development. The gonad of juveniles in the second experiment showed increased testicular development after 23 to 24 weeks, and testicular area became clearly discernible after 30 weeks. In the third experiment, the gonad of juvenile completed its spermatogenesis after 15 to 16 weeks and showed well-developed testicular zones. In the fourth experiment, the gonad of largest fish showed development of ovarian part after 24 weeks with oogonia and oocytes at various stages, and degeneration of testicular tissues. The observation of nesting success in the above experimental groups showed that spawning was obtained in the third group after 4 months of association; and after 12 to 18 months in the first and second groups, and after 20 to 24 months in the fourth group. The present study shows that in the absence or disappearance of adult female, the active male changes sex to female within a period of 25 weeks. The study also confirms that in the clownfish A. ocellaris, the largest and socially dominant fish in a host sea anemone (Heteractis magnifica) is generally female, whose gonads are functional ovaries with remnants of degenerated testicular tissues. The second largest fish in the same group is an active male and has gonad that are functioning testis but also possess non-functioning or latent ovarian cells (ovotestis). If the dominant female dies or is experimentally removed from the "queue", the male not only changes sex but also grows at an accelerated rate, and the juveniles also grow faster to become male and fill the size gap of the social group. This adaptation allows continuous reproduction. It is found that social structure plays an important role on the sex changing mechanism.
Between 1.5 and 2 million people worldwide are believed to keep marine aquaria. The trade which supplies this hobby with live marine animals is a global multi-million dollar industry, worth an estimated US$200-330 million annually, and operating throughout the tropics. Ornamental marine species (corals, other invertebrates and fish) are collected and transported mainly from Southeast Asia, but also increasingly from several island nations in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, to consumers in the main destination markets: the United States, the European Union (EU) and, to a lesser extent, Japan.
Very few of the species in trade are exploited directly for other purposes, and there is little doubt that aquarium animals are the highest value-added product that can be harvested from a coral reef. If managed sustainably, the trade could support jobs in predominantly rural, low-income coastal communities and so provide strong economic incentives for coral reef conservation in regions where other options for generating revenue are limited. However, damaging techniques occasionally used to collect the animals, possible over harvesting of some species and the high levels of mortality associated with inadequate handling and transport of sensitive living organisms undermine this potential, and continue to pose significant challenges to achieving sustainability. As a result the trade has seldom been free of controversy as traders try to generate a profit, conservationists try to avoid further decline in coral reefs also suffering from other pressures, and policy makers try to assemble a legislative framework that protects coral reefs without threatening a legitimate business activity or the incomes of communities engaged in aquarium fishing.
In the main, this debate has taken place without access to impartial and quantitative data on the trade and, with so many different viewpoints, achieving consensus on its impacts, and hence the identification of suitable responses, has been difficult. In 2000, the United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC), the Marine Aquarium Council
(MAC) and members of various aquarium trade associations
collaboration, to address this need for better information and created the Global Marine Aquarium Database (GMAD). Trade data have been obtained from wholesale exporters and importers of marine aquarium organisms, most often through copies of trade invoices, integrated and standardized into quantitative, species-specific information which has been placed in the public domain: www.unep-wcmc.org/marine/GMAD. Fifty eight companies, approximately one-fifth of the wholesalers in business, and four government management authorities have provided data to GMAD. In August 2003 the dataset contained 102,928 trade records (7.7 million imported and 9.4 million exported animals) covering a total of 2,393 species of fish, corals and invertebrates and spanning the years 1988 to 2003. These data have permitted the most accurate quantitative estimates to date of the size of the global trade in marine ornamental fish and corals, and the first ever estimates for invertebrates other than corals, a previously overlooked section of the industry.
FISH
A total of 1,471 species of fish are traded worldwide with the best estimate of annual global trade ranging between 20 and 24 million individuals. Damselfish (Pomacentridae) make up almost half of the trade, with species of angelfish (Pomacanthidae), surgeonfish (Acanthuridae), wrasses (Labridae), gobies (Gobiidae) and butterflyfish (Chaetodontidae) accounting for approximately another 25-30 per cent. The most traded species are the blue-green damselfish (Chromis viridis), the clown anemonefish (Amphiprion ocellaris), the whitetail dascyllus (Dascyllus aruanus), the sapphire devil (Chrysiptera cyanea) and the threespot dascyllus (Dascyllus trimaculatus). The ten most
traded species account for about 36 per cent of all fish traded for the years 1997 to 2002. Trade data, correlated with aquarium suitability information, indicate that two species known not to acclimatize well to aquarium conditions are nonetheless very commonly traded. They are the bluestreak cleaner wrasse (Labroides dimidiatus: GMAD records 87,000 worldwide imports of this species from 1997 to 2002) and the mandarin fish (Synchiropus splendidus: GMAD records 11,000 live individuals exported to the EU in the same period). Data further indicate that species characterized as ‘truly unsuitable’, mainly due to their restricted dietary requirements, such as the foureye butterflyfish (Chaetodon capistratus), the harlequin filefish (Oxymonacanthus longisrostris) and the Hawaiian cleaner wrasse (Labroides phtirophagus), are also commonly traded, albeit in lower numbers.
CORALS
A total of 140 species of stony coral, nearly all scleractinians, are traded worldwide, with the best estimate of annual global trade ranging between 11 and 12 million pieces. Although difficulties associated with accurate coral identification probably make species data less reliable for corals than for fish, it is clear that species in seven genera (Trachyphyllia, Euphyllia, Goniopora, Acropora, Plerogyra, Catalaphyllia) are the most popular, accounting for approximately 56 per cent of the live coral trade between 1988 and 2002. Sixty-one species of soft coral are also traded, amounting to close to 390,000 pieces per year. Sarcophyton spp. (leather/mushroom/ toadstool coral) and Dendronephthya spp. (carnation coral) are two of the most commonly traded species. However, whilst the biology of the former makes it a hardy, fast-growing and easily propagated species under
aquarium conditions, Dendronephthya spp. usually die within a few weeks, mainly due to the fact that they lack photosynthetic symbionts and rely on filtering particles and nutrients in the water column for food.
INVERTEBRATES
More than 500 species of invertebrates (other than corals) are traded as marine ornamentals, though the lack of a standard taxonomy makes it difficult to arrive at a precise figure. The best estimate of global annual trade ranges between 9 and 10 million animals, mostly molluscs, shrimps and anemones. Two groups of cleaner shrimp, Lysmata spp. and Stenopus spp., and a group of anemones, Heteractis spp., account for approximately 15 per cent of all invertebrates traded.
The relationship between characteristics of the reef environment and variations in the distribution and abundance of the anemonefishes Amphiprion akindynos and A. latezonatus was investigated at North Solitary Island, a sub-tropical rocky reef system on the east coast of Australia. During the summers of 1994 and 1995, fish densities and host sea-anemone cover were assessed on replicate 25 m transects at sites where host sea-anemones form semi-contiguous mats throughout the 6–21 m depth range. Multiple regression analyses indicated that environmental variables accounted for 65–71% and 61–80% of the variations in the number of A. akindynos and A. latezonatus among-sites, respectively. Among-habitat comparisons indicated that A. latezonatus densities were positively correlated with depth (r=0.45–0.90), whereas A. akindynos showed no consistent depth-related abundance patterns. Poor correlations (p>0.05) between the densities of each species on transect lines suggested that present-day competition was unlikely to determine the preference of A. latezonatus for deeper depths. Correlations between host sea-anemone cover and fish densities at the within-habitat (depth) scale were comparatively stronger than correlations at among-habitats in both species. These results suggest that among-habitat comparisons can confound finer scale fish-habitat associations within habitat (depth) zones. Evidence suggests that while sea-anemone cover does, to an extent, regulate the local ecology of anemonefishes, other factors are also likely to interact to limit their densities.
Standard histological protocol were performed on fifteen families of A. ocellaris collected at Pulau Bidong, Terengganu to describe and differentiate the gonad morphology between male, female and the non-breeders of protandrous Anemonefish (Amphiprion ocellaris). Based on the observations, non-breeder fish (3.5-5.8 cm TL) possess intermixed ovotestes with no clear boundaries between testicular and ovarian tissues. The ovotestes contained previtellogenic oocytes interspersed with fewer spermatocytes. Male fishes (5.3-6.9 cm TL) exhibited a different type of ovotestes. Male fish ovotestes were dominated by spermatogenic cells with fewer numbers of surrounding previtellogenic oocytes. In contrast, female fish gonadal tissue (6.0-9.2 cm TL) only contained ovarian tissues with no evidence of any testicular tissues. The ovarian was also larger and more mature than male and non breeders ovarian tissue with well organised ovigerous lamellae filled with oocytes visible at different developmental stages. The absence of the testicular tissues in the female gonad shows that the change of sex from male to female is an irreversible process.
Polymorphic microsatellite DNA parentage analysis was used to investigate the spatio-temporal variability of self-recruitment in populations of two anemonefishes: Amphiprion ocellaris and A. perideraion. Tissue samples of A. ocellaris (n = 364) and A. perideraion (n = 105) were collected from fringing reefs around two small islands (Barrang Lompo and Samalona) in Spermonde Archipelago, Indonesia. Specimens were genotyped based on seven microsatellite loci for A. ocellaris and five microsatellite loci for A. perideraion, and parentage assignment as well as site fidelity were calculated. Both species showed high levels of self-recruitment: 65.2% of juvenile A. ocellaris in Samalona were the progeny of parents from the same island, while on Barrang Lompo 47.4% of A. ocellaris and 46.9% of A. perideraion juveniles had parents from that island. Self-recruitment of A. ocellaris in Barrang Lompo varied from 44% to 52% between the two sampling periods. The site fidelity of A. ocellaris juveniles that returned to their reef site in Barang Lompo was up to 44%, while for A. perideraion up to 19%. In Samalona, the percentage of juveniles that returned to their natal reef site ranged from 8% to 11%. Exchange of progeny between the two study islands, located 7.5 km apart, was also detected via parentage assignments. The larger Samalona adult population of A. ocellaris was identified as the parents of 21% of Barrang Lompo juveniles, while the smaller adult population on Barrang Lompo were the parents of only 4% of Samalona juveniles. High self-recruitment and recruitment to nearby island reefs have important implications for management and conservation of anemonefishes. Small MPAs, preferably on every island/reef, should ensure that a part of the population is protected to enable replenishment by the highly localised recruitment behaviour observed in these species.
Conflicts of interest are part and parcel of living in a social group, although these can reduce the fitness of individual members. Here I show that clownfish (Amphiprion percula) adjust their size and growth rate according to their position in the group hierarchy, maintaining a well-defined size difference with respect to individuals above them in social rank. This strategy to prevent conflict is a surprising departure from the more usual ploy used by many animals of modifying their behaviour within the group.
Collection of live coral for the marine aquarium trade has increased significantly in recent years, causing concerns over the ecological implications of this activity for the source regions. The Spermonde Archipelago off Southwest Sulawesi is one of the four major ornamental coral collection sites in Indonesia, the country supplying most corals in the trade. Management of the fishery remains ineffective, and overharvesting is widespread. Conservation strategies for marine resources increasingly emphasize the socioeconomic dimensions of resource use, yet little information is available on the livelihoods of fishermen involved in the ornamental fishery. Here, a first analysis of the livelihoods of coral fishermen in the Spermonde Archipelago is presented, along with a discussion of possibilities for future management interventions. The reef fishery of the study area is characterized by a high diversity of target organisms, with none of the fishermen relying exclusively on ornamental corals for income. Moreover, fishermen are organized in a tightly knit web of patron-client relationships, leaving little scope for them to initiate changes in livelihood strategies. The patron-client system emerged as a key institution of the fishery. In order to support sustainable marine resource use, management policies should simultaneously target the fishermen and their patrons as well as the regional coral trade network, broadening the livelihood portfolio of island communities and improving the regulation of the associated trade network.
This study describes the growth of juvenile clownfish, Amphiprion percula Lacépède 1802, fed with an artificial diet at six ration sizes of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12% of body mass per day (BM day−1) each at a feeding frequency of once, twice and three times per day. The effect of ration size on growth depended on the feeding frequency. In fish fed once a day growth did not improve above a ration size of 8% BM day−1. At two feedings per day fish required a ration size of at least 6% BM day−1 to achieve good growth, and fish fed three times per day grew at similar rates above a ration size of 4% BM day−1. A model to estimate the combined effect of ration size and feeding frequency is presented. The results lead to the suggestion of a simple length-based feeding regimen that could be tested in future studies on this species or adapted for use in other species.
Surveys of anemonefishes (Amphiprioninae) were conducted on reefs in two regions of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park with contrasting histories of disturbance to determine the degree to which spatial variation might be explained by bleaching or management status. Densities of anemonefishes were lower on reefs in the bleaching-impacted Keppel Islands than on reefs in Far North Queensland. No anemonefishes or anemones were found on or near bleached corals in the Keppel Islands. Furthermore, the highest densities of fishes were found on reefs closed to fishing and aquarium collecting in both the Keppel Islands and Far North Queensland, which suggests that collecting is compounding the effects of bleaching. These results emphasize the importance of understanding the interaction between bleaching events and anthropogenic disturbance upon commercially exploited species.
The global trade in ornamental fish and associated aquarium and pond accessories is in excess of U.S. $7 × 109 each year. Although the majority of freshwater fish involved in the trade are from captive-bred sources, significant numbers are still removed from the wild. In addition, almost all of the marine fish in the trade are wild-caught. Whilst habitat destruction, pollution and overfishing for food are the main threats facing fish populations in the wild, the ornamental fish trade may have adverse effects as a result of the introduction of nonnative organisms, and by the direct depletion of wild stocks. The ornamental fish trade is ideally placed to raise public awareness of, and actively support, fish conservation efforts, and must maintain a close liaison with legislative-forming organizations seeking to impose further trade restrictions.
No previous studies have conclusively documented the magnitude of the effect of aquarium collecting on natural populations. In Hawaii concern over the effects on reef fish populations of collecting for the aquarium trade began in the early 1970s, primarily in response to multiple-use conflicts between aquarium-fish collectors and recreational dive-tour operators. In 1997-1998 we used a paired control-impact design to estimate the effect of aquarium collectors. We compared differences in fish abundance along visual belt transects between collection sites, where collecting was known to occur, and control sites, where collecting was prohibited. To test the assumptions of our observational design, we surveyed a combination of species captured by aquarium collectors and those not captured. The extent of bleaching, broken coral, and coral cover was also surveyed. Seven of the 10 aquarium species surveyed were significantly reduced by collecting. The abundance of aquarium fish at collection sites ranged from 38% lower (Chaetodon multicinctus) to 75% lower (C. quadrimaculatus) than that at control sites. In contrast, only two of the nonaquarium species displayed a significant collection effect. There were no significant differences in damaged coral between control and collection sites to indicate the presence of destructive fishing practices. In addition, there were no increases in the abundance of macroalgae where the abundance of herbivores was reduced by aquarium collecting. Although our results suggest that aquarium collectors have a significant effect on the abundance of targeted aquarium fishes, better knowledge of the intensity and location of collecting activities is required to make a rigorous assessment of the effects of collecting on nearshore fish populations. Several lines of evidence suggest that the current system of catch reporting underestimates actual removals.
Spatial and temporal patterns in catch rates and in allocation of fishing effort were analysed for the coastal fishery in Spermonde Archipelago, Indonesia, to assess whether fishermen can optimise their strategy from catch information, or whether they fish under great uncertainty and merely minimise risks. On average 517 fishing units operated in the 2800 km2 area, catching 21 t fish day−1. Major gear categories were hook and line (59% of total effort and 5% of total catch), and lift nets (16% of total effort and 70% of total catch). The size of individual resource spaces varied with gear type and was smaller in unfavourable weather conditions. Although spatial patterns in catch rates at the scale of the whole archipelago were evident, fishermen could not differentiate between locations, as catch variance within their individual resource spaces was high relative to the contrasts in spatial patterns. The aggregated distribution of fishing effort in Spermonde must be explained by factors such as the small scale of operations, rather than fish abundance.
Elucidating the causes of post-recruitment mortality is a vital step toward understanding the population dynamics of coral reef fishes. Predation is often considered to be the primary proximate cause of mortality. It has, however, proven difficult to discern the relative contributions of predation and other processes, such as competition for food, shelter, or mates, to patterns of mortality. To determine which other processes might be important drivers of mortality patterns, factors related to mortality in the clown anemonefish Amphiprion percula (Lacepde, 1802) were examined. Patterns of mortality will not be driven by predation in A. percula, because these fish are well protected from predators by their close association with sea anemones. Mortality rates were based on the disappearance of known individuals from a population of 201, in 57 groups, during a 1-year field study (in 1997), in Madang Lagoon, Papua New Guinea. Mortality rate of A. percula was low (14% per annum) compared to other coral reef fish, probably due to the protection from predators afforded by the anemone. Six factors (reef, depth, anemone diameter, number of individuals, density, and standard length) showed no association with the probability of mortality (P>0.05). Rank was the only factor associated with the probability of mortality (P<0.03); low-rank individuals (ranks4–6) suffered a higher mortality rate than high-rank individuals (ranks1–3) (P<0.01). The most likely explanation for this pattern was that competition for rank, amongst individuals within an anemone, resulted in some individuals evicting their subordinates. Individuals probably competed for rank because it conferred access to reproduction, and not because it conferred access to food or shelter. Such competition for reproduction will be intense whenever some individuals obtain a greater share of reproduction than others do, and it may be an important process influencing the dynamics of coral reef fish populations.
Tropical marine ornamentals comprise an increasingly important fishery worldwide. Although the potential for overexploitation
of marine ornamentals is great, few studies have addressed the population-level impacts of ornamental exploitation and few
ornamental fisheries are managed. Analysis of catch records obtained from collectors over a four-month period in the vicinity
of Cebu, Philippines, showed that anemonefish and anemones comprised close to 60% of the total catch. Underwater visual census
surveys revealed that both anemone and anemonefish densities were significantly lower in exploited areas than in protected
areas. The low density of anemones on exploited reefs accounted for over 80% of the reduced density of anemonefish at those
sites. There were similar numbers of anemonefish per unit area of anemone in protected and exploited sites; however, biomass
of anemonefish per unit area of anemone was lower in exploited areas. Reduction of anemone removals is recommended to support
the sustainable harvest of anemonefish from this region.
Ornamental fishes endemic to Hawaii''s reefs are a valued resource and a staple of the marine aquarium trade, worldwide. At present, the market for Hawaiian ornamental reef fish is supplied entirely by the export of wild-captured animals, but the long-term sustainability of this practice is debatable. The success of breeders of ornamental fishes elsewhere, and concerns about overexploitation of wild fishes have stimulated interest in the development of an industry based on the captive propagation and rearing of Hawaiian ornamental fishes. Initial attempts to spawn and rear the larvae of various marine ornamental fishes in Hawaii were carried out in the early 1970s. The results of these culture efforts, conducted primarily at the Oceanic Institute and the University of Hawaii''s Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology on Oahu, have varied in success. For the most part, these results have appeared previously only in dissertations or in reports distributed locally. Technological improvements in marine aquarium husbandry and in the culture of edible marine fishes have both benefited practitioners of ornamental reef fish culture, and promise to do so in the future. Our objective in this paper is to review the progress that has been made in the captive cultivation of ornamental marine fishes and to provide an overview of the status of the marine aquarium industry in Hawaii.
The stability of animal societies depends on individuals decisions about whether to tolerate or evict others and about whether to stay or leave. These decisions, in turn, depend on individuals costs and benefits of living in the group. The clown anemonefish, Amphiprion percula, lives in groups composed of a breeding pair and zero to four non-breeders. To determine why breeders accept the presence of non-breeders in this species I investigated the effect of non-breeders on multiple components of the breeders fitness. Non-breeders did not assist breeders in any obvious way. Experimental removal of non-breeders had no significant effect on the survival, growth, or reproductive success of breeders. Experimental removal of one of the breeding pair showed that non-breeders had little effect on the time taken for a widowed breeder to recommence breeding. The results indicate that the presence of non-breeders neither enhances, nor reduces, the fitness of breeders in A. percula. I suggest that non-breeders might modulate their effect on the fitness of breeders, either by reducing the costs they inflict or by increasing the benefits they provide, such that it just pays breeders to tolerate, rather than to evict, them. This study illustrates that animal societies can be stable even when some individuals gain nothing from the association.
Production of animals for the aquarium hobbyist trade is a rapidly growing sector of the aquacultural industry, and it will continue to become more important as restrictions are placed on collecting animals for the wild. Currently, approximately 90% of freshwater fish traded in the hobbyist industry are captively cultured. However, for marine ornamentals, the reverse is true as only a handful of species is produced via aquaculture technology. Given the future importance of aquaculture production of ornamental species, it is important to elucidate the benefits and risks for this sector. Thus, here the production of ornamental species is compared to the production of food species. The most notable difference is that the marine coastal environment is not currently utilized in the production of ornamental species. Thus, public opposition will not be as great since there is no direct impact on the marine environment. In assessing the benefits and risks of ornamental aquaculture production, the cases where further development should and should not be pursued are developed. In general, aquaculture production of ornamental species should be pursued when species are difficult to obtain from the wild, breeding supports a conservation program, there is some environmental benefit or elimination of environmental damage via the breeding program, or to enhance the further production of domesticated species. Aquaculture production of ornamental species should be avoided when it would replace a harvest of wild animals that maintains habitat, a cultural benefit, or an economic benefit.
Coral reefs are the most diverse ecosystem in the sea. Throughout the world they are being over-
fished, polluted and destroyed, placing biodiversity at risk. To date, much of the concern over biodiversity
loss has centred on local losses and the possibility of global extinction has largely been
discounted. However, recent research has shown that 24% of reef fish species have restricted ranges
(< 800 000 km2), with 9% highly restricted (< 50 000 km2). Restricted-range species are thought to
face a greater risk of extinction than more widespread species since local impacts could cause global
loss. We searched for information on status in the wild and characteristics of 397 restricted-range reef
fish species. Fish body size, habitat requirements and usefulness to people were compared with those
of a taxonomically-matched sample of more widespread species. We found that on average species
with restricted ranges were significantly smaller (mean total length 19.1 cm versus 24.4 cm), tended
to have narrower habitat requirements and were less used by people. Greater habitat specificity will
tend to increase extinction risk while, if real, more limited usefulness (equivalent to exploitation) may
reduce risk. Fifty-eight percent of restricted-range species were considered common/abundant in the
wild and 42% uncommon/rare. Population status and threats to 319 species for which data were available
were assessed according to the categories and criteria of the IUCN red list of threatened animals.
A number of species were found to be rare, were exploited and had highly restricted ranges
overlapping areas where reef degradation is particularly severe, placing them at a high risk of extinction.
Five species were listed as Critically Endangered, two of them possibly already extinct in the
wild, one as Endangered and 172 as Vulnerable. A further 126 species fell into Lower Risk categories
and 11 were considered Data Deficient. Given the intensity of impacts to reefs, the broad geographical
areas affected and the large numbers of restricted-range species, global extinctions seem
likely. Urgent management action is now crucial for the survival of several species of reef fishes.
Research by Berkeley et al. and by Bobko and Berkeley has recently demonstrated that older individuals of some fish species produce larvae that have substantially better survival potential than do larvae from younger fishes. These new findings augment established knowledge that larger individuals usually have exponentially greater fecundity. This is important because commercial fisheries and especially recreational fishing often target the larger fish. The protection of larger or older individuals is necessary for the sustainability of species currently exploited by humans.
Many plant and animal aggregations have size hierarchies within which a variety of sizes of individuals, from large to small, can be found. Size hierarchies are thought to indicate the existence of competition amongst individuals within the aggregation, but determining their exact cause is difficult. The key to understanding size hierarchies lies in first quantifying the pattern of size and growth of individuals. We conducted a quantitative investigation of pattern in the size hierarchy of the clown anemonefish Amphiprion percula, in Madang Lagoon, Papua New Guinea. Here, groups of A. percula occupy sea anemones (Heteractis magnifica) that provide protection from predators. Within each anemone there is a single group composed of a breeding pair and zero to four non-breeders. Within each group there is a single size hierarchy; the female is largest (rank 1), the male is second largest (rank 2), and the non-breeders get progressively smaller (ranks 3-6). We demonstrate that individuals adjacent in rank are separated by body size ratios whose distribution is significantly different from the distribution expected under a null model-the growth of individuals is regulated such that each dominant ends up being about 1.26 times the size of its immediate subordinate. We show that it is decisions about growth at the individual level that generate the size hierarchy at the group level, and thereby determine maximum group size and population size. This study provides a new perspective on the pattern, causes and consequences of size hierarchies.
The scale of larval dispersal of marine organisms is important for the design of networks of marine protected areas. We examined
the fate of coral reef fish larvae produced at a small island reserve, using a mass-marking method based on maternal transmission
of stable isotopes to offspring. Approximately 60% of settled juveniles were spawned at the island, for species with both
short (<2 weeks) and long (>1 month) pelagic larval durations. If natal homing of larvae is a common life-history strategy,
the appropriate spatial scales for the management and conservation of coral reefs are likely to be much smaller than previously
assumed.
Located between the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and between the Asian and Australian continents, the seas of the Indonesian Archipelago have a significant role in global weather patterns and oceanic circulation. The dynamic interplay between geological, physical, chemical, and biological processes, past and present, has given rise to one of the most diverse marine regions on the planet. The exceptional marine and coastal ecosystem diversity of the Indonesian archipelago provides hundreds of habitats that support thousands of species. This treasure trove of marine biodiversity has sustained the people of the archipelago for thousands of years. Population growth and socio-economic development place many of these resources at increasing risk of overexploitation. Using maps and numerous illustrations, The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas describes the complex and ecologically vulnerable coastal and marine ecosystems of the region in rich detail. Discussion of development, resource use and ecologically sustainable management plans is also incorporated. The first step towards sustainable use of marine and coastal resources, this book will be a valuable tool for ecologists, marine biologists, resource managers, government planners, and all those with an interest in the ecology of the region. Bound in two parts, of which this is the first, this book is part of The Ecology of Indonesia series.
The theory underlying the design of marine reserves, whether the goal is to preserve biodiversity or to manage fisheries, is still in its infancy. For both of these goals, there is a need for general principles on which to base marine reserve design, and because of the paucity of empirical experience, these principles must be based on models. However, most of the theoretical studies to date have been specific to a single situation, with few attempts to deduce general principles. Here we attempt to distill existing results into general principles useful to designers of marine reserves. To answer the question of how fishery management using reserves compares to conventional management, we provide two principles: (1) the effect of reserves on yield per recruit is similar to increasing the age of first capture, and (2) the effect of reserves on yield is similar to reducing effort. Another two principles answer the question of how to design reserve configurations so that species with movement in various stages will be sustainable: (3) higher juvenile and adult movement lowers sustainability of reserves for biodiversity, but an intermediate level of adult movement is required for reserves for fishery management, and (4) longer larval dispersal distance requires larger reserves for sustainability. These principles provide general guidelines for design, and attention to them will allow more rapid progress in future modeling studies. Whether populations or communities will persist under any specific reserve design is uncertain, and we suggest ways of dealing with that uncertainty.
Coral reef management has focused traditionally on the biophysical aspects of coral reefs - the corals, other benthos, fishes and the physics and chemistry of surrounding waters. Today reefs are coming under increasing pressures from human activities ...
A method was developed to culture two species of damselfishes, Dascyllus albisella and D. aruanus. Larval feeding during the first 2 weeks post-hatch was accomplished by maintaining a continuous indoor culture of algae and rotifers in the larval tanks, supplemented by progressively larger wild Zooplankton beginning on day 5. After 2 weeks, the algae and rotifers were withdrawn and feeding of Artemia nauplii was begun. Survival rates ranged from 0.1% to 41.2%, with three of the four trials producing settled juveniles in encouraging numbers after 23–35 days. In the best of the four trials, 103 D. albisella reached a marketable size at approximately 10 weeks of age (41.2% survival). Results suggest the co-culture of algae, rotifers, and plankton offers a satisfactory method to produce damselfish and possibly other ornamental reef fishes.
The theory underlying the design of marine reserves, whether the goal is to preserve biodiversity or to manage fisheries, is still in its infancy. For both of these goals, there is a need for general principles on which to base marine reserve design, and because of the paucity of empirical experience, these principles must be based on models. However, most of the theoretical studies to date have been specific to a single situation, with few attempts to deduce general principles. Here we attempt to distill existing results into general principles useful to designers of marine reserves. To answer the question of how fishery management using reserves compares to conventional management, we provide two prin- ciples: (1) the effect of reserves on yield per recruit is similar to increasing the age of first capture, and (2) the effect of reserves on yield is similar to reducing effort. Another two principles answer the question of how to design reserve configurations so that species with movement in various stages will be sustainable: (3) higher juvenile and adult movement lowers sustainability of reserves for biodiversity, but an intermediate level of adult move- ment is required for reserves for fishery management, and (4) longer larval dispersal distance requires larger reserves for sustainability. These principles provide general guidelines for design, and attention to them will allow more rapid progress in future modeling studies. Whether populations or communities will persist under any specific reserve design is un- certain, and we suggest ways of dealing with that uncertainty.
Social groups of false clown anemonefish have been described as queues because, following settlement, fish acquire social rank passively by outliving more dominant groupmates. Within each queue, reproduction is restricted to the dominant pair. Therefore, individuals should adopt tactics that maximize their likelihood of attaining social dominance. Field observations indicated that, independent of an anemone's size, postlarval false clowns are more likely to settle to an anemone if the resident group is smaller, suggesting that settlers prefer shorter queues. Some individuals (switchers) moved postsettlement. There was no indication that false clowns use switching as a tactic to enhance rank: characteristics of switching and nonswitching false clowns did not differ, and switching rarely resulted in improved social rank within the new group. Some high-ranked switchers acquired larger partners. Thus, while settlement preferences increased the likelihood of acquiring social dominance, switching may function, in part, to increase the benefit associated with social dominance once it has been acquired.
Understanding the population dynamics of host sea anemones and their symbiotic anemonefish is important given that pressures such as aquarium collecting and bleaching events are adversely impacting their abundance in some Indo–Pacific locations. We examined long-term trends in anemone and anemonefish abundance at four sites within a ‘no-take’ zone at North Solitary Island, Australia, by comparing data from 2008 to surveys done in 1994 and 1995. Species richness was stable, comprising two anemones,Entacmaea quadricolor and Heteractis crispa, and three anemonefishes, Amphiprion akindynos, A. latezonatus, and A. melanopus. In 2008, densities of the most abundant species, E. quadricolor and A. akindynos, were substantially higher than previously recorded, with increases of up to 532% and 133%, respectively. There was a strong relationship between A. akindynos densities and anemone cover, whereasA. latezonatus had higher densities in deeper waters. Densities of this species remained similar over time, although there was a decline at one site. Heteractis crispa and A. melanopus were found in comparatively low numbers. Potential reasons for the overall increase in abundance include: protection from severe swell events, the lack of major bleaching events, the ability of E. quadricolor to reproduce rapidly by asexual reproduction, and the increasing duration of marine park protection.
This paper examines the complex relationship that exists between poverty and natural resource degradation in developing countries. The rural poor are often concentrated in fragile, or less favorable, environmental areas. Consequently, their livelihoods can be intimately dependent on natural resource use and ecosystem services. The relationship between poverty and natural resource degradation may depend on a complex range of choices and tradeoffs available to the poor, which in the absence of capital, labor, and land markets, is affected by their access to outside employment and any natural resource endowments. The paper develops a poverty–environment model to characterize some of these linkages, and concludes by discussing policy implications and avenues for further research.
The region of Madang, Papua New Guinea, has the highest reported species diversity of both anemonefishes (nine species) and
their host anemones (ten species). To determine which factors may allow so many anemonefish species to coexist at this location,
we studied their patterns of distribution, abundance, and recruitment. Population surveys at three replicate reef sites within
four zones situated at varying distances from the mainland (nearshore, mid-lagoon, outer barrier, and offshore) indicated
that each species of host anemone and anemonefish lived within a particular range of zones. Each species of anemonefish lived
primarily with one species of host. Anemonefish species that lived with the same host species usually had different distribution
patterns among zones (e.g., Amphiprion percula occupied Heteractis magnifica in nearshore zones, while A. perideraion occupied H. magnifica in offshore zones). Monitoring of natural populations showed that there were few changes (losses or recruitment) in the number
or species of fishes associated with each individual anemone over periods ranging from 3 to 9 months. Recruitment was monitored
on anemones with and without residents (resident fishes were removed) within each of three zones (nearshore, mid-lagoon, outer
barrier). Significantly more anemonefishes recruited to anemones without resident fishes than to anemones with resident fishes.
Each anemonefish species recruited to particular host species and zones. The distribution and abundance of the recruits of
each fish species among zones were positively correlated with the distribution and abundance of resident fishes in the benthic
habitat. This suggests that the spatial patterns of recruitment among zones strongly determined the distribution and abundance
patterns of the benthic populations, and they were not the result of post-recruitment mortality or movement. Coexistence of
the nine anemonefish species on the limited anemone resource was considered possible because of niche differentiation (i.e.,
differences in host and habitat utilization among zones), and the ability of two small species (i.e., Amphiprion sandaracinos and A. leucokranos) to cohabit individual anemones with other anemonefish species.
The ecological performance of the sea anemone Heteractis magnifica was examined during a 36-month experiment with respect to season and the presence and numbers of a mutualist (orange-fin anemonefish Amphiprion chrysopterus). Anemones primarily grew during the autumn, with most asexual reproduction occurring in winter; mortality was not strongly seasonal. Individual growth rates did not differ between anemones harboring one or two anemonefish, but these rates were three times faster than for anemones lacking Amphiprion. Anemones with two anemonefish had the highest fission rate, whereas those without anemonefish had the lowest. By contrast, anemones that were not defended by anemonefish suffered higher-than-expected mortality. As a consequence, anemones with two Amphiprion had the greatest net increase in surface area, and those lacking anemonefish had a negligible gain that was statistically indistinguishable from zero after threeyears. Anemonefish not only enhanced anemone survivorship as previously believed, they also fostered faster growth and more frequent asexual reproduction.
Species-area curves calculated from line-intercept transect surveys on 15 reefs in three regions of Indonesia allow estimation of the relative decrease in within-habitat coral species diversity associated with different types of reef degradation. Reefs subject to land-based pollution (sewage, sedimentation, and/or industrial pollution) show 30–50% reduced diversity at 3 m, and 40–60% reduced diversity at 10 m depth relative to unpolluted comparison reefs in each region. Bombed or anchor damaged reefs are ca 50% less diverse in shallow water (3 m depth) than are undamaged reefs in the same region, but at 10 m depth the relative decrease is only 10%. Comparison reefs in the Java Sea are ca 20% less diverse than their counterparts in Ambon, Maluku. The results, compared with a previous survey in the Spermonde Archipelago found a 25% decrease in generic diversity of corals on two reefs resampled after 15 years. The decreased diversity on reefs subject to land-based pollution implies a dramatic, rapid decrease in Indonesian reef-based fisheries resources.