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Gift giving and social emotions: Experience as content
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to employ an extended notion of gift giving by showing that much of the gifts exchanged in social media are driven by social emotions. We argue that consumers have migrated from the production of services to the production of experiences and that, in social media, the primary experience of value is emotion. Web 2.0 is markedly different compared with its predecessor Web 1.0, in that it empowered social media, the fastest growing phenomenon on the Internet to occur; yet people are struggling to make money from it. Much value is created and exchanged, but most of it escapes monetization. Whereas, consumption on Web 1.0 was mostly goal-oriented, rational, and functional, consumption on Web 2.0 is exploratory, idiosyncratic, and social. Traditional economic paradigms of market exchange have struggled to explain consumer behavior in this new dispensation: most exchange is ‘free’. So the question is, what is the currency and motivation driving social relations in Web 2.0? We argue that it is gifts and social emotions. We develop a circumplex of social emotions and show how different organizations utilize these emotions to archive their objectives. Implications for managers and researchers are discussed. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
... Online gifting studies have typically used broad definitions of gifts and have primarily been qualitative or conceptual (Kim et al., 2018). Researchers have called for more empirical studies to be conducted in the online gifting context (Chakrabarti & Berthon, 2012;Kim et al., 2018;Skågeby, 2010). Also, due to the differences in online gaming gifting from gifting in online games, studies are needed to understand gamers' behaviour. ...
... Studies on online gifting have been focused on the emotions (Chakrabarti & Berthon, 2012;De Hooge, 2014), value (Corciolani & Dalli, 2014;Romele & Severo, 2016), and online gift-giving adoption (Mamonov & Benbunan-Fich, 2017). Trenz, Frey, and Veit (2018) indicated that gift-giving does not involve monetary compensation and is an act of sharing. ...
... Prior studies on online gifting behaviour remain scarce and fragmented (Kim et al., 2018). This study answers the calls of future studies by providing empirical evidence of factors influencing gamers' gifting behaviour (Chakrabarti & Berthon, 2012;Kim et al., 2018;Skågeby, 2010). ...
Social interactions in online games have led gamers to form lasting social relationships. This has caused a tremendous increase in gift-giving on online gaming platforms. This study aims to identify factors that impact gamers' gifting behaviour in online games. A conceptual framework is developed by incorporating the Social Identity Theory, Social Exchange Theory, and Theory of Planned Behaviour. This study adopts a quantitative research methodology that collects data from 404 Clash of Clans gamers. The findings show that gaming team identification and compliance with gaming team norms are positively associated with gaming team commitment. Gifting reciprocity, pleasure, relationship support, and convenience were positively associated with the perceived worth of gift-giving while perceived cost was negatively associated. Gaming team commitment, attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control, and perceived worth were positively associated with online game gifting intention. It was also found that gifting behaviour is an immediate consequence of gifting intention in online games. This paper contributes to the under-researched literature on gifting behaviour in online games. It provides novel insights into gamers' gifting behaviour that can allow game developers to enhance revenue by increasing the sale of virtual in-game items.
... Referring to gift concept, Chakrabarti and Berthon (2012) also argued that "in order to understand the total gift-giving experience, researchers should emphasize more on the intangible thoughts and emotions over the tangible object of the gifts per se", p.155, referring to the positive anticipated emotions of our levels of value of online collective action (see Figure 1) . ...
... In media and communication literature, gift-giving will benefit to social relationship and bonds, as the foundation of social exchange that will foster community-building processes (Skageby 2010). Indeed, some studies emphasize the human relationships and emotions within the gift-giving experiences (Chakrabarti and Berthon 2012), highlighting "the connection between giver and receiver is the inescapable backdrop within which a gift-giving experience must be examined'' (Larsen and Watson 2001, p. 894). They are closely related to the strength of ties (Granovetter 1983). ...
... This dimension disputes the concept of pure gifts, where seen as "the logical opposite of commodity exchange and necessarily personal, reciprocal, and socially binding" (Laidlaw 2000, p.618). This dimension may also conflict with the emotionally-loaded intangible aspect, conveyed by the meaning the gift discloses over the tangible object per se (Chakrabarti and Berthon 2012). ...
Over the last few years, virtual patients’communities have been developing tremendously over the Internet. These Web 2.0 communities allow frequent interactions among patients, who can share health-related information within an interactive environment. While many agree on the opportunity represented by those communities for its users, we know very little about what determines patients’ online collective action, specifically on virtual communities as well as the fundamentals of online collective action in these virtual spaces. Accordingly, this doctoral work examines why patients interact with others and how they interact on topics related to their disease through these virtual communities. Drawing on the goal-directed behavior (MGB), the expectancy-value (EVT) theories, the field force theory, gift concepts and field interviews, we have developed a model for examining patients’ online interactions and identified gift-giving behaviors in the context of online collective action. A multi-method, qualitative and quantitative approaches, enables us to explore patients’ interactions and measures the determinants of online collective action on these virtual spaces. The qualitative analysis of 54 interviews conducted with patients, patient’s relatives, Health 2.0 professionals, doctors and caregivers allows refining the research model, which has then been tested through a survey handled with 269 patients, members of patient’s communities. This research contributes to IS research by increasing our knowledge regarding the individual dynamics and interactions that surround online patients’ communities.
... The sharing of emotions between people Parkinson (1996) stated that emotions are not necessarily just individual reactions but are social phenomena. Subsequent to this, other authors have also suggested that emotions are social (Tahtinen and Blois, 2011;Chakrabarti and Berthon, 2012), that emotions should be studied at the social level (Butler and Gross, 2009), and that peoples' emotions affect the emotions of those around them (Pugh, 2001;Barsade, 2002;Gountas and Ewing, 2003;Gountas et al., 2007;Johnson, 2008). ...
... Where basic emotions can arise in social settings, one can experience any range of basic emotions at any time including enthusiastic, excited, sad, and sorry. Social emotions, on the other hand, are an appraisal of other people's thoughts, feelings, and actions and include regret, guilt, contempt, jealousy, shame, embarrassment, deference, shyness, pride, self-esteem, admiration, gratitude, compassion, empathy, sociability, and confidence (Chakrabarti and Berthon, 2012). Dobele et al. (2007) asked why people pass on viral messages, and the answer was 'because they connected emotionally'. ...
... By looking at positive affect only, our findings cannot be extended to the full emotional spectrum, or the two-factor structure of affect referred to by Watson and Tellegen (1985). We also do not look at the possible role that social emotions might play in why videos go viral (Chakrabarti and Berthon, 2012). However, because so little is known about the effect that emotions have on why videos go viral, the objective of the article was first to obtain an in-depth understanding of how this complex construct might impact viral media. ...
One of the most recent influential trends in the global environment has been the rise of social media. Stakeholders have found a strong voice in social media, and messages are spread among social media users at an astounding speed across a global landscape. As a result of this phenomenon and in an effort to use this viral spread of messages across social media, companies are increasingly making use of viral marketing. Viral messages are playing an increasingly important role in influencing and shifting public opinion on corporate reputations, brands, and products as well as political parties and public personalities to name but a few.
Very little is known about the motivations, attitudes, and behavior of the people who forward viral messages to their online networks. Through in-depth interviews with college-going Generation Y consumers, we explore this relationship between viral media and emotions. We look at two very specific components of online videos that have gone viral: first, the relevance of the video's content and, second, participants' emotional reaction to these videos to try and better explain the viral spread of online video messages. The paper concludes by proposing a decision tree that interusers might subconsciously experience when deciding whether to share a video with their friends or not. The article concludes with a discussion about future research avenues in the area of emotions and viral marketing. Copyright
... Traditional marketing models are swiftly being upended by the advent of online social networks [Chakrabarti and Berthon (2012); Khammash and Gri±ths (2011);Longart (2010)]. Millions of consumers continuously partake in highly°uid conversations in virtual communities on social media platforms like Twitter [Dodds et al. (2011)] in which the success or failure of a product or services may be decided [Chakrabarti and Berthon (2012)] by a few key \in°uencers" that determine the behavior of other actors in the community [Cartwright (1965); March (1955)]. ...
... Traditional marketing models are swiftly being upended by the advent of online social networks [Chakrabarti and Berthon (2012); Khammash and Gri±ths (2011);Longart (2010)]. Millions of consumers continuously partake in highly°uid conversations in virtual communities on social media platforms like Twitter [Dodds et al. (2011)] in which the success or failure of a product or services may be decided [Chakrabarti and Berthon (2012)] by a few key \in°uencers" that determine the behavior of other actors in the community [Cartwright (1965); March (1955)]. Understanding the structure and behavior of online social networks, as well as identifying the key in°uencers, may consequently constitute a crucial source of competitive advantage for¯rms that engage in new product development. ...
Aristotle’s dictum scio nescio (I know that I don’t know) may serve as a source of enhanced performance for organizations. Awareness of nescience sets the direction for further inquiry, as managers tend to move in the direction that they believe will reduce nescience most. However, nescience is difficult to quantify, so, to date, managers have primarily relied on intuition. This paper introduces a theoretical framework for managing nescience that is based on information theory. This framework is tested in three exploratory empirical studies that take place in highly contrasting settings: semiconductor manufacturing, medical diagnostics and social media analytics. All three studies demonstrate that metrics related to information entropy can be used to quantify nescience. However, practitioners value the framework and its metrics more highly in the settings where the quality of or access to information drives successful product development. The problems encountered in these settings tended to be well-structured, or they were converted from being ill-structured to being well-structured. Further study of more highly contrasting practical settings will be required to determine whether frameworks based on information theory can serve as foundations for a broadly based, pragmatic theory for managing nescience.
... This dimension disputes the concept of pure gifts, where seen as "the logical opposite of commodity exchange and necessarily personal, reciprocal, and socially binding" (Laidlaw 2000, p.618). This dimension may also conflict with the emotionally-loaded intangible aspect, conveyed by the meaning the gift discloses over the tangible object per se (Chakrabarti and Berthon 2012). Secondly, the gift-giving experience involves a functional value (Sheth et al. 1991), where gifts' utilitarian performance remains the driver of the individuals' perception of the value of gifts. ...
... Referring to gift concept, Chakrabarti and Berthon (2012) also argued that "in order to understand the total gift-giving experience, researchers should emphasize more on the intangible thoughts and emotions over the tangible object of the gifts per se", p.155, referring to the hedonic value of our levels of value of online collective action (see Figure 1) . ...
Virtual spaces are blossoming on the Internet. More and more, those spaces deal specifically with health-related issues featuring a dynamic online activity, with community sites having 24 times more social media activity on average than any of the health industry companies (PwC 2012). However, research still lacks knowledge about patients’ motives for joining virtual patients’ communities. In order to respond to the
research gap, this study addresses the following questions: i) What are the characteristics of online collective action among patients in dedicated virtual communities? ii) What are the determinants of patients’ online collective action?
Some researchers have already explored related issues. For example, following Perugini and Bagozzi’s model of purposive behavior (2001), Dholakia et al. (2004), explored the determinants of virtual community participation. Adopting a different approach, Grabner-Kräuter (2010) has shown the relevance of the role of trust in the understanding of online social networks. Those contributions notwithstanding, we still have very little knowledge about individual and social determinants of patients’ adoption of virtual communities. In fact, while a growing number of people gather online through Web 2.0 technologies, information systems research (IS) has hardly conceptualized and examined online collective action. Drawing on the characteristics of collective action, the Lewin (1947) Field Theory, the Expectancy-Value Theory (EVT) (Eccles et al. 1983),
gift concepts and positive emotions in behavioral action, this research further explores online action dynamics among patients, actors in health-related online communities.
A qualitative approach was adopted. Semi-structured interviews have been conducted with 25 doctors, caregivers, Health 2.0 professionals and Web 2.0 experts. Following this, 29 patients and patients’ relatives have been interviewed. The interviews have been retranscribed and analyzed. The results of this study emphasize the patients’ standpoints about their online collective action, together with their fears or appeals for engagement. Hereby follows the discussion and contributions of the research, and its implications for
future work in the Web 2.0 domain.
Keywords: Patients 2.0, Health 2.0, Virtual Communities, Online Collective Action, Gift Concepts, Field Theory, Expectancy Value Theory, Model of Goal-Directed Behavior, Emotion, Trust
... In reciprocity, while striving towards promoting and being promoted, the aim is a balance, that is, the more one promotes the more he/she expects to receive in return, and vice versa, the more one has to receive, the more he/she can give to the other party (Antonucci and Jackson 1990;Leppiman 2010). A different point of view is expressed by Chakrabarti and Berthon (2012) who call the wish to help a brand with positive online WOM 'gift giving behavior' that they treat like a social emotion. According to them, the triad of social emotions, social media and gift giving are key driving forces of Web 2.0. ...
... (Brakus et al. 2009). Chakrabarti and Berthon (2012) argue that the key to the experience economy is that the experience is something the companies produce for the consumer. With the rise of Web 2.0 and social media, just as consumers are becoming producers of products and services, they are also becoming producers of experiences both for each other and for companies. ...
The online word-of-mouth is a powerful marketing force and social media present marketers both challenges and opportunities. Why online word-of-mouth takes place and how it is generated and shared is not fully known. This empirical article investigates the factors affecting Estonian consumers' willingness to pass on commercial messages and to share online word-of-mouth information in a consumption context. First, an exploratory qualitative study was designed to determine consumer behavior in social media channels. As the next step, statistic evidence was collected for the online consumer behavior. The data were analyzed using the explorative factor analysis. The representative online survey sample consisted of the responses of 418 respondents. Based on the results of both studies, a consumer decision-making model was developed regarding to forwarding online word-of-mouth.
... Consumers vary with their channel choice behaviors, thus they can be easily categorized by their media habits (Kushwaha and Shankar, 2013). Social media enables consumers to share their purchase involvements with others (Chakrabarti and Berthon, 2012) and thus enable marketers to learn more about consumer habits and preferences (Peters, Pressey and Greenberg, 2010). This information is used in social media marketing programs to segment the market especially by promotional activities (Nakano and Kondo, 2018). ...
Food and beverage industry in Malaysia provides a significant GDP contribution. However, majority of firms are SMEs that face financial access as their main problem. Social media marketing is a novel trend in business nowadays due to technology intensification. This article investigates the link between social media marketing and brand equity whereby segmentation is the mediator variable in the SME food and beverage industry. By using questionnaires distributed systematically to consumers at shopping malls, about 329 usable responses were obtained. The results indicated no direct relationship between social media marketing and brand equity. A positive and significant relationship exists, however, between social media marketing and segmentation, segmentation and brand equity which indicates that segmentation is a partial mediator. The findings imply that SMEs especially in the food and beverage industry should carefully segment their market and at the same time, increase social media usage in marketing their products. This study is the first attempt to examine segmentation as mediating variable in the food and beverage industry.
... Emotions, particularly social emotions, are crucial to the varied exchanges on social media, claimed Chakrabarti and Berthon (2012). A valuable online experience is therefore more likely to draw customers as many consumers now view the provision of services as the production of experiences. ...
Online video advertising (OVA) has become an increasingly popular medium for marketers looking to reach out and engage with their target audiences. This form of advertising allows companies to deliver highly targeted and personalised messages to consumers, while providing opportunities for user engagement and social sharing as well. The current study is exploring on the types of OVA that can influence the Millennials to share. The study involved 208 Millennials around Selangor, Malaysia and the research has shown that emotional content video is effective in generating Millennials' engagement and sharing behaviour. This finding provided the information to marketers as they can use emotional video advertising in order to build more engagement from the audience. However, there is still much to be learnt about the targeting strategies for OVA. Future research in this area has the potential to shed more light on how different generation cohort and culture react on the types of video advertising.
... When the gift is incongruent with the recipient's identity, anxiety and bewilderment can escalate [91]. Young people are typically driven more by social emotions [92] than by utilitarianism when they give gifts to their seniors [93]. As a result, the meaning of the gift must not be misconstrued or ambiguous, as this will impede the giver's expression of social identity [94]. ...
Digital endorsers are already utilized extensively in various businesses. The major objective of the current study was to find out the impact of image realism of digital endorsers on the purchase intention of gift products for the elderly. We investigated this issue through three online experiments. Study 1 (n = 205) found that cartoon digital endorsers (vs. realistic digital endorsers) generate higher purchase intention for the product. Study 2 (n = 175) showed that perceived social value plays a mediating role in the relationship between the image realism of digital endorsers and purchase intention. Study 3 (n = 127) demonstrated the moderating role of information framing in the relationship between the image realism of digital endorsers and purchase intention. In all, our research extends the previous literature on digital human endorsements and advertising of elderly products and provides several managerial implications for consumers and marketers.
... This study uncovered, for example, positive social feedback obtained from friends and family and a sense of pride in increasing sustainability and impact. This yields evidence of social emotions [56]. Furthermore, buying circulated products is a means and object which communicate personal values to others [43], and customers manifest their loyalty for sustainable, ethical brands [42]. ...
The textile and clothing industry is undergoing a sustainability transition, pushing related businesses to adapt to circular economy (CE) models, such as recycling and reuse. This shift has been extensively studied from industry and business model perspectives, but we lack an understanding of the customer perspective, i.e., how circulated products, such as reused and recycled clothes are experienced among consumers. This understanding is crucial, as customer experience plays a significant role in the adoption of CE products. Therefore, we conducted a qualitative interview study to explore how consumer-customers experience recycled textiles and reused clothes. We used an established experience dimension model and mapped how the five dimensions of customer experience—sensory, affective, behavioral, cognitive, and social—present themselves in the sustainable clothing industry. The data comprised 16 qualitative semi-structured interviews analyzed with a coding framework built on the basis of customer experiences, customer values, and the CE business model literature. The results revealed that diverse sensory (e.g., scent), affective (e.g., pride and shame), behavioral (e.g., developing new decision-making rules), cognitive (e.g., learning and unlearning), and social (e.g., getting feedback from others and manifesting own values) aspects shape how consumers experience reused and recycled clothes. We also compared and analyzed the results of the reuse and redistribute model and the recycle model. Our study contributes to the literature of CE business models and customer experience by providing a structured map of diverse experiential triggers and outcomes from the five experiential dimensions, which together reveal how consumers experience circulated products of the clothing industry. These findings enhance our understanding of customers’ motivation to use recycled and reused products and adoption of CE products.
... Consumer scholars have posited the importance of emotions in giftexchange, but have not explicitly examined nostalgia (Chakrabarti & Berthon, 2012;Ruth et al., 2004;Taute & Sierra, 2015). This is an interesting omission given the important role of recalled consumption (Ryynanen & Heinonen, 2018) and the positive motivational consequences of nostalgia . ...
We tested the influence of experiential versus material gifts on nostalgia through their influence on perceptions of meaningful moments and memories and examined one consequence of nostalgia: relive intentions. Participants from Study 1 were randomly assigned to recall and write about an experiential or a material gift they received and completed a measure of nostalgia, perceptions of meaningful moments, and relive intentions. Results showed that meaningful moments mediated the relationship between experiential gifts and nostalgia. Nostalgia was positively related to reliving intentions. Study 2 was an identical replication. Results showed a significant mediation of meaningful moments on the relationship between experiential gifts and nostalgia. Nostalgia was positively related to reliving intentions. We conducted an additional replication with older participants in Study 3. Results showed the same mediation of meaningful moments on the relationship between experiential gifts and nostalgia. In Study 4, participants were randomly assigned to recall and write about a gift that represented a meaningful or an ordinary moment and completed the same measures as Study 2. Results showed a positive influence of recalling a gift that represented a meaningful moment on nostalgia. To our knowledge, this is one of the first studies to examine nostalgia in the gift exchange.
... These social functions are likely to be even more pronounced in virtual gifts, as the invitation to give may trigger long-standing associations with the deep emotions, rituals, and traditions surrounding offline gift-giving (e.g., Sherry, 1983). Indeed, some researchers posit that virtual gifts are primarily symbolic, and have less to do with the gifts' economic-instrumental aspects than with their ability to foster experiences and emotions and symbolize the giver's identity in the context of a social network (Chakrabarti and Berthon, 2012;Lampel and Bhalla, 2007). The primary purpose of virtual gifts is to act as social lubricants. ...
Purpose
Virtual gifts have emerged as a common feature of online communities, social gaming and social networks. This paper aims to examine how network-related variables and gift-seeding impact virtual gift sales. The network variables include gift-giver centrality and gift-giving dispersion, capturing, respectively, the relative importance of gift-givers in a network and their tendency to give gifts to a greater or lesser number of network peers. Gift-seeding tactics capture social network firms’ attempts to stimulate virtual gift purchases by awarding virtual gifts to network members.
Design/methodology/approach
This study develops and estimates a fixed-effects panel data regression model to analyze virtual gift purchase data for a large social network service.
Findings
Gift-giver centrality, gift-giving dispersion and gift-seeding increase virtual gift purchases. Increases in consumers’ receipt of seed gifts from social network firms (“direct seeding”) and from other consumers (“indirect seeding”) increases virtual gift purchases. However, the extent to which consumers give seed gifts to their friends in the social network (“seed mediation”) does not affect sales. Greater gift-giver centrality amplifies (attenuates) the positive effects of direct (indirect) seeding. At greater levels of gift-giving dispersion, the effects of indirect seeding and seed mediation become negative. Furthermore, gift-seeding has spillover effects on virtual good (non-gift) purchases.
Research limitations/implications
This study’s data, drawn from a South Korean social network service, offer unique and valuable social network information on actual virtual gift purchases and their seeding. Future research should replicate the results of the study outside the South Korean context.
Practical implications
Given the effects reported in this study, social network firms can facilitate the purchases of virtual gifts by improving the targeting of consumers in social networks and gift-seeding tactics.
Originality/value
This study uniquely examines the individual and interactive effects of network-related variables and gift-seeding on virtual gift sales. The study is seminal in its examination of how gift-seeding can be used as a marketing tactic to increase virtual gift purchases.
... A gift is a voluntary exchange of goods and services between those involved in a social relationship (Belk, 1976). Gift giving is also a complex consumer decision that is oftentimes different from other consumption decisions because of the symbolism gifts represent (Belk, 1996;Chakrabarti & Berthon, 2012;Komter, 2007;Parsons, 2002). Research indicates that it is also an emotionally loaded process by which a consumer has the opportunity to understand how and to what extent his or her acts of giving influence receivers (Gino & Flynn, 2011). ...
Gift giving is a complex emotional process that is important in maintaining relationships. However, little is understood about the effects of individual differences in consumers' ability to understand the emotions of the receiver and even themselves in the gift-giving process. A series of three studies reveal that emotional understanding (EU) influences how much money consumers spend on gifts. Study 1 shows that consumers with higher EU are likely to spend more money on buying gifts for others. Study 2 indicates that relationship closeness moderates the effect of EU on gift spending. Finally, Study 3 demonstrates that consumers with higher EU not only spend more money on gifts but also experience greater happiness. These results highlight the important role of EU on gift-giving behaviors and on the subsequent well-being of the giver.
... Among these works, it was clearly articulated that despite the apparent commercialization of the Internet, manifestations of the online gift exchange offered a substantial challenge to and a potential means of moving beyond the capitalist relations of production, culture, and mentality. This idea has gained further popularity since the 2008 global financial crisis, which has given rise to "a reconsideration of the inevitability of unfettered capitalism as a fact of life" (Castells, 2017, p. 1; see also Belk, 2014;Chakrabarty & Berthon, 2012). ...
This paper presents an exploratory case study on the nascent “virtual gifting” feature of China’s live streaming platforms. At the nexus of technological infrastructure, social organization, and interpersonal relations, the authors aim to explicate the complex dynamics between the gift economy and the commodity economy in the context of the increasingly platformized Chinese society. This paper will first discuss how the platform infrastructure is geared toward maximizing content monetization through virtual gifting. The paper then examines how corporatized streamer guilds foreground the moneymaking capacity of virtual gifting at the expense of its potential for building communitarian and reciprocal relationships. Based on these structural dynamics, the commodification of virtual relations is further analyzed to demonstrate how the hegemonic construct of virtual gifting is perceived and reproduced at the individual level. The paper concludes by offering a reconsideration of the role of critical communication studies in turning the tide of China’s live streaming industry.
... Another point is the intensity of positive and negative emotions and if consumers would rather display strong and explicit emotions or rather weaken the intensity of their emotional content in the online environment. This is in line with Chakrabarti and Berthon [7], asking for how emotions are being spread in social media, as the role of emotions in social media has not been fully explored yet. Overall, more research is needed to examine how consumers compensate the absence of non-verbal cues in the online environment (by displaying intense emotions as suggested by Reilly and Seibert [26]), how communication patterns differ compared to the offline setting and generally, how anonymity in the online environment impacts communication styles. ...
... In sum, we find a lack of theoretically grounded and empirically validated explanations of gifting through SNS. This gap that we identified resonates with calls for research on online gifting in the social networking context (Skageby 2010, Chakrabarti andBerthon 2012). ...
The increasing popularity of social network services (SNS) presents an opportunity to offer gifting services through SNS. For givers, gifting can be an important means to enhance social relationships. On the other hand, for SNS providers, members’ gifting can serve as a major source of revenue. As SNS providers continue to face challenges in generating revenues, understanding how to stimulate gifting through SNS can allow them to profit from members’ relationships. However, there is little understanding of what drives members’ gifting through SNS, with limited prior research on online gifting. Thus motivated, we develop a research model of the antecedents of SNS gifting that builds on social exchange theory and prior gifting literature, and incorporates the unique aspects of such gifting (that we refer to as microgifting, with low-price digital voucher gifts). The theoretical model was validated through a field study, in which both subjective and objective data were collected from an SNS that has been successful in offering such gifting services. Our findings highlight the effects of perceived worth, SNS gifting experience, and the number of SNS friends on the frequency of SNS gifting. The results also show that expected benefits (i.e., reciprocity, pleasure, relationship support, convenience, and immediacy of gift sending) and costs (i.e., impersonality) indirectly impact SNS gifting frequency through the assessment of perceived worth. The study contributes to research by adding to our understanding of this new approach of gifting through SNS, i.e., microgifting. It also lends insights on how SNS providers can offer such services to tap this source of revenue.
... Research shows that members of a community can increase giving by publicizing their own giving and by expressing sympathy with their cause through "likes" and other attestations of support (Moisseyev, 2013;Saxton & Wang, 2014). By circulating relevant news stories and personal stories and by the judicious use of videos, social media posts can trigger empathy and moral outrage that result in gift giving (Chakrabarti & Berthon, 2012;Skågeby, 2010). The previously mentioned campaign to stop Ugandan war lord Joseph Kony is a prime example of how social media can be brought to bear on the task of raising funds. ...
This paper revisits an article published in Foreign Affairs magazine titled “The Political Power of Social Media” (Shirky, 2011) in light of the explosion in the use of social media for political purposes subsequent to its publication. It examines how social media have exerted and will continue to exert power to effect political and social change, focusing on five specific functions – raising community awareness, framing issues, engaging with mass media, stimulating and organizing protest, and obtaining resources.
... Gifting is a conceptual social practice that integrates four functions, i.e. communication, social exchange, economic exchange and socialization [30]. Gifting can affect interpersonal relationship by reshaping social behaviors [29,31] and evoking social emotions [28,32]. Giving such benefits, gifting practice have been adopted in online communities to establish and sustain social connections [33]. ...
Gifting is a primal practice to establish and maintain relationships within social communities. The integration of online transaction services into social networking platforms makes it possible to exercise (monetary) gifting in the digital world. Using WeChat Red Packet as an example, this paper provides a novel perspective of how digital social currency is shaping social experience and group dynamic in online communities. We gain an in-depth understanding of Chinese users' perceptions and behaviors via an archival analysis of Red Packet activities in 16 WeChat groups, a survey with 300 WeChat users, and an interviews with 20 participants.
... In the last years, the literature on the digital gift has flourished immensely (Belk, 2007(Belk, , 2014Ska˚geby, 2007;Currah, 2007;Fuchs, 2009;Godbout, 2010;Baym, 2011;Chakrabarty and Berthon, 2012;Guillard and Del Bucchia, 2012). Yet some important revisions have been made. ...
This article discusses the value of gift exchange in online social media. In the first part, the authors show how most of the commentators have considered online gifting as an alternative to the classical market economy. Yet the recent (re)territorialization of the web challenges this perspective. As a consequence, the internet can no longer be considered a reply to capitalism. In the second part, the authors argue that in anthropology and social philosophy the term ‘gift’ has often been used improperly, and that gift exchange has nothing to do with goods exchange, but with mutual recognition. In the third part, they use this definition to stress the importance of
gift circulation through Facebook’s ‘Like’ button and the Twitter feature called ‘Mention’. In conclusion, the authors deal with the ‘Like economy’, i.e. the interference between gift exchange and market economy which is daily at work online.
... Diversos são momentos e os motivos que levam as pessoas a presentearem. Segundo Chakrabarti e Berthon (2012) tanto os momentos quanto os motivos para se presentear são influenciados pelas relações e pelas emoções sociais que podem ser tanto positivas (como por exemplo admiração, gratidão, empatia ou compaixão ), quanto negativas (como por exemplo ciúmes, embaraço, vergonha, arrependimento ou culpa). Independente do motivo, sempre há uma emoção vinculada nesse processo. ...
Presentear é um costume muito forte no cotidiano das pessoas, mas apesar de comum, a prática é bastante complexa, pois envolve uma série de escolhas que podem ou não levar ao ato de presentear bem sucedido. O sucesso nesta prática costuma residir no agradar o presenteado. Embora o ato de presentear seja um tema já explorado em algumas pesquisas dentre elas (BELK, 1979; DALAKAS; SHOHAM, 2010; PÉPECE, 2000; SHERRY, 1993) estudos que tratem dos desagrados ligados ao ato de presentear ainda não foram muito explorados. Neste intuito, o presente estudo teve como objetivo principal entender as situações nas quais um presente não é bem recebido pelo público jovem masculino. Para tanto, foram investigados os tipos de presentes que desagradam este público; se existe diferença na percepção de uma mesma categoria de presente quando ofertada por um presenteador de grau de relacionamento diferente e; quais as emoções emanadas dos presentes que desagradam. A coleta de dados ocorreu via formulário respondido on-line. Foi inicialmente identificado que 84% do público investigado não gosta de receber itens de decoração, porém esse desagrado pode sofrer interpretações diferentes conforme o presenteador que oferta o presente. Itens de decoração: quando dado pelos pais, provocam o embaraço no jovem, ao passo que receber o mesmo presente da(o) companheira(o), o faz se sentir desprezado. As informações aqui levantadas podem auxiliar o varejo a orientar adequadamente suas ofertas de produtos a serem comercializados em datas específicas tais como dia dos pais e Natal no intuito de satisfazerem seus consumidores evitando que presentes inadequados sejam adquiridos e ofertados podendo prejudicar futuras vendas pela insatisfação gerada.
... The aftermath of the gift giving event is also fraught with emotions; donors are embarrassed and hurt by selecting an inappropriate gift and recipients experience guilt and shame by returning ill-fitting or inappropriate gifts (Sherry, McGrath & Levy, 1992). Beyond personal feelings or basic emotions such as joy or happiness, Chakrabarti and Berthon (2012) propose a matrix of social emotions associated with gift giving on positive/negative and active/passive axis. ...
Gift giving is prominent in marketplace exchanges and has robust emotional implications for both the giver and recipient. For example, prior to and during the selection of a gift, the giver endures positive and negative emotions, as he/she grapples with selecting the perfect gift, and ponders if the recipient will actually cherish the purchased item. During this dynamic exchange process, emotional recognition, management of emotions, emotional empathy, and anticipated elation are oft experienced by both the giver and recipient. However, research examining such emotions quantitatively in a gifting context is scant and models of these faculties in the gift-giving milieu are nonexistent. To help fill this research fissure, four studies are developed; they, in general, investigate determinants of feelings linked with the gestation, prestation, and reformulation stages of the gift-giving event. Specifically, Study 1 (giver's perspective) and Study 2 (receiver's perspective) reveal a mediation void in the models tested. Heeding these results, Study 3 (gift given) and Study 4 (gift received) introduce anticipated elation as a key factor between the aforementioned emotive factors and the emotional responses inherent in the gift-giving stages, among others. Managerial implications and future research directions are offered.
... This paper concentrates on a type of usergenerated content that is particularly important to researchers and practitioners in the domain of public affairs (especially pertaining to those responsible for issues management, community relations, political strategy, and marketing/brand management). Specifically, it focuses on how SM provides a formative context for how people share specific experiences (Chakrabarti and Berthon, 2012) with firms or their products and services. As the title suggests, this electronic word of mouth (eWoM) can have positive or negative implications for the firm. ...
For ‘viral marketing’, it is critical to understand what motivates consumers to share their consumption experiences through ‘electronic word of mouth’ (eWoM) across various social media platforms. This conceptual paper discusses eWoM as a coping response dependent on positive, neutral, or negative experiences made by potential, actual, or former consumers of products, services, and brands. We combine existing lenses and propose an integrative model for unpacking eWoM to examine how different consumption experiences motivate consumers to share eWoM online. The paper further presents an eWoM Attentionscape as an appropriate tool for examining the amount of attention the resulting different types of eWoM receive from brand managers. We discuss how eWoM priorities can differ between public affairs professionals and consumers, and what the implications are for the management of eWoM in the context of public affairs and viral marketing.
... The potential Journal of Strategic Marketing 3 of these data for segmentation did not go unnoticed. Social media provide a platform for people to share their consumption experiences (Chakrabarti & Berthon, 2012) and, therefore, are a source of rich customer insight (Greenberg, 2010). Following an initial period where social media users resisted interactions with firms, they have come to accept and, under certain circumstances, welcome organisations into their social networks (Canhoto & Clark, in press). ...
This paper reports on an exploratory study of segmentation practices of organisations with a social media presence. It investigates whether traditional segmentation approaches are still relevant in this new socio-technical environment and identifies emerging practices. The study found that social media are particularly promising in terms of targeting influencers, enabling the cost-effective delivery of personalised messages and engaging with numerous customer segments in a differentiated way. However, some problems previously identified in the segmentation literature still occur in the social media environment, such as the technical challenge of integrating databases, the preference for pragmatic rather than complex solutions and the lack of relevant analytical skills. Overall, a gap has emerged between marketing theory and practice. While segmentation is far from obsolete in the age of the social customer, it needs to adapt to reflect the characteristics of the new media.
Social media has been found to have created a paradigm shift in the digital marketplace by giving a new technological face to marketing, highlighting on brand awareness and effectiveness. In this digital marketplace, emotions lead users to like or dislike, share or not to share messages, thus evoking, influencing and shifting public opinions on everything from political parties to corporate reputations, brands, products etc. It is important to understand how emotions and content relevance make these messages go viral. To explore this relationship, in-depth interviews with people of Generation Y were conducted, who were shown two videos that have gone viral. Findings focus on how the content of these videos and emotions generated will lead the respondents to share them online. Further this study helped design a Emo-Cog (emotion –cognition) induced decision tree model which the generation Y consumers might frequently be using to decide on whether to share the videos or not. The discussion unveils future avenues highlighting emotions in viral marketing.
Community gifting, the phenomenon of donating digital goods to peers without selecting specific recipients, is one of live streaming's key social technologies for engaging online communities. In this study, we investigate the causal relationship between receiving a community gift and the recipient's subsequent social and monetary engagement behaviors by exploiting the randomization of recipient assignment on the popular live streaming platform, Twitch. We find that, relative to nonrecipients within a five-minute window of a community gifting event, community gift recipients exhibit a 69% chance of directing an additional message toward their peers, a 35% chance of directing an additional message toward the streamer and a 5% chance of gifting an incremental subscription to the community. However, recipients are no more likely to tip the streamer. We apply computational linguistics methods to illustrate that recipients' increased social engagement is accompanied by elevated sentiment and an increased likelihood of joining existing conversations. Finally, we conduct a series of moderator analyses, and find that recipients' gifting behavior is less frequent when there are more gifting events prior to the focal community gift, i.e., allowing the recipient to hide. Moreover, the social engagement effect of receiving a community gift is greater when prior chatter is more voluminous and discontinuous, i.e., when it is easier for the recipient to jump into the chat. We conclude that the spillovers to social engagement are more important than those to financial reciprocity given the positive feedback loop implied by our moderator analysis. Our results reveal how and when community gifting impacts audience engagement.
This paper problematizes gift relations in criminal organizations. It adopts a symbolic interaction perspective to focus scholarly attention on the way in which actants skillfully maneuver within the social expectations inherent in gift‐giving relations. The study is based on insights from twenty interviews with ex‐convicts and ten interviews with police officers or associates, and an in‐depth analysis of memoirs, police reports, and newspaper articles. Our study expands the scope of symbolic interactionism by considering how the exchange of gifts and favors is emotionally stylized to achieve both social and operative goals. We aim to carefully deconstruct the performance of gift‐giving and favor exchange in Israeli crime organizations, to understand how it is orchestrated to elicit genuine feelings among givers and recipients, as well as to control the use of violence. Finally, we identify gift‐giving as a double‐edged sword designed to lure recruits into a network of binding obligations, only to form a durable system of credit and debt wherein any transgressions are strictly punished.
Broadly, consumerism can be considered as a set of beliefs and values integrated into, but not exclusive to, the global market system, intended to make people believe that happiness is best achieved through possessions. In literature there are several other definitions of consumerism, consumption, anti-consumption and consumption communities. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to (i) present an overview of the research concepts, models and main theories of this topic, based on a systematic literature review and using the following databases to search information: Elsevier, Emerald, Science Direct, EBSCO, Springer, and ISI web knowledge; (ii) formulate a framework of consumption waves and anti-consumption motivations and types (iii) discuss consumption and anti-consumerism in football (soccer) context. The current study also carried out semi-structured interviews with 15 football fans with an average duration of 60 minutes each. Findings revealed four main types of anti-consumption: Global impact consumers or anti-consumption society; Selective consumption or anti-loyalists market activists; Conservative or Simplifiers; and Rejection of brand hegemony. Football fans are avid consumers of many products, such as information, knowledge, travels, tickets to matches, and diverse merchandizing from brands that sponsor the team and the club. Nevertheless, they are also selective consumers, rejecting everything connected to the rival clubs. Finally, the chapter provides insights for further research and managerial implications. In this vein, this chapter contributes to the existing literature giving insights for a better understanding of football clubs and fans as consumers and anti-consumers.
The gift exchange represents a moment that characterizes interpersonal interactions. In particular, research in psychological and neuroscientific fields aimed to observe the social function of gift exchange. Specifically, the present study aimed to investigate the effects of prosocial behavior, experienced during gift exchange, on individuals’ cognitive performance and brain activity. To this aim, behavioral performance and neural activity of 15 dyads of participants, with a consolidated friendship, were collected during the execution of an attentional cooperative task before or after a gift exchange. Individuals’ brain activity was recorded through the use of Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) in hyperscanning. Results showed an increase of perceived cooperation and cognitive performance, in terms of accuracy (ACC), after gift exchange. The increase of interpersonal tuning and cooperation was also shown by neural activity with an increase of oxygenated hemoglobin (O2Hb) intra-brain and inter-brain connectivity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) following the gift exchange. Moreover, from ConIndex analysis emerged an increase of inter-brain connectivity compared to intra-brain in DLPFC area. The present study, therefore, highlights how prosocial behavior can have positive effects on cognitive performance improvement and interpersonal relationships and neural coordination strengthen, increasing intra and inter-brain connectivity mechanisms.
Purpose
Social network services (SNS) gifting is a new business model, but many SNS providers continue to face challenges as they explore ways to increase their revenues from gifting. The purpose of this paper is to examine the key factors involved in gift giving via SNS platforms.
Design/methodology/approach
This study adopts a mixed methods approach through qualitative and quantitative research. In the first stage (qualitative study), the authors extract factors from interviews with users of SNS gifting services. In the second stage (quantitative study), the authors interpret decisional factors explored in the first stage on the basis of customer value theory, develop a research model and empirically test it.
Findings
The results show that five factors – convenience of SNS gifting, symbolic representation of SNS gifting, relationship support of SNS gifting, pleasure of SNS gifting, and an SNS gifting norm – directly or indirectly affect SNS gifting decisions.
Research limitations/implications
This study contributes to electronic commerce research by extending the customer value theory and adding to the literature on SNS gifting and gift giving in general.
Practical implications
The study informs SNS providers regarding the promotion of SNS gifting services for revenue generation.
Originality/value
This study is among the first to comprehensively examine decision-making in SNS gifting through the lens of customer value theory.
Nowadays brings with it a rapid development of information technology, and therefore new, faster and more efficient ways to enable marketers to reach a deeper awareness of their consumers. This is an era of intense competition, everyone is fighting for a better position, but the result is that consumers are becoming tired of the content they are surrounded by on a daily basis. Traditional marketing methods are no longer sufficient to ensure a competitive advantage in the market. How effectively to combine creativity, appropriateness and new technologies, and to approach consumers involving them in the process of marketing communication? It is a response that viral marketing may provide, viral marketing as a modern strategy that encourages people to transfer messages to the others. It works similarly to viruses; contamination spreads high speed, of course through digital media, in the most positive sense. People have a need to disseminate information, to their virtual friends, about their preferences toward certain brands, so it only takes one click to transfer information and thus begins a process that automatically occurs later. Many companies have realized that this methods of promoting their products and services can have a strong impact on creating positive people`s attitudes and build a bright picture of them in the minds of potential and loyal consumers.
Mobile technologies and the Internet has become an integral part of life of the modern man, and it has become unthinkable even to function well without them. Of course, marketing experts are aware of it and as a result they are using online advertising methods to create the brand awareness in a more efficient manner than traditional advertising (Fagerstrom and Ghinea, 2010).
Viral marketing can be understand as “any strategy that encourages individuals to pass on a marketing message to others, creating the potential for exponential growth in the message`s exposure and influence”. It presents a “fashionable idea that propagates through a section of the population, teaching and changing and influencing everyone it touches” (Godin, 2006: 14). Compared with traditional advertising methods, viral marketing cost lower, has higher credibility, faster diffusion, and better targeting consumers (Bampo et al., 2008; Dobele, Toleman and Baverland, 2005). Traditional Marketing allows consumers to passively consume messages and their content, but viral marketing relies on people who are willing to take an active role in spreading a message. The Internet removes almost all communication barriers, distance and cultural differences between people, as a result, sharing information is more open than it used to be (Leskovec, 2007).
Viral marketing (also known as word-of-mouth marketing) presents a new tool for marketing communications and promotion whereby companies seed products with select groups of consumers, and they hope that they will spread word-of-mouth about these products, and as a consequence to increase awareness and sales (Godes and Mayzlin, 2009).
However, some experts see viral marketing as more of an art than a science, and this perspective comes from the realization that viral marketing outcomes are influenced by many factors that company cannot always control. Even if these factors can create a great deal of uncertainty, it does not mean that marketers cannot make informed decisions to maximize the possibility of success (Kalyanam et al., 2007).
A good question would be how to begin with this process of viral marketing? The answer is usually referred to the “seeding strategy.” This strategy involves determining how many initial consumers (“seeds”) do company need to disseminate a viral message and what types of consumers to choose as “seeds”. These consumers are responsible for the initial dissemination of the viral message to other consumers, choosing the right targets as seeds can have a significant influence on later stages of the viral marketing process (Bampo et al., 2008; Watts and Peretti, 2007).
Video sharing on the Internet has become increasingly popular among Internet users. Some authors have believed that emotions generated by video clips can play an important role in why messages go viral. They think that videos that have gone viral have some level of emotional resonance with its viewers. However, the role of emotions in viral messages has not yet been fully explored. (Phelps, 2004; Dobele et al., 2007).
The study aims to use Facebook data to create a user profile to be able to recommend personalized gifts and help users to choose the right gift for a certain occasion. The Facebook data includes posts, comments, liked pages and user’s biography. The data gathered are then preprocessed to create a user profile and item profile. The preprocessing stage includes data cleaning, and POS tagging. These profiles can be classified as book lover, fashion fiend, outdoor enthusiast, foodie, music lover and sports fan. These profiles are then mapped through content-based and multicriteria collaborative filtering. In content-based filtering three criteria are used, namely, receiver’s personality, cosine similarity and user’s chosen event. The events include birthday, valentines, wedding, anniversary, father’s day, mother’s day and graduation. Multicriteria collaborative filtering uses Pearson Similarity to distinguish similar users who would likely like the same product. Combining these results, a hybrid system is produced and a desirable list of items is recommended.
Mobile technologies are already modifying well-established communication patterns, amplifying and substituting them. Participating in the mobile information society is not only a matter of getting a phone call or a phone, but how it is used in everyday life. The use of mobile phone is a question of culture since they allow new habits, postures, communication, and behaviors that contribute to society transformation. The paper focuses on a study about mobile phones’ use among young people. Particularly, we were interested in the text messages, treated as offers, sent by mobile phones. The paper concludes by presenting the design of an engagement conceptual framework, which can be a reflection point to consider within the design process of future interfaces. Conversely, this framework can also be a learning tool either for understanding the usability principles of an interactive interface or as an instrument to teach and motivate students in a knowledge exchange situation of collaborative work.
Consumerism can be regarded as a system of beliefs and values in which emerge the idea that happiness is best achieved through possessions. In literature, several terms related to this topic are employed, such as: consumerism, consumption, anti-consumption and consumption communities and subjective well-being. Therefore, the purposes of this chapter are to (i) present an overview of the research concepts, models and main theories of this topic and (ii) discuss and inter-relate consumption and subjective well-being. The chapter provides a proposed framework with the state-of-art on consumption, anti-consumption and subjective well-being and a study into rural tourism context. Finally, the chapter also presents suggestions for further research and managerial implications. In this vein, this chapter contributes to the existing literature giving insights for a better understanding the problematic of consumers, anti-consumers and subjective well-being as a whole and rural tourism consumption experience industry in particularly.
Social media has been found to have created a paradigm shift in the digital marketplace by giving a new technological face to marketing, highlighting on brand awareness and effectiveness. In this digital marketplace, emotions lead users to like or dislike, share or not to share messages, thus evoking, influencing and shifting public opinions on everything from political parties to corporate reputations, brands, products etc. It is important to understand how emotions and content relevance make these messages go viral. To explore this relationship, in-depth interviews with people of Generation Y were conducted, who were shown two videos that have gone viral. Findings focus on how the content of these videos and emotions generated will lead the respondents to share them online. Further this study helped design a Emo-Cog (emotion-cognition) induced decision tree model which the generation Y consumers might frequently be using to decide on whether to share the videos or not. The discussion unveils future avenues highlighting emotions in viral marketing.
Nous sommes amenés chaque jour à prendre un nombre important de décisions : quel nouveau livre lire ? Quel film regarder ce soir ou où aller ce week-end ? De plus en plus, nous utilisons les ressources en ligne pour nous aider à prendre des décisions. Comme la prise de décision est assistée par le domaine en ligne, l'utilisation de systèmes de recommandation est devenue essentielle dans la vie quotidienne. Dans le même temps, les réseaux sociaux sont devenus une partie indispensable de ce processus ; partout dans le monde on les utilise quotidiennement pour récupérer des données de personne et de sources d'information en qui on a confiance. Quand les internautes passent du temps sur les réseaux sociaux, ils laissent de précieuses informations sur eux-mêmes. Cela a attiré l'attention des chercheurs et les professionnels de nombreux domaines académiques et commerciaux. Comme le domaine de la recommandation est un domaine qui a assisté à des changements de grande ampleur attribuable à des réseaux sociaux, il y a un intérêt évident pour les systèmes de recommandation sociale. Cependant, dans la littérature de ce domaine, nous avons constaté que de nombreux systèmes de recommandation sociale ont été évalués en utilisant des réseaux sociaux spécialisés comme Epinions, Flixter et d'autres types des réseaux sociaux de recommandation, qui tendent à être composées d'utilisateurs, d'articles, de notes et de relations. Ces solutions ne peuvent pas être étendues directement à des réseaux sociaux à usage général (GPSNs) comme Facebook et Twitter, qui sont des réseaux sociaux ouverts où les utilisateurs peuvent réaliser une variété d'actions utiles pour l'aide à la recommandation
This paper discusses the recent rise of popular ‘blockbuster’ books written by international
development industry insiders and produced by commercial publishers. The paper explores
a set of common stylistic devices found within this emerging genre. Though each book is
different, a key trope is the story of an author's earlier professional life—the hard lessons
and gritty insights that have supposedly emerged from it—that normally underpins each
narrative. By living the challenges involved in development work at first hand, and by
making mistakes and experiencing epiphanies along the way, these author-professionals
want readers to know that they have found out the hard way that long-cherished beliefs
about development now need to be questioned. Readers are invited to relive these lessons
and epiphanies, and to think and act differently about development by upholding a
highly pragmatic form of development professionalism. Combining elements of research
monograph, self-help book and personal memoir, these development blockbuster books
can be understood not only as commodities, but also as part of the development gift.
The authors promise a gift of experience but, in reality, these books are mundane
commodities enmeshed in capitalist exchange relations.
Four experiments on the evaluation of gifts are reported, two on receiving gifts and two on giving gifts. In a fractional factorial design we investigated the effects of personal relationship, gift occasion and four cost categories, namely financial, time, psychic, and physical costs, on the preference for gifts to give and for gifts to receive. Participants judged gift scenarios after reading descriptions containing external characteristics of gift situations. In the experiments on receiving gifts, manipulation of the behavioral cost variables induced a cost perception and a corresponding preference effect: Gifts that were evaluated as more costly in terms of time, mental and physical effort were significantly preferred. The gift-giving experiments showed no substantial relationship between perception of costs and preference for gifts to give, although mental effort appeared to exert a significant effect on both cost perception and preference for a gift to give. The results suggested that in receiving a gift the evaluation is afected by a perception of costs incurred, while in giving a gift the perception of costs did not lead to a change in the evaluation of the gift. Giving and receiving gifts are not reciprocal with regard to the type and number of factors that explain the relationship between costs and valuation.
Factor-analytic evidence has led most psychologists to describe affect as a set of dimensions, such as displeasure, distress, depression, excitement, and so on, with each dimension varying independently of the others. However, there is other evidence that rather than being independent, these affective dimensions are interrelated in a highly systematic fashion. The evidence suggests that these interrelationships can be represented by a spatial model in which affective concepts fall in a circle in the following order: pleasure (0), excitement (45), arousal (90), distress (135), displeasure (180), depression (225), sleepiness (270), and relaxation (315). This model was offered both as a way psychologists can represent the structure of affective experience, as assessed through self-report, and as a representation of the cognitive structure that laymen utilize in conceptualizing affect. Supportive evidence was obtained by scaling 28 emotion-denoting adjectives in 4 different ways: R. T. Ross's (1938) technique for a circular ordering of variables, a multidimensional scaling procedure based on perceived similarity among the terms, a unidimensional scaling on hypothesized pleasure–displeasure and degree-of-arousal dimensions, and a principal-components analysis of 343 Ss' self-reports of their current affective states. (70 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This paper explores the use of gift-giving as a theoretical and conceptual framework for analyzing social behavior in online networks and communities. Not only has gift-giving the potential to frame and explain much social media behavior, but reversely, and perhaps more importantly, mediated social behavior also has the potential to develop gift-giving theory. Information and communication technologies form joint sociotechnical systems where new practices emerge. The paper focuses on describing the academic background of the gifting framework to help develop a deeper, theory-based, understanding of these sociotechnical phenomena. Three themes are prevalent in the gifting literature: other-orientation, social bonding and generalized reciprocity. The paper gives examples of how these themes are enacted by end-users via the use of information and communication technologies. Finally, sociotechnically embedded economies, called gifting technologies, are identified and discussed.
Research has investigated responses to script-driven imagery of traumatic events personally experienced by individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), although less is known about responses to imagery of standardized nonidiographic emotional events. This study investigated self-report and functional neural responses to imagery of interpersonal (social) versus intrapersonal (nonsocial) negative and positive events in women with versus without PTSD. Women with PTSD reported decreased positive affect in response to imagery of positive events, and increased negative affect and emotional avoidance in response to imagery of both negative and positive events. BOLD responses within the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, temporal poles, insula, and amygdala differed between groups primarily in response to imagery of positive events. Future research directions and clinical implications for social and emotional functioning in trauma-related disorders are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Brand experience is conceptualized as sensations, feelings, cognitions, and behavioral responses evoked by brand-related stimuli that are part of a brand's design and identity, packaging, communications, and environments. The authors distinguish several experience dimensions and construct a brand experience scale that includes four dimensions: sensory, affective, intellectual, and behavioral. In six studies, the authors show that the scale is reliable, valid, and distinct from other brand measures, including brand evaluations, brand involvement, brand attachment, customer delight, and brand personality. Moreover, brand experience affects consumer satisfaction and loyalty directly and indirectly through brand personality associations.
This article examines online gift giving in the form of opinion, information, and advice that individuals post on websites. Research has highlighted altruism and reciprocity as the key motives behind such gift giving. We argue that informational gift giving is also strongly driven by status and status seeking, and that status sentiments are more likely to sustain virtual communities. Using theories of status seeking and self-presentation, we investigate the ways in which consumers construct status in online consumer communities. The data reveal insights into the strategies behind constructing a digital status and the rise of online systems to promote celebrity status within online communities.
In writings on the open source software development model, it is often argued that it is successful as a result of the gift economy that embraces activ- ities in online communities. However, the theoretical foundations for this argument are seldom discussed and empirically tested. Starting with the 'classic' theories of gift giving, we discuss how they need to be developed in order to explain gift- giving practices in digital domains. In this paper, we argue that the gift economy is important, not only because it creates openness, but also because it organizes relationships between people in a certain way. Open source software development relies on gift giving as a way of getting new ideas and prototypes out into circu- lation. This also implies that the giver gets power from giving away. This power is used as a way of guaranteeing the quality of the code. We relate this practice to how gifts, in the form of new scientific knowledge, are given to the research com- munity, and how this is done through peer review processes.
Gift-giving has often puzzled economists, especially because efficient gifts-like cash or giving exactly what a person asks for-seem crass or inappropriate. It is shown in a formal game-theoretic model that gifts serve as "signals" of a person's intentions about future investment in a relationship, and inefficient gifts can be better signals. Other explanations for the inefficiency of gift giving are advanced, and some stylized facts about gift-giving practices are described (many of which are consistent with the signaling view of gifts).
Studies of emotion processing in autism have produced mixed results, with fewer studies observing autism-specific deficits than might be imagined. In the current study, 21 individuals with autism and 21 age- and ability-matched, learning disabled comparison participants were tested for their ability to (a) recognise, in others, expressions of ‘social’ emotions (e.g., embarrassment) and ‘non-social’ emotions (e.g., happiness) and; (b) report their own previous experiences of each of these emotions.
In line with predictions, amongst both groups of participants, social emotions were more difficult to recognise and report than non-social emotions. Also amongst both groups, the ability to report social emotion-experience was significantly associated with the ability to recognise social emotions in others, independent of age and verbal ability. However, contrary to predictions, no between-group differences in levels or patterns of performance on the experimental tasks were observed.
In light of previous research, these results suggest either that emotion-processing is not as specifically impaired in autism as is traditionally thought to be the case, or that individuals with autism are implementing compensatory strategies to succeed on experimental tasks in the absence of emotion-processing competence.
This article introduces the idea of brand community. A brand community is a specialized, non-geographically bound community, based on a structured set of social relations among admirers of a brand. Grounded in both classic and contemporary sociology and consumer behavior, this article uses ethnographic and computer mediated environment data to explore the characteristics, processes, and particularities of three brand communities (those centered on Ford Bronco, Macintosh, and Saab). These brand communities exhibit three traditional markers of community: shared consciousness, rituals and traditions, and a sense of moral responsibility. The commercial and mass-mediated ethos in which these communities are situated affects their character and structure and gives rise to their particularities. Implications for branding, sociological theories of community, and consumer behavior are offered. Copyright 2001 by the University of Chicago.
The social sciences are dominated by a paradigm that views human behavior as instrumental exchange. It is not surprising that consumer research on gift giving has also been dominated by this exchange paradigm. The present research on dating gift giving among American college students finds support for two variants of this paradigm, but it also reveals an alternative paradigm of gift giving as an expression of agapic love. It is suggested that agapic expressiveness is a needed addition to exchange instrumentalism for understanding gift giving and perhaps for understanding consumer behavior in general.
Gift giving is a universal behavior that still awaits satisfactory interpretation by social scientists. By tempering traditional consumer research with an anthropological perspective, our understanding of gift exchange can be enriched. A model of the gift exchange process intended to stimulate comprehensive research on gift-giving behavior is presented in this paper.
Creative consumers (defined as customers who adapt, modify, or transform a proprietary offering) represent an intriguing paradox for business. On one hand, they can signify a black hole for future revenue, with breach of copyright and intellectual property. On the other hand, they represent a gold mine of ideas and business opportunities. Central to business is the need to create and capture value, and creative consumers demand a shift in the mindsets and business models of how firms accomplish both. Based upon their attitude and action toward customer innovation, we develop a typology of firms' stances toward creative consumers. We then consider the implications of the stances model for corporate strategy and examine a three-step approach to dealing with creative consumers: awareness, analysis, and response.
Brand experience is conceptualized as sensations, feelings, cognitions, and behavioral responses evoked by brand-related stimuli that are part of a brand's design and identity, packaging, communications, and environments. The authors distinguish several experience dimensions and construct a brand experience scale that includes four dimensions: sensory, affective, intellectual, and behavioral. In six studies, the authors show that the scale is reliable, valid, and distinct from other brand measures, including brand evaluations, brand involvement, brand attachment, customer delight, and brand personality. Moreover, brand experience affects consumer satisfaction and loyalty directly and indirectly through brand personality associations.
The manner in which the concept of reciprocity is implicated in functional theory is explored, enabling a reanalysis of the concepts of "survival" and "exploitation." The need to distinguish between the concepts of complementarity and reciprocity is stressed. Distinctions are also drawn between (1) reciprocity as a pattern of mutually contingent exchange of gratifications, (2) the existential or folk belief in reciprocity, and (3) the generalized moral norm of reciprocity. Reciprocity as a moral norm is analyzed; it is hypothesized that it is one of the universal "principal components" of moral codes. As Westermarck states, "To requite a benefit, or to be grateful to him who bestows it, is probably everywhere, at least under certain circumstances, regarded as a duty. This is a subject which in the present connection calls for special consideration." Ways in which the norm of reciprocity is implicated in the maintenance of stable social systems are examined.
In the modern gift literature an anti-utilitarian and a utilitarian view on the giftcan be distinguished. From the anti-utilitarian perspective, the freedom of the gift is seen as one of its main characteristics, while the idea that gifts are caught in a cycle of reciprocity is downplayed. In the utilitarian approach, assumptions about rational actors weighing their preferences according to some utility are predominant. In the first approach, reciprocity is seen as undermining ‘genuine’ gifts. The utilitarian approach does take reciprocity into account but fails to analyse why the principle of reciprocity is so effective. This article attempts to provide such an explanation. By illuminating both the variety of the forms of the gift and the universality of the underlying principle, it is argued that gifts reflect a multi-purpose symbolic ‘utility’ that transcends both utilitarianism and anti-utilitarianism.
Children’s self-attribution of social emotions was hypothesised (i) to be related to their second-order belief-understanding and (ii) to be more strongly related to social- conventional than moral rule violations. Thirty children aged between 4 and 7 years were presented with Sullivan, Zaitchik & Tager-Flusberg’s (1994) second-order false belief task and with four hypothetical scenarios in which they were required to imagine that they had violated particular moral and social conventional rules. As predicted, the self-attribution of social emotions was significantly related to second-order belief understanding, primarily in social-conventional rather than moral contexts.
I anatomize a successful open-source project, fetchmail, that was run as a deliberate test of some theories about software engineering suggested by the history of Linux. I discuss these theories in terms of two fundamentally different development styles, the "cathedral" model, representing most of the commercial world, versus the "bazaar" model of the Linux world. I show that these models derive from opposing assumptions about the nature of the software-debugging task. I then make a sustained argument from the Linux experience for the proposition that "Given enough eyeballs, all bugs are shallow," suggest productive analogies with other self-correcting systems of selfish agents, and conclude with some exploration of the implications of this insight for the future of software.
A gift is the transfer of a good without an explicit specification of a quid pro quo. The good can be a tangible thing or money, but it also can be intangible, as in the form of time, attention, information or knowledge. A present is a gift and so may be the attention that one person 'gives' another, or the time that a person donates to an art institute as a volunteer. Usually a gift entails reciprocity: the giver expects something in return for the gift given. Friends expect friendly gestures in return for their friendly gestures; donors expect some form of appreciation or another; and those who give presents at Christmas expect to receive presents in return. The key to understanding the phenomenon of the gift is the nature of the reciprocity involved. Economists especially may be tempted to consider a gift exchange in terms of a market exchange, as a quid pro quo. However, the gift differs fundamentally from the quid pro quo of a market exchange. A market exchange is measured in the sense that the terms of trade are clearly spec- ified and the trade happens in one instance. The good to be exchanged is priced and changes hand in exchange for a certain amount of money or an IOU. The parties can agree on later payment or later delivery but will set the conditions at the moment of exchange, in the form of an explicit or implicit contract. In contrast, the value of gift is usually not priced or expli- citly measured in any other way - I donate my time and we do not talk about what that time is worth - and, when there is an expectation of reci- procity, the conditions of exchange remain undetermined and ambiguous. I expect something in return for my gift but we do not discuss the what, when and how. I am now paying attention to your marital problems and you will, I hope, return the favour later, maybe by helping me move, or by treating me to dinner next week, or by getting me a discount on the price of a work of art. A generous interpretation of the gift considers a gift any 'good', includ- ing money, that is transferred, conveyed or transmitted from one party to another when the nature, the value and the timing of the return of an equiv- alent is left undetermined. In that reading gifts constitute the major part of recorded economic transactions. Income earners pay rent and buy grocer- ies and other items in order to give lodging, food and holidays to the other members of the household (such as their children), as well as family and
As part of a much larger study of social change in Middletown (Muncie, Ind.), a random sample of adult residents was interviewed early in 1979 about celebrations of the previous Christmas. This paper describes the unwirtten and largely unrecognized rules that regulate Christmas gift giving and associated rituals in this community and the effective enforcement of those rules without visible means. A theoretical explanation is proposed.
This research examines the impact of intended recipient on brand choice when purchasing a gift. Keller’s conceptualisation of consumer-based brand equity, incorporating symbolic, experiential, and functional benefits, is used as a branding framework in combination with Belk’s characteristics of gifts, for measuring consumer behaviour differences occurring in alternative gift-giving situations. The influence of gender, household income, and age are also examined. Findings suggest consumers vary in their choice of brands for different recipient groups. They also suggest that there are gender-based differences in consumer’s brand choice for gifts, along with some income and age related distinctions. Finally, the findings suggest that overall consumers tend to look for brands with greater perceived symbolic benefits when purchasing gifts. Implications for the gift industry are offered along with future research possibilities.
Previous research (Bennett, 1989) has suggested that prior to the age of about 9 or 10 years, children's self-attributions of social emotions such as embarrassment are contingent, not upon the presumed evaluations of the self, but upon others' overt reactions toward the self. Apparently, children's self-attributions reflect a process of aversive conditioning; children do not understand how their actions affect their public image, but do find embarrassing experiences unpleasant because of behavior such as criticism, teasing, and laughter. This conclusion was derived from the finding that 5- and 8-year-old children attribute embarrassment to the self when in the presence of an active (i.e., derisive) audience, but not in the presence of a passive audience. However, 11- and 13-year-old children find any type of audience potentially embarrassing. An alternative explanation for this finding is that active audiences may serve to induce self-focused attention, and that it is the consequent evaluation of the self, not others' punishing behavior, that prompts self-attributions of embarrassment. This experiment indicated that the latter explanation better accounts for 8-year-olds', but not 5-year-olds', social emotions.
To date, the marketing literature on gift giving has focused on two approaches or paradigms—economic and relational exchange. This study adopts a different perspective, proposing a community paradigm to provide a holistic view of gift giving. The data (based on 20 in-depth interviews and 2 group interviews) suggest that, on the Internet, social networks of relationships cohere into gift-giving communities that influence the purchasing of gifts. Findings about online gift giving are presented according to three community themes: (a) shared rituals and traditions, (b) shared values, and (c) shared responsibilities. Theoretical and managerial implications are discussed. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Children’s self-attribution of social emotions was hypothesised (i) to be related to their second-order belief-understanding and (ii) to be more strongly related to social- conventional than moral rule violations. Thirty children aged between 4 and 7 years were presented with Sullivan, Zaitchik & Tager-Flusberg’s (1994) second-order false belief task and with four hypothetical scenarios in which they were required to imagine that they had violated particular moral and social conventional rules. As predicted, the self-attribution of social emotions was significantly related to second-order belief understanding, primarily in social-conventional rather than moral contexts.
This article integrates a broad range of gift-giving literature into a conceptual framework that puts the all too often overlooked construct of personal value at its core. Although there have been substantial contributions from the fields of anthropology, sociology, economics, and consumer behavior, efforts to model gift giving have failed to put the value of the gift-giving experience at the center of the exchange. Within this article, a model of the gift-giving experience that overcomes this critical shortcoming is proposed. The model establishes clear categories for breaking the giving process into easily examinable elements, and it is argued that although the concept of value is not a simple one, it should be central to any examination of the gift-giving phenomenon. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
This study investigates the types of emotions that link a broad spectrum of idiosyncratic, gift-exchange experiences with specific relationship realignment outcomes. Content analysis and analysis-of-variance procedures are used to assess the link between emotions and gift recipients' perceptions of relationship quality. The results demonstrate that rather than the overall amount of felt emotions, it is the balance of positive and negative emotions that is associated with specific relationship outcomes. It also appears that coping processes allow individuals to realize an overall neutral or positive outcome for the relationship, even if negative emotions are experienced. Moreover, different patterns of emotions characterize each of five different relational outcomes of the gift-receipt experience. These results have theoretical and practical implications for gift exchange as well as other emotion-laden marketing relationships, such as those found in services and personal selling contexts. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
There are two competing definitions of economics. One, exemplified in Etzioni''s work, stipulates that economics is the study of one kind of ends, the pursuit of material benefits (welfare). This definition entails that material ends are incommensurable with moral ends. The other, expressed in Becker''s work, registers that economics is the analysis of one aspect of all ends, optimization. This definition implies that material and moral ends are commensurable. The paper finds that each definition has its own shortcomings. The paper outlines an alternative view, illustrated by the difference between gifts and grants, which promises to supplant the shortcomings of each definition.
This paper addresses the prevalence of non-monetary gifts over more highly valued and efficient monetary transfers in social relationships. We demonstrate that under a wide variety of circumstances, inefficient non-monetary gifts will be offered by a donor in lieu of cash in order to signal the donor's quality of information about the recipient's preferences. This result emerges because gift giving is inefficient relative to cash, and not because of any arbitrary assumptions regarding communication. In particular, the donor has available the strategy of offering cash and saying what he would have purchased. Nonetheless, there is still an important equilibrium role for buying gifts.
Argues that social emotions are social in a different way to other
emotions. The idea that social appraisals are necessary causes and/or
constituents of social emotions serves as the basis for our proposed
characterization. We believe that refining the conceptualization
of social emotions will allow researchers to uncover their distinctive
features and to further specify underlying processes. Distinguishing
social and non-social emotions can provide insight into the nature
of emotions in general and their relation to social factors more
specifically. In our view, treating all emotions as equivalent members
of the same category, either by seeing them all as social or by ignoring
distinctions relating to sociality blinds us to the possibility that
emotions differ in the way they relate to social factors. Thus, this
paper paves the way for more systematic investigation of the full
range of cultural, group-related and interpersonal factors implicated
in the causation, differentiation and articulation of emotions in
a social world (Parkinson et al., 2005). In the next section we
outline some of the issues addressed in previous discussions of the
characteristics of social emotions and related categories (e.g.,
"moral" and "self-conscious" emotions), and consider which emotions
have most consistently been labeled as "social." Next, we review
research suggesting that while certain emotions are characteristically
determined by social appraisals, others are not. This research helps
us to identify the most likely candidates for inclusion in the categories
of social and non-social emotions. We then assess evidence that the
emotions that emerged as social in our analysis are also closely
linked to social behaviors and social action tendencies. Finally,
we discuss the implications of our analysis for more general issues
in the emotion literature. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2009 APA,
all rights reserved)
From introduction: "Daddy is saying `Holy moly!' to his computer again!" "Those words have become a family code for the way my virtual community has infiltrated our real world. My seven-year-old daughter knows that her father congregates with a family of invisible friends who seem to gather in his computer. Sometimes he talks to them, even if nobody else can see them. And she knows that these invisible friends sometimes show up in the flesh, materializing from the next block or the other side of the planet. "Since the summer of 1985, for an average of two hours a day, seven days a week, I've been plugging my personal computer into my telephone and making contact with the WELL (Whole Earth 'Lectronic Link)--a computer conferencing system that enables people around the world to carry on public conversations and exchange private electronic mail (e-mail). The idea of a community accessible only via my computer screen sounded cold to me at first, but I learned quickly that people can feel passionately about e-mail and computer conferences. I've become one of them. I care about these people I met through my computer, and I care deeply about the future of the medium that enables us to assemble. "I'm not alone in this emotional attachment to an apparently bloodless technological ritual. Millions of people on every continent also participate in the computer-mediated social groups known as virtual communities, and this population is growing fast. Finding the WELL was like discovering a cozy little world that had been flourishing without me, hidden within the walls of my house; an entire cast of characters welcomed me to the troupe with great merriment as soon as I found the secret door. Like others who fell into the WELL, I soon discovered that I was audience, performer, and scriptwriter, along with my companions, in an ongoing improvisation. A full-scale subculture was growing on the other side of my telephone jack, and they invited me to help create something new."
This paper argues for the recognition of important experiential aspects of consumption. Specifically, a general framework is constructed to represent typical consumer behavior variables. Based on this paradigm, the prevailing information processing model is contrasted with an experiential view that focuses on the symbolic, hedonic, and esthetic nature of consumption. This view regards the consumption experience as a phenomenon directed toward the pursuit of fantasies, feelings, and fun.
This paper provides a survey on studies that analyze the macroeconomic effects of intellectual property rights (IPR). The first part of this paper introduces different patent policy instruments and reviews their effects on R&D and economic growth. This part also discusses the distortionary effects and distributional consequences of IPR protection as well as empirical evidence on the effects of patent rights. Then, the second part considers the international aspects of IPR protection. In summary, this paper draws the following conclusions from the literature. Firstly, different patent policy instruments have different effects on R&D and growth. Secondly, there is empirical evidence supporting a positive relationship between IPR protection and innovation, but the evidence is stronger for developed countries than for developing countries. Thirdly, the optimal level of IPR protection should tradeoff the social benefits of enhanced innovation against the social costs of multiple distortions and income inequality. Finally, in an open economy, achieving the globally optimal level of protection requires an international coordination (rather than the harmonization) of IPR protection.
Recent developments in computer networks have driven the cost of distributing information virtually to zero, creating extraordinary opportunities for sharing product evaluations. We present pricing and subsidy mechanisms that operate through a computerized market and induce the efficient provision of evaluations. The mechanisms overcome three major challenges: first, evaluations, which are public goods, are likely to be underprovided; second, an inefficient ordering of evaluators may arise; third, the optimal quantity of evaluations depends on what is learned from the initial evaluations. Keywords: evaluations, information sharing, product quality, computer network, market (JEL D70, D83, H41, L15) 2 Subjective evaluations by others are a valuable tool for consumers who are choosing which products to buy or how to spend their time. For example, we read magazines devoted to product evaluation before purchasing cars and appliances. We ask our friends and read reviews by professional cr...
The Dragonfly Effect: Quick, Effective, and Powerful Ways to Use Social Media to Drive Social Change
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How to join the Internet vigilantes
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