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Real-time Resource Location Data Collection and Visualization Technology for Construction Safety and Activity Monitoring Applications
Abstract
Data to field operations of construction resources (personnel, equipment, materials) is vast, but the effort of collecting, analyzing, and visualizing is hardly ever taken. One main reason that limits higher quality in project site management decision making especially in resource intensive and complex operations is access to real-time information and subsequent technology that enables effortless data collection, processing, and visualization. Although recent developments in remote data sensing and intelligent data processing supplement manual data recording and analyze practices, few data on visualization tools in construction exist that gather data from dynamic resources and stream it to a field-realistic virtual reality environment in real-time. State-of-the-art technology in the field of real-time data collection and visualization is reviewed. A novel framework is presented that explains the method of streaming data from real-time positioning sensors to a real-time data visualization platform. Three case studies are presented which highlight its methods for recording data and visualizing information of construction activities in a (1) simulated virtual construction site, (2) outdoor construction setting, and (3) worker training environment. The results demonstrate that important construction information related to both safety and activity in field operations can be automatically monitored and visualized in real-time, thus offering benefits such as increased situational awareness to workers, equipment operators, or decision makers anywhere on a construction project or from a remote location.
... They have been applied in design optimization, logistics management, resource management, risk monitoring, energy saving, and emission reduction [25]. Construction resource monitoring is a primary means of improving the quality, safety, and efficiency of project management decisions though digital transformation applications [26]. Despite the useful applications of BIM, IoT, and GIS technologies in construction resource monitoring, existing studies have mainly focused on fragmented or separate areas of applications [22,13,15]. ...
... Inefficient data collection and monitoring procedures are mostly related to traditional manual data collection processes [45], which are subjective and prone to errors, thus, leading to inaccuracies and difficulties in identifying and monitoring resources in a timely manner. The lack of real-time data is also another challenge in construction resource monitoring [26]. This issue may be attributed to advanced digital technologies such as IoT sensors that are unable to provide and update data in real-time to reflect the physical conditions of construction resource utilization, thereby affecting the accuracy of decision-making. ...
... This issue may be attributed to advanced digital technologies such as IoT sensors that are unable to provide and update data in real-time to reflect the physical conditions of construction resource utilization, thereby affecting the accuracy of decision-making. In most construction projects, data are scattered in different systems [26], and data between different systems and departments are independent of each other, which can form information silo, thus leading to delays and inaccuracies in resource monitoring. In addition, complex construction resources such as humans [46] cannot be well monitored only through the integration of traditional BIM and IoT technologies due to multidisciplinary stakeholders in construction projects and ever-changing or dynamic construction activities. ...
In recent years, the advancement of digital technologies such as building information modeling (BIM), internet of things (IoT), and geographic information system (GIS) has had many impacts on the construction industry. However, limited research has been conducted on the integration of BIM, IoT, and GIS technologies, especially in construction resource monitoring. Therefore, this paper presents a state-of-the-art review of BIM, IoT, and GIS integration by focusing on their applications, challenges, research gaps, and future research directions. A systematic literature review and science mapping analysis were adopted in this study. The results identified the gaps in BIM, IoT, and GIS integration in construction resource monitoring, which include interoperability, data security, real-time dynamic monitoring, complex environmental data processing, environmental sustainability studies, prediction models, and convenience for the users. Moreover, challenges and future research directions were proposed. This paper contributes to extending the integrated applications of digital technologies in construction resource monitoring.
... To obtain real-time data for C.H.S., Cheng and Teizer [98] created a system that included data collecting and real-time visualization in the construction domain. This system suggests that crucial health and safety data can be visualized and monitored to enhance the situational awareness of workers. ...
... Workers were visually notified while approaching equipment, and equipment operators were made aware of their presence. Cheng and Teizer [98] investigated how construction workers' situational awareness may be enhanced by combining real-time tracking with virtual reality technology. Construction personnel and equipment locations were tracked using radio-frequency identification (RFID) tracking devices, and the data was shown in a virtual environment. ...
... Existing research predominantly emphasizes the early stages of construction hazard management, particularly hazard identification and assessment. This focus is evident in studies like those conducted by Guo et al. [145], Cheng and Teizer [98], Carozza et al. [146], Dawood et al. (2014), and Li et al. [111], which have developed virtual environments aimed at training construction personnel in hazard detection. However, there is a notable gap in addressing the latter stages of the hazard management cycle, especially in the context of hazard response planning. ...
The construction industry contends with high injury rates, emphasizing the need for innovative preventive
measures in construction health and safety (CHS). While previous studies have investigated the potential ap
plications of virtual reality (VR) in the construction industry for different purposes, an in-depth study on VR in
the CHS context is lacking. Hence, this study provides a state-of-the-art analysis of VR applications in CHS,
employing a dual scientometric and systematic review approach. A scientometric analysis is conducted to
examine annual publication trends, keyword co-occurrences, and science mapping of publication outlets,
alongside mapping the contributions of leading countries in this domain. This analysis reveals a marked increase
in research interest and identifies central thematic connections within the body of literature. The systematic
review assesses VR technologies, including immersive, desktop-based, BIM-based, 3D game-based, and
augmented reality, addressing their roles in hazard identification and safety training. The study also underscores
challenges like infrastructure, content modeling, and interoperability and proposes directions for future research.
Recommendations include probing into VR’s role in cognitive safety risks and the impact of users’ prior safety
knowledge on learning outcomes. This study suggests that developing tailored VR experiences for specific user
groups could significantly advance safety practices in the construction industry.
... Mao Chao [16] builds the theoretical framework of intelligent construction on its basis according to the definition method of a multidisciplinary knowledge system and proposes that its core logic is the data unification, data-dependent data-driven information integration of the whole chain of activities, and business synergy logic through the iteration of the BIM model and BOM (Bill of Material). With regard to the specific application of intelligent construction technologies in engineering activities, Cheng and Teizer [17] introduced intelligent management techniques that enable dynamic collection, visual management, and analysis of data related to building safety and operational activity monitoring practices through sensor and positioning technologies. Kong [18] At present, the organic integration of BIM, Big Data, Artificial Intelligence, and other new-generation information technology and engineering construction is accelerating the development of intelligent construction [8]. ...
... Mao Chao [16] builds the theoretical framework of intelligent construction on its basis according to the definition method of a multidisciplinary knowledge system and proposes that its core logic is the data unification, data-dependent data-driven information integration of the whole chain of activities, and business synergy logic through the iteration of the BIM model and BOM (Bill of Material). With regard to the specific application of intelligent construction technologies in engineering activities, Cheng and Teizer [17] introduced intelligent management techniques that enable dynamic collection, visual management, and analysis of data related to building safety and operational activity monitoring practices through sensor and positioning technologies. Kong [18] [20], based on BIM technology and using the Internet of Things, cloud computing, Big Data, and other new-generation information technology, constructed a deeply integrated technical system of geological over-forecasting, digital survey and design, intelligent construction, etc., and carried out research on the digital handover technology of the Sichuan-Tibet Railway Tunnel Project. ...
... (2) Calculation of standardized layer affiliation. The criterion layer affiliation K j (L p ) can be determined by weighting the calculated indicator layer affiliations: (17) where K j (L p ) is the degree of affiliation of the pth criterion object element to the jth application effect level. K j (M pi ) is the degree of affiliation of the score value of the ith evaluation indicator in the pth criterion object element to the jth application effect level. ...
This paper aims to evaluate and analyze the application effect of intelligent construction technology in the process of building construction because of the complexity and uncertainty of the technology itself. It also aims to promote the digital application of intelligent construction technologies throughout the life cycle of building construction and sustainable construction. Combining questionnaires and the Delphi, an indicator system for the evaluation of the application effect of intelligent construction technology was constructed, which contained twenty indicators, and then a cloud matter-element model was subsequently established by combining the cloud model with the matter element theory and took a practical engineering project as an example, so as to determine the application effect level of the technology. Results show that the evaluation grade of the effectiveness of the application of intelligent construction technology in this project is three-star and the application of intelligent construction technology in the construction phase is average, but there is a trend towards good development. The evaluation of the application effect of intelligent construction technology provides a direction for the specific application of new construction technology and promotes the transformation and upgrading of the construction industry and sustainable development.
... Combining such modern technology with a learning process can give us an effective outcome. For example, with the help of VR, one can share the data with other decision-makers to enable them to explore more comprehensive viewpoints and potentially come up with quicker and more accurate conclusions (Cheng and Teizer, 2013). It offers a heightened sense of reality during the planning phase, enabling clients to virtually navigate through the interiors before starting the project (Jessen et al., 2020). ...
... The integration of BIM and VR, as demonstrated in this study, offers a seamless transition from design to immersive experience, echoing the findings of previous studies by Olbina veGlick (2023); Ticllacuri et al.(2023).The study's emphasis on interactive elements, such as lighting controls and material selections, aligns with the growing recognition of the importance of realism and immersion in VR experiences as mentioned by Jessen et al.(2020); Won et al.(2023). The findings also support the potential of VR to enhance understanding of design details and spatial relationships, as suggested by prior research (Cheng and Teizer, 2013;Wolfartsberger et al., 2018). ...
This study investigated the potential of integrating Building Information Modeling (BIM) and Virtual Reality (VR) to enhance spatial perception and the design process in an architectural design studio setting. Undergraduate students at Karabük University designed the interior of a historical leather factory to be converted into a library using Revit and Unreal Engine 5. The findings revealed that VR technology significantly improved students' understanding of design details, spatial relationships, and the overall design
process. Students were able to visualize their designs in a more immersive and interactive way, leading to
more informed decision-making. Interactive elements, such as lighting controls and material selections,
contributed to a more realistic and engaging experience. While visual realism played a role in the
effectiveness of VR, the study also highlighted the importance of factors beyond visual realism, such as user
experience and presence. These factors can influence how students interact with and learn from the VR
environment. Future research is needed to further explore these factors and identify strategies for optimizing VR integration in design education. Overall, this study demonstrates the potential of BIM and VR to transform architectural education by providing students with a more immersive and interactive learning experience. However, it is essential to consider factors beyond visual realism to ensure the effective integration of VR into the design process
... Moreover, based on (Lin and Golparvar-Fard, 2021), stable working assignments can be achieved when information regarding the location of the worker, the progress of previous work, and the availability of material can be provided by location-task visualization. Currently, the assessment of materials present on-site heavily relies on manual inspections, which can be labor-intensive, time-consuming, and prone to human error (Cheng and Teizer, 2013). ...
... Nevertheless, the majority of these applications are concentrated on construction progress monitoring (Ibrahimkhil et al., 2023), quality inspection (M. Wang et al., 2021), and operation safety (Cheng and Teizer, 2013). ...
In a construction project, the need to conduct effective and efficient material management is urgent since it takes up to 60% of the project budget. Most of the material tracking uses tag-based technology by attaching RFID, GPS, or UWB to the materials. This method is found to be effective in tracking the material in construction projects. However, there is still a manual job of putting the tag into each of the materials and problems related to the signal quality and infrastructure requirements. As an alternative way to do material tracking, point cloud processing can be used. This paper aims to develop an efficient approach to accurately detect concrete pipe precast material, calculate its numbers, and produce valuable data for material inventory management. The data was taken by a mobile laser scanner of a site-specific infrastructure project in Sydney. The resulting data was sparse and occluded because it was taken only from one side to replicate the actual scanning process in a construction project. The automated process has been conducted by matching the material based on its geometric feature of the 3D material model. The proposed approach can provide some spatial information such as location (x, y, z global coordinate), orientation of each material, and the number of materials. The result can detect up to 78.5% of the material. The difference between actual and predicted global coordinates is 0.75m which is acceptable for material location in a large infrastructure project. This data can be reconstructed in a 3D detail of the site project in the Building Information Modeling (BIM) platform in its actual location. The implementation of this method serves as an initial stage toward achieving synchronization between the physical construction and its corresponding digital twin in the field of construction.
... Big data may be utilised to improve operations and maintenance, track the status of construction and guide project planning and design [2]. Construction organisations may utilise predictive analytics to find possible dangers and areas for improvement by gathering and evaluating data from previous projects [3]. Real-time monitoring of ambient conditions, worker productivity and equipment performance may be achieved using sensors [4]. ...
... A hybrid method with several evaluations is one way to enhance security situations. This report, however, highlights a few hurdles [3]. Security technologies are not integrated, the data architecture is complicated, continual monitoring is necessary, hardware and software limits are limited, and data privacy issues and technical training are needed. ...
The progress of our society is reflected in the building sector, which emphasises the necessity of constantly modifying our instruments to take advantage of new opportunities. An example of cutting-edge technology with the potential to completely transform the construction sector is the Internet of Things (IoT). The goal of this comprehensive analysis is to help the construction industry improve the understanding of how crucial it is to embrace IoT. In this study, a systematic review of the relevant literature was conducted to identify the factors that contribute to enhancing IoT applications in the construction industry. The primary objective was to list and evaluate the most important uses, advantages and difficulties of using the IoT in the building sector. This systematic review revealed that the IoT has significant potential to transform the construction industry by improving productivity, safety, sustainability and quality across the entire construction lifecycle. However, barriers such as data privacy and cybersecurity and a lack of standardised protocols need to be addressed. The review concludes that the IoT is likely to revolutionise the construction sector in the coming years if these challenges can be overcome. These findings imply that construction firms need to experiment with IoT and analytic tools across phased use cases, whilst policy and industry groups must collaborate on technology standards and protocols. Although obstacles exist, strategic IoT implementation promises major operational breakthroughs in the construction sector in the near future.
... This not only improves their skills and confidence but also reduces the risk of accidents and injuries on the actual construction site. Additionally, augmented reality (AR) Technology has been used to provide real-time safety information and warnings to workers, helping them identify potential hazards and take preventive measures (Cheng and Teiser, 2013). These innovative applications of ImTs have significantly enhanced safety training in the construction industry and have the potential to revolutionise the way safety is approached in the future. ...
Immersive Technologies (ImTs), such as virtual reality (VR) And augmented reality (AR) Offer a promising avenue to enhance safety in the construction industry by enriching training with improved knowledge, skills, effectiveness, and accessibility, while promoting a robust safety culture. Despite recognising the value of integrating ImTs into construction safety training and the considerable research devoted to its technical aspects, organisations face challenges in its adoption. The lack of standardised frameworks and reliance on outdated training methods are major barriers, hindering the full realisation of ImT's benefits for safety training. This study aims to establish an organisational readiness model that identifies critical attributes for successful ImTs implementation. Through a combination of systematic literature review (SLR) And questionnaire-based expert verification, fourteen organisational attributes were identified, and grouped into three categories: people and organisational structure, technology, and lifecycle costs. This insight could help organisations better understand their capabilities and prepare plans for implementing ImTs in safety training. Highlighting the need for an ImTs maturity model tailored to organisational needs, this research underscores the potential of ImTs to revolutionise safety training in construction.
... A central shortcoming in the current body of research is the lack of holistic and standardised frameworks that effectively embed XR technologies into comprehensive safety management processes [34]. While certain studies propose frameworks or workflows for XR deployment, these often fail to incorporate the broader methodological foundations needed for real-world implementation, such as integration with Building Information Modelling (BIM), Lean Construction principles, and Construction 4.0 environments. ...
Construction remains one of the most hazardous industries, with high accident rates driven by insufficient planning, coordination, and safety training. While extended reality (XR) technologies, encompassing virtual, augmented, and mixed reality, have shown promise in improving safety outcomes, existing applications are typically isolated, lacking integration across the project lifecycle and alignment with digital methodologies such as those found in Construction 4.0. This study proposes a comprehensive workflow and framework for the integration of XR technologies into construction safety management, grounded in Building Information Modelling, Lean Construction, and Prevention through Design. This methodology structures the use of XR to support safety planning, training, inspection, and control, with a focus on lifecycle integration and proactive risk mitigation. Implementation examples are presented to illustrate the framework’s applicability and scalability. These demonstrate how XR can support immersive walkthroughs, synchronisation with BIM data, and simulation of human–machine interactions. This study contributes a structured, replicable approach that addresses the current fragmentation of XR safety applications, offering both a theoretical basis and practical guidance for adopting XR in construction safety workflows.
... The integration of virtual models with physical construction has demonstrated significant potential for tracking resources and monitoring activities (Cheng and Teizer 2013). CPS can provide real-time tracking of material usage to monitor inventory levels, minimizing over-ordering and underutilization of resources. ...
... Tak et al. (2021) explored using 4D-BIM to manage multiple cranes on a site. Cheng and Teizer (2013) created a real-time tracking framework to visualize and simulate construction sites, and Bortolini et al. (2019) proposed a 4D-BIM model for logistics planning. For construction safety assessment, Hosseini et al. (2021) used 4D-BIM to analyze fire risks and evacuation in complex sites, while Tran et al. (2022) studied safety monitoring device coverage. ...
In developing rational demolition plans, optimizing processes, managing waste efficiently, and utilizing the site effectively are essential objectives. Although 4D-BIM technology is recognized for its contributions to construction project management, its application in demolition planning remains limited. This study utilized a CLT building as the research object to explore how enhancing 4D-BIM data can optimize demolition planning and examine its effectiveness in real applications. Due to the absence of clear information regarding the demolition phase, it is essential to enhance the 4D-BIM data by accurately modeling in BIM, assigning demolition attributes, creating models for waste and recyclable materials, managing the timing and quantity of waste, and ensuring the proper placement of site elements. Despite these efforts, challenges persist in accurately reflecting actual building conditions, providing comprehensive demolition methods, and classifying waste materials. Even with these limitations, enhanced 4D-BIM data provides significant advantages, including improved plan assessment, enhanced communication among personnel, and a clearer understanding of complex tasks. Although it has potential, further research is necessary to apply it to various building types and scales.
... Generally, BIM integration within outdoor environments needs to be seamless and accurate; however, the currently available IPS solutions used in tandem with BIM have significant limitations. These restraints are particularly problematic when it comes to universal traceability of key aspects (such as labour in tunnels and buildings, and the location of construction resources such as vehicles and materials [10][11][12][13]), which hinders the implementation of comprehensive and universal management of buildings and underground in urban regions. ...
Indoor positioning system (IPS) technologies have a wide range of applications; however, a major limitation associated with currently used IPS technologies is the weak penetration strength of signals, inhibiting the seamless connection of outdoor coordinates to indoor coordinates. In contrast, the muometric positioning system utilizes naturally abundant cosmic-ray signals to compensate for some of these setbacks. However, the main practical challenges of this method are (i) the low signal rate and (ii) its dependence on large reference detectors (greater than 4 m²) above the receiver to track cosmic-ray precipitation. In this work, an alternative concept called cosmic-ray arrival time (CAT) navigation, which utilizes the extended air shower (EAS) time structure for higher-rate positioning (without requiring reference detectors), is first proposed and demonstrated. The resultant two-dimensional positioning accuracy is 3–4 m (at 50 m apart). By integrating CAT receivers into global-positioning-system-equipped (GPS-equipped) smartphones, it is anticipated that the GPS/CAT hybrid method will make it possible to seamlessly connect multi-user coordinates from outdoor to indoor environments.
... As a result, continuous monitoring is essential to ensure project success and to identify potential issues early [2][3][4][5][6][7][8]. While effective construction process monitoring is critical, conventional manual monitoring methods face limitations in meeting the demands of modern construction sites due to the complexity of projects and limited on-site personnel [3,4,[9][10][11][12]. As projects grow in scale and complexity, the limitations of these manual approaches become increasingly apparent [13][14][15][16]. ...
In the construction industry, ensuring the proper installation, retention, and dismantling of temporary structures, such as jack supports, is critical to maintaining safety and project timelines. However, inconsistencies between on-site data and construction documentation remain a significant challenge. To address this, this study proposes an integrated monitoring framework that combines computer vision-based object detection and document recognition techniques. The system utilizes YOLOv5 for detecting jack supports in both construction drawings and on-site images captured through wearable cameras, while optical character recognition (OCR) and natural language processing (NLP) extract installation and dismantling timelines from work orders. The proposed framework enables continuous monitoring and ensures compliance with retention periods by aligning on-site data with documented requirements. The analysis includes 23 jack supports monitored daily over 28 days under varying environmental conditions, including lighting changes and structural configurations. The results demonstrate that the system achieves an average detection accuracy of 94.1%, effectively identifying discrepancies and reducing misclassifications caused by structural similarities and environmental variations. To further enhance detection reliability, methods such as color differentiation, construction plan overlays, and vertical segmentation were implemented, significantly improving performance. This study validates the effectiveness of integrating visual and textual data sources in dynamic construction environments. The study supports the development of automated monitoring systems by improving accuracy and safety measures while reducing manual intervention, offering practical insights for future construction site management.
... The continuous feedback loop established by IoT contributes to ongoing process improvements, creating a dynamic construction ecosystem. The symbiotic relationship between continuous monitoring and datadriven insights showcases the multifaceted advantages of incorporating IoT technology into construction practices (Cheng & Teizer 2013;Shi & Abdel-Aty 2015;Tang et al., 2019). ...
This literature review extensively explores the evolving integration of cutting-edge technologies within the realm of construction project management. The advent of innovative tools such as building information modeling (BIM), artificial intelligence (AI), the Internet of Things (IoT), and various digital collaboration platforms has triggered a profound transformation in the construction industry. Through a thorough analysis of academic literature, industrial case studies, and empirical research, this review critically assesses the multifaceted impacts of these technologies, emphasizing their contributions to enhancing efficiency, accuracy, and the overall management of intricate projects.
By delving into the scholarly landscape, the study illuminates how BIM has fundamentally reshaped project planning and execution, fostering improved collaboration and decision-making processes. The review meticulously examines the role of AI in predictive analytics and resource optimization, highlighting the operational enhancements facilitated by IoT implementations in areas such as real-time monitoring and security management. Furthermore, the review investigates the synergies arising from the integration of these technologies, particularly in advancing integrated project delivery (IPD) and bolstering collaborative methodologies.
Identifying emerging trends, such as the utilization of augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR), the review underscores their potential as transformative elements shaping the future of the construction industry. In addition to synthesizing current knowledge, this review identifies gaps in existing research and suggests avenues for future studies. Its overarching goal is to provide a nuanced understanding of the pivotal role played by technology integration in reshaping construction project management, thereby offering valuable insights for academics, industry professionals, and policymakers alike.
... Yuan et al. [20] used vision technology to detect and track the position and movement of excavators to improve construction safety. In addition, several studies have used RTLS to simultaneously monitor the location of equipment and workers [21]. Maalek et al. [22] evaluated the accuracy of UWB technology in tracking the real-time location of dynamic resources (e.g., workers and devices) on construction sites, considering variables like speed and direction, thereby validating the feasibility of UWB technology. ...
... As a result, many new innovations have emerged, particularly in construction methods focused on improving efficiency. These advancements are expected to significantly contribute to fulfilling these requirements [1], [2]. The design of multi-storey buildings, including banks, offices, shops, and other commercial establishments, must adhere to technical standards, ensuring the structures are strong, rigid, and stable. ...
The Premiere MTH is an apartment complex located in South Jakarta, constructed on land with a hard soil layer extending deeper than 16 meters. Given these conditions, a bored pile foundation was selected as the optimal solution. This foundation type can be tailored to the necessary depth while minimizing disruption to nearby structures during installation. A bored pile is a type of deep foundation created by drilling into the ground to a specified depth. The process involves drilling a hole with specialized equipment, inserting a steel reinforcement cage, and then pouring concrete into the hole. Special tools are used to lift and position the casing and reinforcement. Once the concrete is poured, the casing is removed. According to the design analysis, the bored pile foundations used in this project have a diameter of 800 mm, with varying depths of 30 m and 35 m.
... It makes the building visible to all involved parties in three dimensions, which improves design coordination and collision detection. 2. 4D (Time Dimension): This dimension imparts a temporal component to the BIM model [66]. Visualization and simulation of construction sequencing, scheduling, and phasing are made feasible. ...
... Using a protocol that can be implemented to any sort of data stream is one way. There is also the option of forcing data that form a consistent data pattern, even if it originates from different sources, like databases [81]. For data collection, a single instantaneous data source from a single tracking technology was employed. ...
Studies have demonstrated the critical role that safety plays in preserving favourable working conditions in the construction industry, which is necessary to accomplish goals. The aim of this research was to inform stakeholders in the construction industry in developing nations about the value of safety and possible strategies for influencing their opinions regarding safety protocols. The importance of safety to the construction sector, which is crucial to the advancement of the country, has also been emphasised. However, due to a lack of adequate safety understanding among stakeholders in the construction sector, the construction industry is characterised by a great deal of instability and hazard. To determine what factors affect productive working conditions in construction production, this study examined safety. We studied what is obtainable in developed countries through a literature review and then making recommendations for developing countries. A systematic review approach was used to examine 81 research articles on construction safety that were released between 2004 and 2022. There were not many articles on construction safety before 2004. The person dimension, environmental factors, safety behaviour, organisation features, technology, and safety incentives were the six construction safety categories into which the results of this study were classified from the in-depth review of the health and safety literature. Additionally, these construction safety variables were developed into a conceptualised framework. To solve different construction safety issues related to working conditions in the construction sector, this study adds to the body of knowledge by systematically classifying and defining the often-utilised safety variables. It is now imperative to bring in these dimensions to improve the safe working conditions in the construction industry, particularly in developing countries. By putting these safety factors into practice, the construction industry can reduce safety risks, lower the number of accidents and fatalities, cut expenses related to subpar safety performance, safeguard the reputation of construction companies, boost employee morale and satisfaction with their work, enhance employee retention, reduce absenteeism, and enhance sustainability goals. Furthermore, it is certain that the conceptual framework that has been suggested would be novel and well-liked in developing countries. The conceptual framework was created with this supposition in mind.
... Resources monitoring is needed to oversee the project construction (Cheng & Teizer, 2013;Fapohunda & Chileshe, 2014;Guven & Ergen, 2021). While resource optimization is needed to obtain effective and efficient construction activities (He et al., 2021;Jiang et al., 2022;Kusimo et al., 2019;Teizer et al., 2020). ...
This article presents an approach to utilize the high maturity level of digital twin for construction resource monitoring. The digital twin is used in construction projects as a systematic representation of physical objects into virtual models of construction. While the resource monitoring system is used as a decision-making tool to optimize resource leveling optimization. A high maturity level is needed to provide an interoperable ecosystem for the construction monitoring process. The state-of-the-art literature review and gap identification are used through various studies related to the research objectives. The result shows that the integration of Building Information Modeling (BIM), geographic information system (GIS), machine learning (ML), and monitoring dashboard is needed for the digital twin resource monitoring model for controlling resource utilization on the project. A platform ecosystem is also required to effectively obtain an efficient decision making process for project construction. The study contributes to the framework of digital twin for aerial construction.
... While some organizations have embraced these technologies to leverage their potential benefits fully, others face significant challenges that hinder widespread implementation Choi et al., 2015). These challenges include data integration complexities, privacy concerns, and the need for specialized skill sets among project teams (Cheng & Teizer, 2013;Hossen et al., 2024). ...
This study explores the impact of big data-driven decision-making in construction project management through a qualitative comparative analysis. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with project managers, data analysts, and construction workers involved in various types of construction projects. The research identifies key themes related to the benefits and challenges of integrating big data analytics. The findings reveal significant advantages, including enhanced operational efficiency, improved decision-making processes, cost reduction, effective budget management, timely project delivery, and quality control and assurance. However, challenges such as data integration complexities, privacy concerns, the need for specialized skills, and organizational resistance to change are also highlighted. The study underscores the importance of fostering a data-driven culture and strong leadership support to maximize the benefits of big data in construction project management. It also emphasizes the need for context-specific strategies tailored to different project types.
... These challenges include data integration complexities, privacy concerns, and the need for specialized skill sets among project teams (Cheng & Teizer, 2013;. Despite these obstacles, the adoption of big data in construction is gradually increasing, driven by the growing recognition of its value in enhancing project management practices. ...
This study investigates the impact of big data-driven decision-making in construction project management through a qualitative comparative analysis. By conducting semi-structured interviews with project managers, data analysts, and construction workers across various types of construction projects, the research identifies key themes related to the benefits and challenges of integrating big data analytics. The findings highlight significant advantages such as enhanced operational efficiency, improved decision-making processes, cost reduction, budget management, timely project delivery, and quality control and assurance. However, challenges including data integration complexities, privacy concerns, the need for specialized skills, and organizational resistance to change are also revealed. The study underscores the importance of fostering a data-driven culture and strong leadership support to maximize the benefits of big data in construction project management, while also emphasizing the need for context-specific strategies tailored to different project types.
... Traditional data gathering methods on construction sites result in a severely reduced situational picture due to the absence of data, delays, and inaccuracies. Data are still, even today, commonly collected manually and assessed subjectively (Taneja et al. 2011;Cheng and Teizer 2013). Numerous scholars have emphasized the significance of objective SA, combined with digitized data collection, as an imperative in facilitating subjective human decision-making amid the presence of "fragments" of contradictory project information (Han and Golparvar-Fard 2017, K€ arkk€ ainen et al. 2019, Sacks et al. 2020, Martinez et al. 2023. ...
Infrastructure construction (IC) projects are dynamic, complex, and difficult to control and manage. Situational awareness (SA) systems have attracted growing interest in construction literature as an aid for human decision-making in order to forecast changes in project and operations situations. While technological advancements have been achieved in SA systems, very little empirical evidence exists on the actual experiences of IC professionals in relation to SA system usage. We interviewed 23 IC professionals to obtain data, which data we then analyzed by utilizing open coding. Based on our analysis, IC professionals adopt and integrate SA systems individually. On the other hand, often their SA exhibits a bias in favor of the subjective viewpoint of whoever is the dominant or responsible individual in their unit or team, and concealing facts by one or more people appears common. We thus conclude that SA systems can raise IC professio-nals' awareness of a situation in ways that are objectively and easily visible and accessible to every individual. SA systems can also be used to conceal SA. This study contributes to earlier technology-focused research by revealing how the behavior of dominant individuals affects the user experience of SA systems.
... Due to technological limitations, certain aspects like information exchange, Level of Detail (LoD), and coordination among project teams in the construction process were initially handled separately in 2D formats by different disciplines. This contributed to the complexity of the process [4][5][6]. However, as advanced technologies emerged, the construction industry experienced a shift away from the traditional 2D approach. ...
The integration of laser scanning technology and Building Information Modelling (BIM) processes offers a transformative approach to managing the complexities in live construction projects. This paper aims to explore the significant impacts of incorporating laser scanning and BIM on construction projects in terms of as-built models, information management, and overall project performance utilising case study analysis of a building that was not BIM-based. The research scope is defined by the need to investigate the integration of laser scanning and BIM in live construction projects. It details the data acquisition process, challenges encountered due to site obstructions, and the methodologies employed for spatial modelling procedures. Key findings reveal that such integration can significantly enhance the accuracy of data collection and improve project outcomes. Results also identify the need for specialised equipment and skills for the effective implementation of such integrations. The research concludes by offering a practical approach to enhancing construction processes, from design to maintenance. This paper contributes to the body of knowledge by providing a detailed analysis of the practical application of laser scanning and BIM in a live construction project, offering insights into the benefits, challenges, and future directions for integrating these technologies in the construction industry.
... In this sense, several studies aim to monitor equipment trajectory, mainly those for handling loads and workers, to analyse this intersection between the risk zones arising from the equipment and the occupation of workers [36], [37]. Safety risk events recorded in virtual reality enable assessments of these events from different viewing angles, expanding the ability to assess the risks of tasks, as well as allowing the use of these "real scenes" in worker training [36], [38]. Another example is using RFID readers with wireless communication strategically implemented in the access to the floors of vertical building construction, providing the opportunity to read passive RFID tags contained in the helmets of workers, materials, and transport elevators [39]. ...
Health and Safety (H&S) should be a significant concern in construction projects. The quantification of the work injury accidents started with work A. W. Heinrich (1931), passing per Frank E. Bird Jr. (1969) to a study by ConocoPhillips Marine (2003). These theories, also known as the Accident triangle, Heinrich's triangle, or Bird's triangle, are a base for industrial accident prevention applied in practice by the Dupont STOPTM methodology. Over this methodology, the number of unhealthy and unsafe behaviours is classified and accounted for to diagnose the potential workers' recordable injuries, lost workdays, and fatalities. The At-risk behaviours and the Near Misses are the most challenging safety measurement approach as they depend on the human-observation notes usually conducted in a safety audit. Electronic Performance Monitoring (EPM) concerns the use of innovative hardware and software to assess on-site safety and productivity. The electronic monitoring of construction workers can contribute to evaluating unsafe behaviours. At-risk behaviours could be measured based on location, trajectory, and motions. Also, with the monitoring of the equipment and vehicles, it is possible to measure Near Misses. The Information Technologies integration allows for collecting information about Recordable Injuries, Lost workdays, and Fatalities. This work discusses and presents a framework connectingEPM deployment to data acquisition of unhealthy and unsafe on-site behaviours. The contributions in the theoretical and practical fields concern the opportunities of using new technological assumptions to increase data acquisition and improve the accuracy and effectiveness of quantitative safety analysis.
... For the detection of workers in coal mines, a method is proposed to detect and track the position of modeled, moving objects in real time based on data obtained from video cameras [22]. Cheng et al. [23] collected and processed the location data of workers and mine equipment in real-time through visual detection technology and displayed the relevant safety and activity performance information to decision-makers in real-time and visually so as to realize the safety management of workers. Barro-Torres et al. [24] developed a new model of cyber-physical. ...
Safety signs serve as an important information carrier for safety standards and rule constraints. Detecting safety signs in mines is essential for automatically early warning of unsafe behaviors and the wearing of protective equipment while using computer vision techniques to realize advanced safety in the AI and IoT era. This work aims to propose an improved YOLOV4-tiny safety signs detection model applying deep learning to detect safety signs in mines. The dataset employed in this study was derived from coal mines and analogous environments, comprising a total of ten types of safety signs. It was partitioned into training, validation, and test sets following a distribution ratio of (training set + validation set) to test set = 9:1, with the training set to validation set ratio also set at 9:1. Then the attention mechanism ECANet was introduced into the model, which strengthened the network’s learning of places that need attention. Moreover, the Soft-NMS algorithm was used to retain more correct prediction frames and optimize the detection model to further improve the detection accuracy. The Focal Loss function was introduced to alleviate the problem of category imbalance in one-stage safety signs detection. Experimental results indicate that the proposed model achieved a detection precision of 97.76%, which is 7.55% and 9.23% higher than the YOLOV4-tiny and Faster RCNN algorithms, respectively. Besides, the model performed better in the generalization because it avoided the over-fitting phenomenon that occurred in the YOLOV4-tiny and the Faster RCNN. Moreover, the advantages of the improved model were more prominent when detecting small target areas and targets under dim conditions in coal mines. This work is beneficial for the intelligent early warning system with surveillance cameras in coal mines.
... Hasanzadeh et al. (2018) conducted field research to study the relationship between testers' SA and attention (level 1 SA) under fall and tripping hazard conditions at construction sites using an eye-tracker. Cheng and Teizer (2013) proposed an approach to detect the location and size of blind spaces from a tower crane's perspective (level 1 SA) using spatial data sets collected by a laser scanner. The shared commonality of these papers is that they all focus on the subjects' attention to safety-related objects. ...
... This integrated BIM 3D model not only supports the entire life cycle of a building (from design to construction to maintenance management) but also makes it possible to streamline the work ow. Generally, BIM integration within outdoor environments needs to be seamless and accurate, however the currently available IPS solutions used in tandem with BIM have restrictions when it comes to universal traceability of key aspects (such as labor in tunnels and buildings, and the location of construction resources such as vehicles and materials 10,11,12,13 ), which hinder the implementation of comprehensive and universal management of buildings and underground in urban regions. ...
Indoor positioning system (IPS) technologies have a wide range of applications; however, three major limitations associated with currently used IPS technologies are: (1) weak penetration strength of signals to penetrate building materials, inhibiting seamless connection of outdoor coordinates to indoor coordinates; hence these technologies rely on local coordinates, making them incompatible with the world geodetic system (WGS84) and universal traceability, (2) active source signals that require beacons to transmit navigation signals. In contrast, the muometric positioning system utilizes naturally abundant cosmic-ray muons signals to compensate for some of these setbacks. However, its main practical challenges are: (1) the low signal rate (~1 per 10 days for laptop-sized receivers horizontally located 50 m apart from each other) and (2) the requirement for large reference detectors (> 4 m2) above the receiver to track cosmic ray precipitation. In this work, an alternative concept called CAT navigation, which relies on the extended air shower time structure for higher rate positioning (without requiring reference detectors) is first proposed and demonstrated; it located receivers placed on the ground floors of multiple buildings (within WGS84) in conditions where other IPS methods are difficult to apply. The resultant positioning accuracy was 3-4 m (at 50 m apart), which is reasonably accurate for GPS -IPS seamless bridging, and with a laptop sized receiver the averaged positioning signal update rate was (683 s)-1 which can be improved to (170 s)-1 with a future upgrade of the data gathering electronics. By integrating CAT receivers into GPS equipped smartphones, it is anticipated that this GPS -CAT hybrid method will seamlessly connect multi-users’ coordinates from outdoor to indoor environments.
... Although the error of these GNSS systems is typically a few meters, it still provides a more than satisfactory model for its intended purpose: assisting users in reaching a destination within a city, whether it is a strategic site or any building. The advantage of using GNSS-based positioning is that it can be applied to all people moving in an outdoor space [4]. The problem arises when people move from outdoors to indoors because GNSS-based systems degrade their performance in these environments [5][6][7]. ...
The seamless integration of indoor and outdoor positioning has gained considerable attention due to its practical implications in various fields. This paper presents an innovative approach aimed at detecting and delineating outdoor, indoor, and transition areas using a time series analysis of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) error statistics. By leveraging this contextual understanding, the decision-making process between GNSS-based and Visual-Inertial Odometry (VIO) for trajectory estimation is refined, enabling a more robust and accurate positioning. The methodology involves three key steps: proposing the division of our context environment into a set of areas (indoor, outdoor, and transition), exploring two methodologies for the classification of space based on a time series of GNSS error statistics, and refining the trajectory estimation strategy based on contextual knowledge. Real data across diverse scenarios validate the approach, yielding trajectory estimations with accuracy consistently below 10 m.
... From the standpoint of management personnel, VR/AR presents more user-friendly methods for remote operation and observation in the context of cultural heritage risk management digital twins [37]. With the maturation of VR/AR technology, an increasing number of studies are leveraging VR/AR to enhance users' situational awareness [25,[42][43][44][45], yielding positive impacts. However, some studies suggest that users may experience a decline in situational awareness in immersive environments, leading to increased reaction times and cognitive loads [42,46]. ...
Digital twins possess characteristics such as real-time capability, high precision, and high integration. The digital twin system for cultural heritage risk management includes comprehensive information about heritage, contextual data, and expert knowledge. Considering the role of Situational Awareness (SA), it facilitates more efficient risk assessment, analysis, and strategic decision-making for management personnel, thereby reducing damage to cultural heritage.This study extends X-reality technologies into the digital twin system for cultural heritage risk management. It simulates three sets of procedures for remote risk management of cultural heritage (2D desktop, VR, and AR) and explores the effectiveness of VR and AR in enhancing situational awareness from three dimensions of SART (SART-DAR, SART-SAR, SART-UOS). Additionally, we further analyze how the technological attributes of VR and AR (immersion and interactivity) impact the functional mechanism of situational awareness.The results indicate that, compared to the traditional 2D desktop, VR and AR have advantages in enhancing situational awareness of heritage risk. However, in AR mode, SART-DAR and SART-SAR dimensions did not show significant improvement. Furthermore, there is a significant difference in immersion's impact on the SART-DAR dimension. Regarding interactivity, although the results show differences in the impact on the SART-DAR dimension between VR and AR, no significant differences were observed.This study provides design references for building a digital twin system for cultural heritage risk management by deeply understanding the impact of X-reality technologies on the functional mechanism of cultural heritage risk situational awareness. Simultaneously, it offers insights for heritage site managers, heritage experts, and relevant stakeholders to enhance efficiency in risk perception.
... Thus, safety control mechanisms, safety management systems, safety programmes, and safety management practices and skills deployed through XR provide tools for workplace inspection through AR systems [58] or design management and security planning for VR environments [59]. Protocols for information gathering, analysis of safety measures and inspection of protective equipment and working conditions are addressed [60][61][62][63]. Figures 17 and 18 show examples of implementation of these factors in XR environments. ...
The construction industry is known for its high accident rates. One hundred key factors affecting construction safety (fSCPs)—associated with general aspects of organisational management, materials and equipment, the construction site, and human aspects related to the worker and work team—have been identified. EXtended Reality (XR), which encompasses Virtual Reality (VR), Augmented Reality (AR), and Mixed Reality (MR) technologies, is being used in construction safety management. XR offers multiple advantages, given its characteristics of visualisation, immersion, and interaction with digital models and real objects. XR’s potential safety uses are widely recognised, and several studies have tested these technologies for different applications. However, most such efforts have been focused on identifying functionalities, applications, and technological aspects of XR in general, rather than studying whether those uses affect the factors relevant to security management. This study examined the literature on XR experiences that have addressed fSCPs and analysed how these developments have been related to the construction sector’s methodologies and technologies, such as building information modelling (BIM).
Purpose
This paper aims to analyze the current state of technological advancements research in addressing the diverse risk factors involved in earthmoving equipment operations through Rasmussen's (1997) risk management framework. It examines how existing technologies research capture, manage and disseminate risk information across various levels of safety management by defining their core functionalities. The research highlights gaps in current technological solutions research regarding the flow of information in the risk management framework. It emphasizes the need for an integrated approach in technological advancements to enhance the holistic safety management approach capable of capturing various risks across different levels of risk management.
Design/methodology/approach
This research employs a multistep approach. Initially, earthmoving equipment risk factors and functionalities of technological solutions were identified through a systematic review of current scholarly works. Subsequently, social network analysis (SNA) and Pareto analysis were applied to evaluate and determine the importance of risk factors and functionalities of technologies for improving them.
Findings
The findings highlight the importance of multilevel approaches that expand technological functionalities to address risk factors across all levels of Rasmussen's (1997) risk management framework. The current combination of technological advancements focuses primarily on on-site monitoring, congested work sites, site layout/path planning, utility problems, safety training, and blind spot and visibility. Site monitoring and warning systems, supported by sensors and computer vision (CV), are pivotal for identifying risks and enabling data-driven safety management. However, workforce-level cognitive factors (W1-W6), which influence safety behavior, remain underexplored for enhancing their functionality to anticipation and response during the operation. Prevention is the core function of current technological solutions, emphasizing the need to address human and equipment risk factors such as sources of hazards in earthmoving operations. Learning: AI as a data-driven approach and IoT systems are key for future development, and when grounded in ontology-based knowledge of earthwork, they gain a structured vision of earthmoving equipment types, their interactions and the earthwork activities. It enhances the capabilities of these technologies to capture and manage complex interactions between hazard sources (human and equipment), supporting comprehensive risk factors across all levels of the risk management framework.
Originality/value
This paper elucidates that technological solutions for safety management in earthmoving equipment operations require a more holistic approach—grounded in an understanding of functionalities of technologies—to effectively capture risks across various levels of Rasmussen (1997) risk management. It emphasizes that technological solutions should not only address isolated hazards but also ensure the continuous flow of information on multiple risk factors across the risk management framework.
A conceptual framework has been formulated based on an extensive literature review to elucidate the formation mechanism of construction safety resilience. The hypotheses of the construction safety resilience model are statistically validated using questionnaires collected from 361 respondents with experience in railway infrastructure construction projects. The results indicate that both internal and external factors have a positive effect on construction safety resilience. Internal factors play a partially mediating role between external factors and construction safety resilience. Furthermore, it was observed that construction safety risk uncertainty and informatization level moderate the relationships among internal factors, external factors, and construction safety resilience.
Earthmoving operations in the construction process are complex environments that involve interactions between equipment, the workforce, and materials within an overarching construction plan. Over the past two decades, researchers in construction have focused on improving the safety of construction earthmoving equipment due to their omnipresence in the construction environment. Although previous studies have explored safety risks and the causes of accidents involving construction earthmoving equipment, their approaches were common and lacked a comprehensive perspective. Hence, this systematic literature review applies Rasmussen’s (1997) risk management framework using a systems thinking approach to identify and classify the risk factors influencing earthmoving equipment operation safety in construction sites. Utilizing a multistep methodology, this research first identifies 38 risk factors pertinent to earthmoving equipment operations and then classifies them based on systems thinking. Social network analysis (SNA) is employed to analyze the data. The results show that most research on earthmoving equipment safety focuses on monitoring construction sites, but very little on government and regulatory roles. When considering the interdependencies of risk factors, safety training is the most important factor, followed by the largely overlooked earthmoving machinery characteristics and manufacturer’s performance. The results of this review inform both the research community and industry practitioners regarding the less-understood aspects of earthmoving equipment operation safety and future research directions.
Occupational safety is a critical aspect of the manufacturing sector, especially for small and medium-sized enterprises , which often face a safety divide compared to large companies due to significant differences in resources and awareness. Digital solutions can provide interesting support for dealing with specific hazardous situations and improving safety performance. However, there is a digital divide based on company size when it comes to the adoption of innovative digital solutions by small and medium-sized enterprises. This digital divide could widen the safety divide. To bridge these divides, the present research, through an extensive survey conducted among employers of Italian metalworking small and medium enterprises, explores various digital solutions and their potential to tackle hazardous situations in the workplace; it also addresses barriers and drivers influencing the adoption of the solutions and evaluates the results against different contextual factors characterizing the studied enterprises. Key barriers adopting digital solutions include the lack of perceived benefits, privacy concerns , implementation difficulties, and cost. On the other hand, the clarity and trustworthiness of the data collected and the ease of use of a digital solution can support the adoption. The study offers academic and managerial insights and contributes to the debate on the transition to Industry 5.0.
Studies have demonstrated the critical role that safety plays in preserving favourable working conditions in the construction industry, which is necessary to accomplish goals. The aim of this research was to inform stakeholders in the construction industry in developing nations about the value of safety and possible strategies for influencing their opinions regarding safety protocols. The importance of safety to the construction sector, which is crucial to the advancement of the country, has also been emphasized. However, due to a lack of adequate safety understanding among stakeholders in the construction sector, the construction industry is characterized by a great deal of instability and hazard. To determine what factors, affect productive working conditions in the construction production, this study examined safety. A conceptual framework for safe working conditions in the construction sector was developed by considering several aspects, including the person dimension, environment factor, safety behaviour, organization features, technology, and incentives. It is now imperative to bring in these dimensions to improve the safe working conditions in the construction industry, particularly in the developing countries. By putting these safety factors into practice, the construction industry can reduce safety risks, lower the number of accidents and fatalities, cut expenses related to subpar safety performance, safeguard the reputation of construction companies, boost employee morale and satisfaction with their work, enhanced employee retention, reduced absenteeism, and enhanced sustainability goals. Additionally, the proposed conceptual framework is assured to be new and to be widely accepted in the developing nations. Based on this assumption the conceptual framework is designed.
Construction site hazards and safety issues present substantial risks to both construction workers and the wider public. Improper construction practices or cost-cutting measures can lead to severe consequences, such as structural failures, collapses, and the endangerment of both workers and nearby residents. This paper focuses on enhancing construction site safety by employing advanced data analysis methods, with a specific emphasis on the power of Bayesian Network analysis. Our research pioneers the integration of Bayesian Networks, augmented by data collected from wearable sensors, to comprehensively model accidents, particularly those involving auxiliary equipment. Through the incorporation of Bayesian Network analysis and real-time sensor data into the safety data integration process, our work addresses the pressing need for heightened safety measures within the construction industry. We aspire to exceed current safety standards and catalyze a transformation in construction practices, guided by a data-driven methodology that thoroughly investigates the multifaceted factors contributing to accidents, including those related to falls from heights.
This study presents an acoustic-based multitask technique for distinguishing construction equipment types and their associated activities using a customized ResNet-18 deep learning (DL) model. Construction equipment activities on sites require efficient recognition during real-time operations to ensure maximum productivity and safety. While other studies examine typical recognition, particularly visual or sensor-based methods, this study investigates the potential of equipment-generated audio signals as a feasible option for activity classification. Leveraging the acoustic signal and advanced DL techniques, we collected and preprocessed the audio signals from construction equipment and trained them on the customized pretrained ResNet-18 model to accurately recognize equipment and its corresponding activities. The proposed method shows superior accuracy and good performance in equipment and activity identification. Our findings demonstrate the capability and efficiency of the developed approach in accurately classifying equipment and activity types, achieving classification accuracies of up to 97%. Compared to other models, our method is more computationally efficient. The results suggest that the proposed method holds promise for real-time recognition of heavy equipment and associated activities. Its capability can reduce construction risks, enhance productivity, and improve decision-making at construction sites.
Spatial design greatly influences fire evacuation in buildings. Although existing works have comprehensively assessed building spatial design in terms of building circulation, they overlooked how the building layout and emergency signage system affect occupants’ attention allocation during fire emergencies. Therefore, this paper proposes a framework to investigate the effectiveness of building evacuation impacted by building spatial design by integrating building information model (BIM), fire simulation, and virtual reality (VR) technology. A case study was carried out to evaluate building spatial design in terms of building circulation and emergency signage. The results demonstrated that when the signage sizes were relatively small but the spacing and placement heights were reasonable, participants were able to recognize and follow the guide. However, insufficient continuity caused the participants to waste much effort searching for helpful information on evacuation-irrelevant objects, reducing fire evacuation efficiency. Moreover, the signage placed at a higher position has a positive effect on route choice.
Struck-by injuries are a leading proximal cause of fatal injuries and are usually caused by a falling or suspended objects and contact between workers and heavy equipment. As with other injuries, struck-by risks are most effectively mitigated early in the planning phases of a project. Among different methods of preconstruction safety management, safety risk modeling and integration has been shown to be highly effective. To enhance the current preconstruction safety management methods, the authors utilized an attribute-based risk identification and analysis method that helps designers and preconstruction planners to identify and model safety risk independently of specific activities or building components. In order to identify the attributes that contribute to struck-by incidents and quantify their relative risks, over 300 injury reports from the National databases reviewed. In total, 34 attributes were identified and their risks were then quantified. It was found that working under or near lifted loads (15.6%), working with heavy equipment (17.1%), workers on foot and moving equipments (13.5%) are the most hazardous attributes that lead to struck-by accidents. The results can be used by practitioners to integrate robust safety risk data into project designs, schedules, building information models, and pre-task plans.
Awareness of the construction environment can be improved by automatic three-dimensional ͑3D͒ sensing and modeling of job sites in real time. Commercially available 3D modeling approaches based on range scanning techniques are capable of modeling static objects only, and thus cannot model dynamic objects in real time in an environment comprised of moving humans, equipment, and materials. Emerging prototype video range cameras offer an alternative by facilitating affordable, wide field of view, dynamic object tracking at frame rates better than 1 Hz ͑real time͒. This paper describes a methodology to model, detect, and track the position of static and moving objects in real time, based on data obtained from video range cameras. Experiments with this technology have produced results that indicate that video rate 3D data acquisition and analysis of construction environments can support effective modeling, detection, and tracking of project resources. This approach to job site awareness has inherent value and broad application. In combination with effective management practices and other sensing techniques, this technology has the potential to significantly improve safety on construction job sites.
Awareness of the construction environment can be improved by automatic three-dimensional (313) sensing and modeling of job sites in real time. Commercially available 3D modeling approaches based on range scanning techniques are capable of modeling static objects only, and thus cannot model dynamic objects in real time in an environment comprised of moving humans, equipment, and materials. Emerging prototype video range cameras offer an alternative by facilitating affordable, wide field of view, dynamic object tracking at frame rates better than 1 Hz (real time). This paper describes a methodology to model, detect, and track the position of static and moving objects in real time, based on data obtained from video range cameras. Experiments with this technology have produced results that indicate that video rate 3D data acquisition and analysis of construction environments can support effective modeling, detection, and tracking of project resources. This approach to job site awareness has inherent value and broad application. In combination with effective management practices and other sensing techniques, this technology has the potential to significantly improve safety on construction job sites.
ABSTRACT To provide a safe and productive environment, project managers need to plan for the work spaces required by construction activities. Work space planning involves representing various types of spaces required by construction activities in three dimensions and across time. Since a construction schedule consists of hundreds of activities requiring multiple types of spaces, it is practically impossible to expect project managers to specify manually the spatio-temporal data necessary to represent work spaces in four dimension. This paper presents mechanisms,that automatically generate project-specific work spaces from a generic work space ontology and a project-specific IFC (Industry Foundation Classes) based 4D production model. The generation of these work spaces leads to a space-loaded production model. Work spaces know,to which activities and construction methods they belong, when, where and for how long they exist and how much volume,they occupy. A space-loaded production model enables richer 4D
Linking of the activities in a critical path method schedule with the corresponding elements of a three-dimensional D model makes the project sequence easier to understand. Although some commercial tools allow the planner to build a 4D model and create graphical simulation of the construction process, it still lacks features like generation and manipulation of a 4D model within a single environment. This paper presents a geographic information systems GIS based methodology for scheduling as an alternative to the existing 4D computer aided design tools. A methodology to build a D model and link it with the construction schedule using several in-house scripts written in GIS environment is discussed. It allows the planner to understand the construction schedule quickly by linking the activities of the schedule with the corresponding 3D components as well as to visualize a buildable schedule on a computer screen. The proposed methodology utilizes the dynamic linkage between the activities in the schedule and corresponding 3D components, thus, making it possible to detect the incompleteness and logical errors in the schedule sequence. The ability of GIS to maintain spatial data i.e., 3D components corresponding to each activity in separate themes, which can be superimposed spatially, is utilized. The related nonspatial information like schedule, material type and quantity, safety and quality control recommendations, etc. are stored in the attribute tables of corresponding components, which can be extracted from the database maintained within the GIS itself.
With recent advancements in software applications and computer display technology, it is now possible to place construction students within a large-scale, immersive projection display that allows them to experience and experiment with a 3D, full-scale virtual model of a construction project. This advanced visual communication can significantly improve the ability of students to comprehend, learn, and gain experience with reviewing designs for constructability and planning the construction of complex building and infrastructure projects. Results from several experiments that start to illustrate the potential benefits of using virtual reality and immersive projection displays for educating construction engineering and management students are presented. The experiments illustrate the students can develop a more in-depth understanding of the construction process and construction planning by using advanced visualization tools. Key initiatives are defined to provide a roadmap for future efforts toward implementing virtual reality into education.
Construction safety has substantially improved, but has reached a plateau. Further improvement will come from spreading Best Practice throughout the industry, or from Breakthrough that transcends Best Practice. We are working on Breakthrough and propose that what is needed is a new theory of accidents. Current Best Practice is described along with its underlying theoretical assumptions. An alternative theory is proposed, based on the work of Jens Rasmussen, a leading thinker on risk management in dynamic environments. A research program is proposed to test that theory and to develop a new approach to safety management.
The University of Auckland has been utilizing a multi-player game engine to develop an application (StringCVE) to coordinate architectural design and critique within a collaborative virtual environment (CVE). The initial emphasis of the research was to provide a low cost but feature rich alternative to commercial Virtual Reality (VR) in order to facilitate virtual design studios for architectural education. This paper summarizes case study feedback from beta tests, reports on current development, and positions the application relative to commercial VR systems and 3D CAD software. We propose that the most suitable use of game engine-based CVE is to support the early stages of design where teams can collaborate and evaluate iterations at a relatively low level of detail. In order for this to be a useful part of the design cycle the easy transfer of data (geometry and embedded information) from the game engine to 3D CAD software is crucial. We describe an integrated project database that allows correspondences between CAD representations and game engine resources to be maintained. This will allow a level of interchange between the game engine and typical CAD software sufficient to enable efficient use of StringCVE in the design and construction process.
The use of virtual reality and immersive projection display (IPD) systems in the Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) industry is becoming a more viable option for traditional design review tasks. A Federal Courtroom mockup begins with the traditional design process and commences with a full review in a physical mockup. These physical mockups are typically made of plywood and housed at an off site warehouse. In some instances full scale mockups including finish materials are constructed. This research investigates the potential use of a virtual mockup to replace or augment the physical mockups. A virtual mockup was developed for a courthouse project and twenty professionals from the owner, end users, and contractor reviewed the mockup in a large display system. Surveys were used to identify criteria that judges, their staffs, and design and construction professionals perceive are the most important aspects of the design review process and which of these aspects can be assisted by using a virtual mockup. We found that virtual mockups can provide a viable avenue for reviewing project sight lines.
Collaborative AEC technologies centering around component-based CAD models support architectural and structural perspectives. The construction perspective is often neglected because an important dimension for construction–time–is missing. Construction planners are forced to abstract CAD model building components into schedule models representing time. 4D-CAD (3D-CAD+time) removes this abstraction by linking a 3D building model and schedule model through associative relationships. Adding time to 3D-CAD models extends the use of CAD tools from the design phase to the construction phase. Although commercial 4D tools exist that allow planners to build 4D models and create graphic simulations of the construction process, these tools lack features to support analysis of these models, easy generation and manipulation of such models, and realistic visualizations of the construction process. This paper discusses these shortcomings, highlights requirements for CAD tools to support construction planning tasks, and describes our efforts to develop 4D tools that generate 4D+x models that more realistically represent the construction process.
This paper describes initial research using the Virtual Reality Modeling Language (VRML97) in construction industry applications. The modeling of steel structures and construction equipment as objects for inclusion in construction-site world models was studied. The ultimate goal is to provide three-dimensional web-based technologies for managing, accessing, and viewing construction project information.
In 1997, Azuma published a survey on augmented reality (AR). Our
goal is to complement, rather than replace, the original survey by
presenting representative examples of the new advances. We refer one to
the original survey for descriptions of potential applications (such as
medical visualization, maintenance and repair of complex equipment,
annotation, and path planning); summaries of AR system characteristics
(such as the advantages and disadvantages of optical and video
approaches to blending virtual and real, problems in display focus and
contrast, and system portability); and an introduction to the crucial
problem of registration, including sources of registration error and
error-reduction strategies
In this paper, a new methodology called Distributed Augmented Reality for Visualising Collaborative Construction Tasks (DARCC)
is proposed. Using this methodology, virtual models of construction equipment can be operated and viewed by several operators
to interactively simulate construction activities on the construction site in augmented reality mode. The chapter investigates
the design issues of DARCC including tracking and registration, object modelling, engineering constraints, and interaction
and communication methods. The DARCC methodology is implemented in a prototype system and tested through a case study of a
bridge deck rehabilitation project.
Education is crucial to a safe and healthy working environment in construction and engaging students in the construction engineering and management programs in this very important subject is the catalyst to the success of safety education. This paper discusses the evaluation of an innovative learning assessment tool, Safety Inspector, for the education of construction safety. Safety Inspector is a 3D video game previously developed to provide a "safe" environment that engages students in recognizing comprehensive hazards, evaluates student performance, and enhances student learning interests. Evaluation strategies developed in the research take into considerations student learning objectives for construction safety, limitations of available assessment resources, logistics of the course, signals that reflect underlying cognitive learning processing, and statistical validity requirements. To implement the evaluation, game-based and paper-based tests were both administered for the experiment with a follow-up questionnaire in an undergraduate class at the University of Washington. Some patterns were identified as a result of the evaluation. The major lesson learned is that when the hazard recognition tasks are presented similarly in different test modes, testing scores could be more statistically relevant. However, certain types of hazards are difficult to identify in the game-base test because they require the change of viewing angles that do not naturally occur in a virtual model.
Emerging wireless remote sensing technologies offer significant potential to advance the management of construction processes by providing real-time access to the locations of workers, materials, and equipment. Unfortunately, little is known regarding the accuracy, reliability, and practical benefits of an emerging technology, effectively impeding widespread adoption. This paper evaluates a commercially-available Ultra Wideband (UWB) system for real-time, mobile resource location tracking in harsh construction environments. A focus of this paper is to measure the performance of the UWB technology for tracking mobile resources in real-world construction settings. To assess tracking accuracy, location error rates for select UWB track signals are obtained by automatically tracking a single entity using a Robotic Total Station (RTS) for ground truth. Furthermore, to demonstrate the benefits of UWB technology, the paper provides case studies of resource tracking for analysis of worksite operations. The work demonstrates the applicability of UWB for the design of construction management support tools.
Construction safety is a national and worldwide issue. This paper contributes in solving this problem by applying automated safety rule checking to Building Information Models (BIM). Algorithms that automatically analyze a building model to detect safety hazards and suggest preventive measures to users are developed for different cases involving fall related hazards. As BIM is changing the way construction can be approached, the presented work and case studies extend BIM to include automated hazard identification and correction during construction planning and in certain cases, during design. A rule-based engine that utilizes this framework is implemented on top of a commercially available BIM platform to show the feasibility of the approach. As a result, the developed automated safety checking platform informs construction engineers and managers by reporting, why, where, when, and what safety measures are needed for preventing fall-related accidents before construction starts. The safety area reviewed is fall protection. An example case study of such a system is also provided.
This paper introduces a new set of software tools that integrate near-real-time visualization with a publish-and-subscribe mechanism to achieve remote monitoring and control of dynamic objects in an underwater scene. The approach proposed in this paper involves the integration of existing technologies to produce a powerful and flexible solution easily adapted to the extensive and diverse set of situationsencountered in underwater construction, underwater surveying, and maritime navigation. Users can define elaborate virtual scenes that can accurately represent all the relevant elements associated with an underwater construction job, including complex structures and dynamic objects, such as ROVs, vessels, etc. Real-time data from instruments and positioning sensors is made available by using a publishing mechanism and a remote data server. Users with Internet or intranet access can subscribe to any real-time data field being published and receive updates each time the information changes, allowing them to monitor and log the events of the underwater job at the same time they are taking place.
The use of advanced cueing techniques and multi-resolution rendering make it possible to achieve interactive frame rates without sacrificing accuracy and realism. The concept of 3D modules will also be introduced. These powerful modules can be linked to live data and attached to any element in the virtual environment including dynamic ones. This flexibility allows the users to monitor the data, not only as it changes, but also within the spatial context that makes the most sense. This paper focuses on the visualization components of the proposed solution, while providing a general description of the other two components (data acquisition, data distribution), and describes the Ehime Maru recovery mission as an example of an underwater job that benefited by using this technology.
Introduction
Any scenario that deprives or diminishes our senses will always produce challenges because our ability to make good decisions lessens with poor perception. The ocean is without a doubt a perfect example of such a place. Depths of only a few hundred feet already pose serious challenges for any kind of operation. The drastic loss of visibility associated with depth, combined with the enormous pressures and low temperatures makes it a place where only tele-operated robots can function. These robots provide limited feedback to the people that operate them, making underwater construction a very expensive and time-consuming process.
There are several factors responsible for the lack of useful feedback, many of which are bound by the laws of physics. Communication technologies that thrive in air simply fail to work in water (e.g., radio waves). Position technologies such as GPS or laser tracking cannot be used underwater. Light can only travel a limited distance in water. As a result, the sensors currently available provide limited accuracy and frequency. The cameras available today can only provide an image of the immediate vicinity even under good visibility conditions. To complicate things even further, the data collected by all these sensors and cameras is often scattered across many systems, making its perception and analysis very difficult.
Dynamic three-dimensional D animation can be of significant value in improving the verification validation, and commu- nication of discrete-event simulation DES models of construction operations, which in turn can make the models more credible and thus useful in operations planning and decision making. This paper presents research that led to the design and implementation of practical D animation methods to visualize multiply-articulated construction equipment in 3D animations of simulated construction operations. Using principles of forward and inverse kinematics, the writers designed and implemented generic virtual pieces of articulated construction equipment that accept task-level instructions from external software processes. DES models can configure and instantiate specific pieces of such equipment and instruct them to perform construction tasks using simple parametric text statements that embody a construction work-like terminology. Once instructed to perform specific tasks e.g., load soil, these "smart" pieces of equipment e.g., backhoes automatically decipher the sequence and amplitudes of the elemental motions their components e.g., boom, stick must undergo to accomplish those tasks. The animation methods are implemented in a software tool called KineMach that integrates as an add-on with the VITASCOPE visualization system.
Even though engineered components, such as pipe spools and structural steel elements, generally account for a significant percentage of the total installed cost of an industrial project, current industry practices still rely on human ability to track thousands of these components individually after they are received at the job site. These site-tracking practices are inefficient and error prone. This paper presents an approach for automating the identification and localization of construction components on large industrial projects. The proposed approach combines advanced sensing devices and localization mechanisms. The appropriate combination of global positioning system and radio-frequency identification (RFID) facilitates an infrastructure-free data collection process capable of detecting a large number of RFID-tagged components in short amounts of time. Based on the collected data, localization mechanisms precisely estimate the coordinates of the tagged components. Field experiments on real construction scenarios demonstrated the feasibility of the proposed methodology.
Studies measuring and evaluating the impact of the same multimedia-based education on learners in universities and high schools are a relatively new phenomenon. This study provides a summary of the results from research on the effects of multimedia-based safety education conducted by the M. E. Rinker Sr. School of Building Construction at the University of Florida. The findings are presented along with their related statistical test results. The findings indicate multimedia-based, self-paced learning offers very distinct advantages over traditional, instructor-led classroom learning. Overall, both the high-school and university student groups involved in the study exhibited superior retention rates when learning from the multimedia-based materials. Higher scoring students in the classroom showed little difference in either media, while students who tended to score at the low end of the grading scale uniformly scored higher on multimedia-based materials. The reduced variation in student performance based on test scores in the CD-ROM instruction indicates the positive effects of multimedia-based instruction.
The use of visualization and virtual reality (VR) technologies to solve operations level problems in construction has been limited to the creation of specific scenarios of very short duration (relatively speaking) resulting from long term efforts dedicated to the creation of specific cases. In order to capitalize on VR technologies in planning and design of construction operations, we must be able to rapidly generate alternate operations level virtual world scenarios for comparison, evaluation, and "what-if" analyses. Several external software and hardware processes are capable of generating information that describes dynamic construction scenarios. However, such processes cannot communicate directly with computer graphics facilities that must be invoked to depict operations in 3D virtual worlds. This paper describes work that led to the design of a specific description that facilitates rapid, automated communication between external authoring processes and 3D computer graphics facilities. This description, formalized as the VITASCOPE language, defines a necessary layer of abstraction that effectively separates 3D virtual construction worlds from the processes that generate them. This is critical in enabling rapid, automated interaction (often simultaneous) between multiple software and hardware processes and 3D virtual worlds.
This paper discusses the development of virtual structural analysis program (VSAP). This is a virtual environment (VE) based structural analysis system developed through a collaborative effort between the School of Architecture + Design and the Department of Computer Science at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State Univ. (Virginia Tech). The VSAP was developed by linking a visualization routine using the simple VE library and a structural analysis software, the PC-SAP4. Details of the design of four user interfaces for the VSAP are presented. These user interfaces are: the immersive pen and tablet interface, the desktop interface, the portable immersive interface, and the cave automatic VE immersive interface. Usability studies for each interface were conducted. Results of these studies indicated that the users of VSAP were highly satisfied with the experience. In addition, all the developed interfaces were found to be successful for their specific application.
UK higher education institutions have invested significantly in the implementation of communication and information technology (CIT) in teaching, learning and assessment with mixed results. This work investigated the use of multimedia technologies in the form of digital imagery and visualization material to improve student knowledge and understanding. In this context, this paper reports on a major UK initiative (CAL-Visual) funded by the Higher Education Funding Council as part of the Teaching and Learning Technology Programme looking at improving the use of images for teaching and learning in built environment education. It first describes ways in which computer-aided learning (CAL) is being used in civil and building engineering curricula, it then presents the main aims and objectives of the project and describes the design and implementation of the CAL-Visual system. It concludes by reporting on the results of an evaluation conducted using case studies relating to different applications.
In most countries, the construction industry is one of the most dangerous industries. Safety in construction is a complex issue and is influenced by many factors, such as the technology being used, worker behaviour, actual site conditions and, of course, the design being constructed. Given this background, safety hazards identification and accident precautions are important elements in any construction site safety management system. The development described in this paper has produced a visualization of the construction process that can be used to assess safety hazards. The aim of the research is to produce a design-for-safety-process (DFSP) tool. This will help to identify safety hazards inherited during the building construction phase that are actually produced during the design phase. The domain, in which this particular application is being developed, is a typical 40-storey Hong Kong Housing Authority residential block.In this paper, the components of DFSP tool are discussed. The components of DFSP tool comprise of virtually real construction components and processes, virtual reality functions, and DFSP database. The integration of these components enables a user to do a walk-through in the virtually real project and to identify safety hazards inherited within construction components and processes as well as to select accident precautions needed to prevent the occurrence of accidents.
Virtual reality-based training systems are advanced computer-assisted training systems using virtual reality (VR) technology. To have better structure and easier implementation, a virtual training system can be modeled as an integrated system consisting of a training visualization suite, an interface module and instruction module. This paper discusses how a fully immersive VR visualization suite, called “Cybersphere”, can be used in conjunction with a collaborative product suite to achieve an ideal training environment for manufacturing industries. The design and development of the system, and expert- and user-based evaluations are reported.
The presented research investigated generic and scalable techniques to accurately represent 3D motion paths in dynamic animations of operations simulated using Discrete-Event Simulation. The work designed and implemented methods that can be used to 1) define and manipulate arbitrarily-shaped trajectories to represent accurate 3D motion paths of virtual simulation objects, and 2) compute the precise three-dimensional spatial configuration of virtual simulation objects when they travel on defined paths. In order to address the problem of describing the accurate motion of simulation objects on realistic paths, the research investigated the requirements of two key technologies: 1) A mathematical representation for defining arbitrarily complex curves that can, by manipulating only high-level interaction parameters, be locally and/or globally edited to describe a realistic motion trajectory, and 2) A geometric basis to guide the computation of a simulation object's correct 3D orientation as it travels on an arbitrarily uneven virtual terrain surface. In order to achieve the first objective, the research investigated a technique of producing a general class of interpolating cubic splines whose shape can be locally or globally controlled by modifying three high-level control parameters. In addition, by implementing an innovative virtual terrain-following algorithm, a computation scheme was designed that correctly calculates and portrays the orientation of simulation objects along all three axes (yaw, pitch, and roll) as they travel inside animated 3D virtual worlds. The designed animation methods were implemented in a software tool called PathFinder that integrates as an add-on with the VITASCOPE visualization system.
Globalization has allowed construction companies to become part of the global economy. However, this economic survival is dependent on their ability to attain the levels of technology development, which can make them globally competitive. The UK Construction sector is a highly knowledge intensive sector where tackling critical technology adoption issues are central to their survival. One such issue is of understanding factors that affect the adoption of Virtual Reality within top UK construction firms in the public sector. Previous literature suggests that various factors play a role in the adoption of VR systems; however, there is little empirical research about the factors affecting the adoption of this technology in the construction sector. This research paper investigates forms of barriers that affect adoption of VR technology in top UK construction firms in the public sector. A three phase Factor Analysis Approach that incorporates discriminant and empirical analysis reveals that factors such as Champion within a Company, Top Management Support, Internal Needs, Degree of Business Competition, Coordination of Organizational Resources and Participation of Users would affect the adoption of visualization technology.
Visualization of construction operations is an important technique to communicate the logic of sim- ulation models in detail. Early efforts resulted in a scene graph and frame update algorithm that was capable of converting discrete information from simulation models into smooth and continuous 3D animations. That algo- rithm did not account for high speed or concurrent ani- mation because the need to do so was not anticipated. Re- cent advances in computing power and an interest in us- ing the technology for next generation applications now demand accurate high speed and concurrent animations. This article presents the design of the original algorithm at a previously undocumented level of detail and speci- ficity, and that allows for the analysis of its shortcomings when used at high speeds or concurrently with simula- tion. Two subsequent but still inadequate designs of the algorithm are also presented and analyzed in detail so that they can serve as an illustration of the path toward the final design and place it in proper context. The ar- ticle concludes with the final design and evaluation of the algorithm, which is accurate at very high animation speeds and supports concurrent animation of simulation models.
This paper concludes that 4D models are a useful alternative to project scheduling tools like CPM networks and bar charts. They enable more people to understand a schedule quickly and identify potential problems. By developing a 4D model for a commercial construction project, we were able to detect the incompleteness of the original schedule, find inconsistencies in the level of detail among the schedule activities, and discover an impossible schedule sequence. We were also able to anticipate potential time-space conflicts and accessibility problems. The results of the case study show that 4D models are effective in evaluating the executability of a construction schedule. The case study also highlighted the need for improvements to 4D tools. 4D tools should include bar charts, component lists, and annotation tools in their graphical user interface. Automating schedule data preparation and 4D model generation in the design stages of a project can expedite 4D model development and use. Users need to be able to generate 4D models at multiple levels of detail and generate and evaluate alternative scenarios rapidly.
This paper presents work exploring the potential of virtual reality (VR) within an affordable environmentin the early years of architectural education has been limited. Through an immersive environmentsystem in the studio, students create space by manipulating solids and voids while evaluating theanthropometric relations of the proposed solution. The students are able to study and test conceptualdetails in a virtual environment from the very beginning of their architectural design project.We carried out a usability study in order to assess student perception of the usefulness of varioussystem attributes for diverse tasks. Thirty-five surveys were collected from the students who had usedthe system. Observations indicate that within the architectural context, virtual reality techniquesinvolving depth perception can convey relevant information to students more efficiently and with lessmisrepresentation than traditional techniques.
DOI: 10.1016/S0360-1323(02)00239-1 During the last decade, extensive research efforts have been made on the development of four-dimensional (4D) models (space + time) which integrate computer graphics of three-dimensional geometrical models to scheduling data with a view to generating graphic visualization of construction processes for planning and decision making purposes. Nevertheless, these 4D applications to construction planning are often limited to the component level of a building. Their major drawback is the lack of pragmatic site management features, such as analysis of resource requirements for individual construction activity, generation of site facility layouts, quantification of construction materials and cost evaluation over a specified time period. The objective of this study on 4D graphics for construction planning and site utilization (acronym 4D-GCPSU) is mainly to furnish a solution to the aforementioned problem. In this paper, our works on 4D model in a broader site management context aiming to assist planners to deal with day to day activities are delineated. The prospective requirements for 4D application to support practical use on site management are also highlighted. Author name used in this publication: K. W. Chau
Keywords: 3D geometrical model; 4D visualization; construction planning; construction scheduling; site management; site utilization
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Time needed to connect steel girders
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Fig. 12. Time needed to connect steel girders.