ArticlePDF Available

Comparing Comprehension Following Silent and Aloud Reading across Elementary and Secondary Students: Implication for Curriculum-Based Measurement

Authors:

Abstract and Figures

In the current study, 42 secondary students (10th, 11th, and 12th grade students) and 51 elementary students (4th and 5th grade students) read 400 word passages silently and aloud. During aloud reading, words correct per minute (WCPM) were recorded. After reading each passage, students answered 10 multiple-choice comprehensionquestions. Results showed comprehension was significantly higher when students read passages aloud, as opposed to silently. No interaction was found between comprehension and grade level (elementary versus secondary). Discussion is focused on theories of reading comprehension and applied implications for assessing comprehensionfollowing the administration of Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM) reading probes.
Content may be subject to copyright.
The Behavior Analyst Today Volume 8, Issue 1, 2007
9
Comparing Comprehension Following Silent and Aloud Reading
across Elementary and Secondary Students: Implication for
Curriculum-Based Measurement
Andrea D. Hale, Christopher H. Skinner, Jacqueline Williams, Renee Hawkins,
Christine E. Neddenriep and Jessica Dizer
In the current study, 42 secondary students (10th, 11th, and 12th grade students) and 51 elementary students (4th and
5th grade students) read 400 word passages silently and aloud. During aloud reading, words correct per minute
(WCPM) were recorded. After reading each passage, students answered 10 multiple-choice comprehension
questions. Results showed comprehension was significantly higher when students read passages aloud, as opposed
to silently. No interaction was found between comprehension and grade level (elementary versus secondary).
Discussion is focused on theories of reading comprehension and applied implications for assessing comprehension
following the administration of Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM) reading probes.
Keywords: Reading comprehension, silent reading, oral reading, words correct per minute, curriculum-based
measurement
Reading skill deficit are prevalent, common in most student refereed for special education
services, and can hinder learning, skill development, and success across vocational, academic, and daily
living tasks (Daly, Chafouleas, & Skinner, 2005; Lentz, 1998; National Assessment of Educational
Progress, 2005; Winn, Skinner, Oliver, Hale, & Ziegler, in press). Although a variety of theories and
procedures have been developed to remedy reading skill deficits, our science has not developed to the
point where we can be assured that any specific intervention will remedy reading skill deficits for specific
students. Thus, researchers and educators have developed various procedures and systems that allow
educators to quickly assess the effects of various reading interventions on students reading skill
development (i.e., progress monitoring or measuring responsiveness to intervention, see Fletcher, Coulter,
Reschly, & Vaughn, 2004).
Words Correct per Minute
There are several common characteristics with various reading skill development progress
monitoring systems. One is that they employ brief and sensitive measures that allow for frequent
assessment of skill development. With respect to reading skills, one measure that is included in most
systems is words read correctly per minute (WCPM). This measure which Deno and Mirkin's (1977)
described in their curriculum-based measurement (CBM) system for progress and performance
monitoring, is also used in the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS, Good &
Kaminski, 2002) and AIMSweb (AIMSweb Progress Monitoring and Response to Intervention System,
2006) systems. To collect WCPM data, students are asked to read aloud, often for 1 minute, as the
examiner scores errors. After students have finished reading aloud the examiner calculates both words
correct per minute (WCPM) and errors per minute (Deno & Mirkin, 1977; Shapiro, 2004).
WCPM is a measure of oral or aloud reading fluency or speed of accurate aloud reading. Many
researchers have investigated the psychometric properties of WCPM and found that it is a valid
(concurrent, construct, and criterion related validity), reliable, and sensitive measure of general reading
skill development (Deno, Mirkin, & Chiang, 1982; Espin & Foegen, 1996; Fuchs & Deno 1991; Fuchs,
Fuchs, and Maxwell, 1988; Hintze, Shapiro, Conte, & Basile, 1997). Although, WCPM has been shown
to positively correlate with standardized norm-referenced measures of reading comprehension, (Deno et
al., 1982; Fuchs & Deno, 1992; Fuchs et al., 1988; Marston, 1989; Shinn et al., 1992), because WCPM
does not directly assess reading comprehension educators and research have expressed concerns about the
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
The Behavior Analyst Today Volume 8, Issue 1, 2007
10
face validity of the measure (Potter & Wamre, 1990; Skinner, Neddenriep, Bradley-Klug, & Ziemann,
2002). This limitation may be important as the primary function, goal, or purpose of reading is
comprehension2 (Rowell, 1976; Salasoo, 1986; Sindelar & Stoddard, 1991; Skinner, 1998). Thus, some
may be concerned that WC/M will not detect comprehension deficits in students who can read aloud
accurately and rapidly, but fail to comprehend what they are reading (Marston, 1989).
To address this limitation Shapiro (1996) suggested that reading comprehension questions be
administered after CBM WCPM administrations to provide a more directly measure reading
comprehension. Students, especially secondary students typically read silently when reading for
comprehension (Skinner et al., 2002). If comprehension is assessed after a student reads aloud, then it is
important to ascertain if reading mode of topography (i.e., aloud versus silent reading) significantly
affects comprehension. If reading mode significantly and systematically affects reading comprehension
(i.e., reading comprehension is hindered when students read aloud compared to when they read silently),
then measures of reading comprehension following aloud CBM readings may not accurately assess
students’ silent-reading comprehension skills.
Research on the effect of reading mode (e.g., aloud, silent) on comprehension is equivocal (Fuchs
& Maxwell, 1988; Juel & Holmes, 1981; McCallum, Sharp, Bell, & George, 2004). There are several
theories that suggest that reading aloud and reading silently may systematically impact comprehension
differently (Jones & Lockhart, 1919; Juel & Holmes, 1981). Furthermore, these theories suggest that the
mode of reading (silent versus aloud) may have differential effects on comprehension, depending upon
the skill of the reader (Kragler, 1995).
Some researchers have found evidence that individuals comprehend more information after
reading silently when compared to reading aloud (Jones & Lockhart, 1919; Mead, 1915, 1917; Pinter,
1913). To explain these findings, some researchers contend that the process of oral reading requires the
reader to allocate a portion of their limited cognitive resources to pronunciation, intonation, and emphasis
of words. The result of the reader's cognitive resources being focused, in part, on the dynamics of reading
aloud, reduces cognitive resources available for comprehension (Jones & Lockhart, 1919). Juel and
Holmes (1981) suggest that oral reading may follow a "bottom up" process, meaning that readers may
stop processing after achieving phonological recordings. If the reading process stops directly after
achieving phonological recordings, then lexical access or comprehension processes may never occur.
Because younger and/or less skilled readers may not have automatic decoding skills, they may be more
likely to focus the majority of their cognitive resources on phonological recordings, as opposed to
comprehension.
Other researchers found that individuals comprehend more information after reading orally when
compared to reading silently (Collins, 1961; Duffy & Durrell, 1935; Rowell, 1976). Based on evidence
that comprehension is enhanced by aloud reading, theorists have suggested that poor readers may benefit
more than good readers from the experience of hearing themselves read and from the required
concentrated attention needed to read orally (Kragler, 1995; Levin, 1979; Swalm, 1973). Finally, others
found no significant difference in the comprehension after reading silently when compared to reading
aloud (Jones, 1932; McCallum et al., 2004; Poulton & Brown, 1967).
Student’s reading proficiency may affect the reading mode that best facilitates comprehension.
Kragler (1995) found that beginning readers who read aloud had higher reading placement scores than
beginning readers who read silently. Miller and Smith (1990) compared comprehension across silent and
oral reading and found that (a) poor readers had higher comprehension scores when reading aloud, (b)
average readers had higher comprehension scores when reading silently, and (c) there was no significant
difference in comprehension across silent and aloud reading in students with stronger reading skills.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
The Behavior Analyst Today Volume 8, Issue 1, 2007
11
While cognitive processing theories may explain the interactions between reading mode (silent
versus aloud) and reading skill (poor readers versus average or above average readers), an alterative
explanation is related to choice. When students read aloud, educators and researchers can monitor
students reading performance to determine if they have actually read the entire passage. However, when
students read silently, observers cannot be assured that they actually read the entire passage. Because less
skilled readers often must expend more effort to read, they may be less likely to read during silent-reading
conditions (Billington, Skinner, & Cruchon, 2004; Skinner, 1998; Skinner, Pappas, & Davis, 2005).
Researchers studying silent-reading comprehension in students with reading skills deficits found that in
some instances they did not read passages silently. Instead they appeared to scan the passage before
answering questions (Freeland, Skinner, Jackson, McDaniel, & Smith, 2000; McDaniel, Watson,
Freeland, Smith, Jackson, & Skinner, 2001).
Purpose
WCPM is a sensitive, valid, and reliable measure of global reading skills (Fuchs & Deno, 2001;
Marston, 1989). However, this measure does not provide for a direct assessment of reading
comprehension. To ensure that students comprehend what they read, Shapiro (1996) recommended
administering comprehension questions after the students read passages aloud. However, when reading
for comprehension, students often read silently (Skinner et al., 2002). Thus, the purpose of the current
study was to examine the relationship between silent-reading comprehension and aloud reading
comprehension and determine if comprehension was systematically affected by reading mode or
topography. Additionally, because student reading skill may interact with reading mode to impact
comprehension, we tested these differences across elementary and high school students.
Method
Participants and Setting
Participants were recruited from a large school district in the Southeastern United States. The
elementary students were recruited from fourth- and fifth- grade general education classrooms in a rural
school. The school served approximately 290 kindergarten through fifth-grade students with
approximately 57% of the students receiving free or reduced lunch. All students from the fourth and fifth-
grade general education classrooms in the school were invited to participate. Slightly over 70% of the
students recruited participated. Of the 51 elementary participants (24 males and 27 females), five were
African-American and 46 were Caucasian.
The secondary students were recruited from 10th, 11th, and 12th grade general education
classrooms (see Table 1) in an urban high school that served approximately 981 ninth through twelfth-
grade students. Approximately 63% of the students in the school received free or reduced lunch. A
Language Arts teacher agreed to recruit students from her classes. Forty-two out of a possible 73 students
(57.5%) returned consent and signed assent forms to participate in the study. Of the 42 high-school
participants (17 males and 25 females), 15 were African-American, 2 were Asian, 4 were Hispanic, and
21 were Caucasian.
Table 1. Gender and Number of Participants in Each Grade
Grade Level Grade (# of Participants) Gender (# of Participants)
________________________________________________________________________
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
The Behavior Analyst Today Volume 8, Issue 1, 2007
12
Elementary 4th (22) 5th(29) Male (24) Female (27)
Secondary 10th(37) 11th (3) 12th (2) Male (17) Female (25)
Approval was sought and granted from the appropriate school board, principals, teachers, and
University. Each teacher asked, consented to participate. The primary investigator then met with each
class, explained the procedures, and provided each student with a parental consent form. Researchers
solicited assent from each student who provided a parental consent. Only those students who provided
consent and assent participated.
During the course of the study, researchers collected WCPM data on each student by requiring
them to read aloud from material written at their grade level. Based on Shapiro’s (1996) criteria, each
student's median aloud reading WCPM score was used to place students into one of three reading
proficiency categories: mastery (i.e., 100 WCPM or greater), instructional (i.e., 70-99 WCPM), and
frustrational (i.e., less than 70 WCPM). See Table 2 for a summary. In addition, students were
administered three subtests from the Woodcock-Johnson Achievement Tests, 3rd ed. (WJ-III Ach; McGrew
& Woodcock, 2001) in order to determine a Grade-Equivalent Broad Reading Score. See Table 3 for a
summary. The WCPM and WJ-III Grade Equivalent scores were obtained to provide information
regarding each participant’s current reading level.
Table 2. Number of Participants at Each Reading Level
Reading Level
Grade Level Mastery Instructional Frustrational
________________________________________________________________________
Elementary 25 17 9
Secondary 36 6 0
.
Table 3. Percentage of Participants Reading On their Grade Level, Above their Grade Level, or Below
Their Grade Level Based on WJ-III Broad Reading Cluster Grade Equivalency Scores
Reading Level
Grade Level On Grade Level Above Grade Level Below Grade Level
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
The Behavior Analyst Today Volume 8, Issue 1, 2007
13
______________________________________________________________________________
Elementary 25.5% 35.3% 39.2%
Secondary 5% 38% 57%
Procedures were conducted with elementary students during the months of October and
November and with high school students between the months of October and February. Procedures were
implemented in a quiet area of the school separate from the students’ classrooms (e.g., a quiet hallway,
conference room, computer room). Four graduate students in a school psychology Ph.D. program and
one undergraduate student administered assessment procedures. Using training procedures that involved
description, demonstration, practice, immediate feedback, and assessment, the primary experimenter
ensured that each University student could administer and score reliably. To ensure that experimenters
maintained these skills, interscorer agreement and procedural integrity data were collected throughout the
study.
Materials
Selected passages from the Timed Reading Series (Spargo, 1989) were used. This series contains
50 passages for each grade level, beginning with grade four. Based on the Fry (1968) readability formula,
passages were designed to be slightly more difficult as students progress, with each book spanning one
grade level. Each passage contains 400 words providing information across a variety of subjects (e.g.,
planets, cars, presidents). Ten multiple-choice comprehension questions (five factual and five inferential)
follow each passage and are printed on the opposite side of the page.
Students read passages and answered corresponding multiple-choice comprehension questions
from their grade level; passages from books 1, 2, 7, 8, and 9 (grade levels 4, 5, 10, 11, and 12
respectively). To hold passage difficulty relatively constant, the experimenters only used the first 12
passages from each book. Although each student only read six passages, 12 passages were used to control
for students’ prior knowledge related to passage content. The primary experimenter divided the group of
12 passages into three sets of four (passages 1-4, 5-8, and 9-12), based upon the passage difficulty level.
A repeated-measures design was used so that each participant was exposed to both the aloud and silent-
reading conditions. For each student, a passage from each of the three sets was assigned to the aloud
condition and a different passage from each of the three sets was assigned to the silent condition. In total,
students read three passages in the aloud-reading condition and three passages in the silent-reading
condition. Assignment of passages to conditions was counterbalanced across students to control for prior
knowledge of passage content, the slight difference in reading difficulty among the passages, etc.
Three subtests (Letter-Word Identification, Reading Fluency, and Passage Comprehension) from
the WJ-III Ach were administered for the purpose of obtaining a Broad Reading Grade-Equivalent Score
for each student. Battery-powered tape recorders were to record each session. These recording were used
to collect interscorer agreement and procedural integrity data. Researchers used stopwatches to measure
time seconds spent reading.
General Experimental Procedures
For each student, assessment data were collected across three sessions. Typically, these sessions
were held on three separate school days. However, in order to accommodate special situations (e.g.,
student leaving early, school-wide achievement testing, end of the semester) four high-school students
were tested on the same day with sessions separated by at least 30 minutes. Sessions were scheduled in
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
The Behavior Analyst Today Volume 8, Issue 1, 2007
14
conjunction with the participants’ teachers in order to minimize disruptions. During one session students
read passages aloud, during another they read passages silently, and during the third they completed three
subtests of the WJ-III Ach. Condition order was counterbalanced across participants to control for
sequence effects.
After the experimenter took time to establish or re-establish rapport, the experimenter
implemented one of three conditions (silent reading, aloud reading, and WJ-III Ach). For the silent and
aloud reading conditions, each student was required to read three passages and answer the comprehension
questions immediately after he or she finished reading each passage.
Silent Reading. After escorting the participant to the testing area, the experimenter started the tape
recorder and read the following instructions:
I am going to give you a reading passage. When I say begin, I want you to read the passage
silently. Read the passage silently at your normal pace, and only read the passage through once.
When you have finished reading the passage silently say, “finished.” I will take up the passage
and give you comprehension questions to answer. I cannot answer any questions about the
content of the passage. Do your best to answer each question correctly. Do you have any
questions? Ok, here is the passage. The title of the passage is ________. You can now begin.
The experimenter said, “begin” and started the stopwatch. When the student indicated that he or she had
finished reading the passage, the experimenter stopped the stopwatch, recorded the number of seconds the
student spent reading the passage (these data were used in a separate research project), collected the
reading passage, gave the student the comprehension questions, and read the following instructions:
Please answer the questions I have given you by circling the answer you think is right. You may
not know the answers to all of the questions, but try your best on each one. You may begin.
Please tell me when you have finished.
Once the participant indicated that he or she was finished, the experimenter collected the passage. The
same procedures were then followed for both the second and third reading passages.
Aloud Reading. After escorting the participant to the testing area, the experimenter started the
tape recorder and read the following instructions:
I am going to give you a reading passage. When I say begin, I want you to read the passage aloud.
Read the passage aloud at your normal pace. When you have finished reading the passage aloud, I
will take up the passage and give you comprehension questions to answer. I cannot answer any
questions about the content of the passage. Do your best to answer each question correctly. Do
you have any questions? Ok, here is the passage. The title of the passage is _________. You can
now begin.
When the student began reading, the experimenter started the stopwatch. The experimenter had a
copy of the passage being read. For the first minute, the experimenter recorded errors for the purpose of
calculating words correct per minute (WCPM) according to common CBM procedures. Errors were
scored based on the guidelines provided by Shapiro (1996) and included mispronunciations, substitutions,
omissions, additions, and skipped lines. While students were reading, if they skipped lines or began re-
reading lines the experimenter re-directed them and counted this redirection as one error. Additionally, if
a student paused for five seconds, the experimenter read the word aloud and the student continued
reading.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
The Behavior Analyst Today Volume 8, Issue 1, 2007
15
After the participant finished reading the entire passage, comprehension was assessed using
procedures identical to those used after the silent-reading condition. Once the participant indicated that he
or she was finished answering the questions, the questions were collected and the same procedures were
followed for the remaining two reading passages.
Administration of WJ-III Ach. Each student also participated in a session in which three subtests
from the WJ-III Ach (Letter-Word Identification, Reading Fluency, and Passage Comprehension) were
administered. These subtests were used to obtain a Broad Reading Grade Equivalency Score.
Dependent Variables and Experimental Design and Analysis Procedures
For each passage, the number of questions answered correctly was summed. For both the aloud
and silent-reading conditions, three different scores were obtained (one for each passage). In order to
reduce the effects of extreme scores, each student’s median comprehension score under each condition
was analyzed (Shapiro, 1996).
To test for significant and systematic differences in comprehension caused by reading mode
and/or reading skill level, median comprehension scores were analyzed using a two-by-two mixed-model
ANOVA. The within-subjects factor was reading mode (aloud versus silent). The between-subjects factor
was student grade (elementary versus high school). Pearson’s product-moment correlations were used to
further describe the relationship between comprehension scores for aloud and silent passage reading.
Interscorer Agreement and Procedural Integrity Data
All assessment sessions were audiotaped. A second independent observer listened to 20% of the
sessions, recorded procedural integrity data, and independently scored WCPM. Finally, this experimenter
re-scored the written multiple-choice responses. Procedural integrity data showed that the primary
experimenters read instructions as written for each condition and administered procedures using
appropriate passages and in the appropriate sequence 100% of the time. Interscorer agreement for
comprehension accuracy was 100%. Pearson product moment correlations showed strong agreement on
WCPM across experimenters, r = .94.
Results
Means and standard deviations for all measures are reported in Table 4. Results of the repeated
measures mixed-model ANOVA (see Table 5) indicated that there was no significant interaction between
grade level and reading mode, F(1, 91) = .004, p = .949. A significant within-subjects main effect was
found for reading mode, F(1, 91) = 11.509, p < .001. Comprehension was significantly higher when
students read aloud (M = 7.75, SD = 1.40) than when they read silently (M = 7.19, SD = 1.76). Between-
subjects analysis of comprehension revealed a significant main effect, F(1, 91) = 19.269, p < .001.
Elementary students’ comprehension (M = 8.05, SD = 1.49) was significantly higher than the secondary
students’ (M = 6.89, SD = 1.54).
Table 4. Mean and Standard Deviation Reading Scores for Elementary Students, Secondary Students, and
Elementary and Secondary Students Combined
Oral-Reading Silent-Reading
Comprehension Comprehension WCPM
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
The Behavior Analyst Today Volume 8, Issue 1, 2007
16
Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD)
Elem. 8.33 (1.14) 7.77 (1.73) 99.31 (31.97)
(n=51)
Sec. 7.17 (1.43) 6.62 (1.61) 140.57 (29.04)
(n=42)
Total 7.75 (1.40) 7.19 (1.76) 117.95 (36.85)
(N=93)
WCPM = Words correct per minute.
Table 5. Analysis of Variance for Reading Comprehension
Source Type III Sum df Mean Square F p
of Squares
Between subjects
Intercept 10284.349 1 10284.349 3218.384* .000
Grade 61.575 1 61.575 19.269* .000
Error 290.791 91 3.196
Within-subjects
Mode 14.349 1 14.349 11.509* .001
Mode * Grade .005 1 .005 .004 .949
Error (mode) 113.457 91 1.247
N=93.
*Differences significant at p < .05.
Pearson’s product-moment correlation were used to analyze the relationship between
comprehension for aloud and silent passage reading. For both elementary and secondary students the
correlation between aloud and silent-reading comprehension was significant (r = .526, p< .01 and r =
.379, p < .05, respectively).
Discussion
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
The Behavior Analyst Today Volume 8, Issue 1, 2007
17
The current study suggests that reading comprehension was enhanced when students read aloud
as opposed to silently. This finding has theoretical implications. Furthermore, because collecting data on
WCPM requires students to real aloud, the current findings have implications for assessing
comprehension following CBM assessment procedures.
Some researchers have proposed theories, based on their empirical findings, which suggest that
aloud reading may hinder comprehension because cognitive resources are being applied primarily to
achieving phonological recordings, as opposed to extracting meaning from the text (e.g., Jones &
Lockhart, 1919; Juel & Holmes, 1981). The results from the current study indicate that the students
answered significantly more comprehension questions correctly under the oral-reading condition when
compared to the silent-reading condition. This finding suggests that requiring students to read passages
aloud, as opposed to silently, does not hinder and may actually improve comprehension.
Other researchers have suggested that less skilled readers may benefit from reading aloud, as
hearing the word and the additional concentration and attention required to read aloud may enhance
comprehension (Kragler, 1995; Levin, 1979; Swalm, 1973). The current study provides some support for
these theories as comprehension was significantly higher under the aloud-reading condition. However, we
found no evidence that reading skill interacted with reading mode to impact comprehension (i.e., no
interaction effects) as both elementary and secondary students answered more questions correctly when
they read aloud. Furthermore, because over 82% of the elementary-student participants and 100% of the
secondary-student participants were reading at the instructional or mastery level (according to their
WCPM scores), the current study suggests that aloud reading enhanced comprehension in average and
skilled readers. These results conflict with Miller and Smith (1990) who found that average readers
comprehend more when reading silently and that reading mode (silent versus aloud) did not affect
comprehension in highly skilled readers.
While the current results appear to support cognitive theories which suggest that comprehension
is enhanced when students read aloud, there are several threats to internal validity associated with the
current study that suggest rival hypotheses may account for the current results. Many of these limitations
are related to procedures used to assess WCPM. In the current study, when students read silently, the
examiner had no way of knowing if the student was actually reading and/or read the entire passage.
However, when students read orally, experimenters confirmed that the student actually read the entire
passage. Furthermore, in keeping with prescribed procedures for assessing WCPM (e.g., Deno & Mirkin,
1977; Shapiro, 1996), the experimenter re-directed students if they skipped or repeated lines. Therefore,
the significantly higher level of comprehension for the oral passages relative to the silent passages may
have been caused by students’ failure to read the entire passage in sequence under the silent-reading
condition. Future researchers could use various procedures to address these limitations. For example,
reinforcing students for response accuracy may increase the probability that students silently read the
entire passage (Skinner et al., 2005). Having students wear goggles that track eye-movement may also
help ensure students read the entire passage silently (Neddenriep, 2003).
An alternative rival hypothesis is also related to CBM assessment procedures. While reading
aloud, when a student paused for more than 5 seconds, the examiner provided the correct word to the
student. Under the silent-reading condition the examiner did not provide unknown words to students.
Providing unknown words may have enhanced the students’ comprehension under the oral-reading
condition. Future research should be done to investigate whether providing students with correct words
enhanced comprehension during CBM assessment procedures.
Because we used CBM assessment procedures during the aloud reading condition the current
study has implications for assessing reading skills. Although WCPM has been shown to correlate with
reading comprehension, WCPM does not provide a direct measure of comprehension (Skinner et al.,
2002). Administering questions after students read passages aloud could be used to ensure that students
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
The Behavior Analyst Today Volume 8, Issue 1, 2007
18
who read rapidly and accurately also comprehend what they read. The current results suggest that
requiring students to read aloud, as opposed to silently, does not hinder and may actually enhance student
comprehension. Thus, the current study supports Shapiro’s (1996) recommendation for assessing
comprehension after students have read passages aloud to ensure that the student comprehends what they
have read.
The current study also raises some concerns related to assessing comprehension following aloud
reading. Perhaps the biggest concern is the correlations between aloud and silent-reading comprehension.
For elementary students, aloud-reading comprehension only accounted for approximately 27.66% of the
variance in silent-reading comprehension. For secondary students, aloud-reading comprehension
accounted for only 14.38% of the variance in student silent-reading comprehension. These data suggest
that aloud comprehension scores may not be very strong predictors of silent-reading comprehension.
The weak correlations suggest that silent-reading and aloud reading comprehension may be better
conceptualized as two distinct skills, especially for secondary students. However, before drawing such
conclusions, researchers should address other methodological limitations that may account for these weak
correlations. First, the sample sizes were relatively small. Second, for both groups the samples contained
very few poor readers. Less than 18% of the elementary students and no secondary students were reading
at a frustrational level. Thus, the range of scores across both groups may have been restricted because
poor readers may have been less likely to agree to participate. This is especially true for the secondary
students, who declined to participate at a much higher rate than the elementary students. Finally, the range
of possible scores on comprehension questions was also restricted as students could only score 0-10.
Thus, the small sample size, restricted range of reading skills across the participants, and the lack of
sensitivity associated with the reading comprehension measure may have reduced the probability of
finding strong correlations between the aloud and silent-reading comprehension measures.
Future research is needed to account for the relationship between aloud and silent-reading
comprehension. Additionally, researchers should address external validity limitations associated with the
current study. Similar studies should include more participants who were experiencing reading
difficulties. Although the relationship between oral and silent-reading comprehension was investigated,
future researchers should examine the relationship between oral and silent-reading comprehension and
other measures of reading skill (e.g., Cloze procedure, standardized reading assessments). Finally,
although reading comprehension levels may provide a more direct measure of comprehension than
commonly used indicators or correlates, this measure may lack the sensitivity needed for evaluating the
effects of interventions (Skinner, 1998). Future researchers should continue to develop and evaluate
procedures that may enhance the sensitivity of such measures.
Footnotes
1 The researchers wish to acknowledge the support of the Statistics Consulting Center at The University of
Tennessee and, in particular, Michael A. O'Neil who assisted the researchers with data analysis
procedures.
2 There are several notable exceptions when the primary purpose or function of reading is not the reader’s
comprehension of text. For example, radio and television professionals may read the news aloud or an
adult may read a story to a child. Other examples include when students read aloud so that educators can
assess their reading skills (e.g., collect data on words correct per minute).
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
The Behavior Analyst Today Volume 8, Issue 1, 2007
19
References
AIMSweb Progress Monitoring and Response to Intervention System. (2006). Retrieved on
August 24, 2006, from www.AIMSweb.com
Billington, E. J., Skinner, C. H., & Cruchon, N. M. (2004). Improving sixth-grade students
perceptions of high-effort assignments by assigning more work: Interaction of additive
interspersal and assignment effort on assignment choice. Journal of School Psychology, 42, 477-
490.
Brown-Chidsey, R., Davis, L., & Maya, C. (2003). Sources of variance in curriculum-based
measures of silent reading. Psychology in the Schools, 40, 363-377.
Collins, R. (1961). The comprehension of prose material by college freshmen when read silently
and when read aloud. Journal of Educational Research, 55, 79-82.
Daly, E. J., III, Chafouleas, S., & Skinner, C. H. (2005). Interventions for reading problems:
Designing and evaluating effective strategies. New York: Guilford Press.
Deno, S. L., & Mirkin, P. K. (1977). Data-based problem modification: A manual. Reston, VA: Council
for Exceptional Children.
Deno, S. L., Mirkin, P. K., & Chiang, B. (1982). Identifying valid measures of reading.
Exceptional Children, 49, 36-45.
Duffy, G., & Durrell, D. (1935-36).Third grade difficulties in oral reading. Education, 56, 37-40.
Espin, C.A. & Deno, S.L. (1993). Performance in reading from content area text as an
indicator of achievement. Remedial and Special Education, 14, 47-59.
Espin, C. A. & Foegen, A. (1996). Validity of general outcome measures for predicting
secondary students' performance on content-area tasks. Exceptional Children, 62,
497-514.
Fletcher, J. M., Coulter, We. A., & Reschly, D. J., & Vaughn, S. (2004). Alternative approaches to the
definition and identification of learning disabilities: Some questions and answers.
Annals of Dyslexia, 54, 304-331.
Freeland, J. T., Skinner, C. H., Jackson, B., McDaniel, C. E., & Smith, S. (2000). Measuring and
increasing silent reading comprehension rates: Empirically validating a repeated readings
intervention. Psychology in the Schools, 37, 415-429.
Fry, E. (1968). A readability formula that saves time. Journal of Reading, 11, 513-516.
Fuchs, L. S., & Deno, S. L. (1991). Paradigmatic distinctions between instructionally relevant
measurement models. Exceptional Children, 57, 488-500.
Fuchs, L. S & Deno, S. L. (1992). Effects of curriculum within curriculum-based measurement.
Exceptional Children, 58, 232-242.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
The Behavior Analyst Today Volume 8, Issue 1, 2007
20
Fuchs, L.S., Deno, S.L., & Mirkin, P.K. (1984). The effects of frequent curriculum-based
measures and evaluation on pedagogy, student achievement, and student awareness of learning.
American Educational Research Journal, 21, 449-460.
Fuchs, L.S., Fuchs, D. (1992). Identifying a measure for monitoring student reading progress.
School Psychology Review, 21, 45-58.
Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., & Maxwell, L. (1988). The validity of informal reading comprehension
measures. Remedial and Special Education, 9, 20-28.
Fuchs, L. S. & Maxwell, L. (1988). Interactive effects of reading mode production format and
structural importance of text among LD pupils. Learning Disability Quarterly, 11,
97-104.
Good, R. H., & Kaminski, R. A. (Eds.). (2001). Dynamic indicators of basic early literacy skills.
Eugene, OR: Institute for the Development of Educational Achievement. (Available online at
http://dibels.uoregon.edu/).
Hintze, J. M., Shapiro, E. S., Conte K. L., & Basile, I. M. (1997). Oral reading fluency and
authentic reading material: Criterion validity of the technical features of CBM
survey-level assessment. School Psychology Review, 26, 535-553.
Jones, E. E. (1932). A comparison of comprehension results in oral and silent reading. Peabody
Journal of Education, 9, 292-296.
Jones, E. E., & Lockhart, A. V. (1919). A study of oral and silent reading in the elementary
schools of Evanston. School and Society, 10, 587-590.
Juel, C. & Holmes, B. (1981). Oral and silent reading of sentences. Reading Research Quarterly,
16, 545-568.
Kragler, S. (1995). The transition from oral to silent reading. Reading Psychology: An
International Quarterly, 16, 395-408.
Lentz, F. E. (1988). Effective reading interventions in the regular classroom. In J. L.
Graden, J. E. Zins, & M. J. Curtis (Eds.), Alternative educational delivery systems: Enhancing
instructional options for all students (pp. 351-370). Washington, DC: National Association of
School Psychologists.
Levin, H. (1979). Reading silently and aloud. In A. Pick (Ed.), Perception and its development.
Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Marston, D. B. (1989). A curriculum-based measurement approach to assessing academic
performance: What is it and why do it? In M.R. Shinn (Ed.), Curriculum-based measurement:
Assessing special children (p.23). New York: The Guilford Press.
McCallum, R. S., Sharp, S., Bell, S. M., & George, T. (2004). Silent versus oral reading
comprehension. Psychology in the Schools, 41, 241-246.
McDaniel, C. E., Watson, T. S., Freeland, J. T., Smith, S. L., Jackson, B., & Skinner, C. H.
(May, 2001). Comparing silent repeated reading and teacher previewing using silent reading
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
The Behavior Analyst Today Volume 8, Issue 1, 2007
21
comprehension rate. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the Association for Applied
Behavior Analysis: New Orleans.
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) (2005). The nation’s report card: Reading 2005.
Retrieved on August 24, 2006, from http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pdf/
main2005/2006451.pdf
Woodcock, R. W., McGrew, K. S., & Mather, N. (2001). Woodcock-Johnson Tests of
Achievement-Third Edition. Itasca, IL: Riverside.
Mead, C. D. (1915). Silent versus oral reading with one hundred sixth-grade children. The
Journal of Educational Psychology, 6, 345-348.
Mead, C. D. (1917). Results in silent reading versus oral reading. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 8, 367-368.
Miller, S. D. & Smith, D. E. P. (1990). Relations among oral reading, silent reading and
listening comprehension of students at differing competency levels. Reading Research and
Instruction, 29, 73-84.
National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the
scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. (Avaliable
online at http//www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/smallbook.htm).
Neddenriep, C.E. (2003). Classwide peer tutoring: Three experiments investigating the
generalized effects of increased oral reading fluency to silent reading comprehension.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville.
Pinter, R. (1913). Oral and silent reading of fourth grade pupils. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 4, 333-337.
Potter, M. L. & Wamre, H. M. (1990). Curriculum-based measurement and developmental
reading models: Opportunities for cross-validation. Exceptional Children, 57, 16-25.
Poulton, E. C., & Brown, C. H. (1967). Memory after reading aloud and reading silently.
British Journal of Psychology, 58, 219-222.
Rowell, E. H. (1976). Do elementary students read better orally or silently? The Reading
Teacher, 29, 367-370.
Salasoo, A. (1986). Cognitive processing in oral and silent reading comprehension. Reading
Research Quarterly, 21, 59-69.
Shapiro, E. S. (1996). Academic skills problems: Direct assessment and intervention (2nd ed.).
NewYork: The Guilford Press.
Shinn, M. R. (Ed.). (1989). Curriculum-based measurement: Assessing special children. New
York: Guilford.
Shinn, M. R., Good, R. H., III, Knutson, N., Tilly, W.D., III, Collins, V. L. (1992).
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
The Behavior Analyst Today Volume 8, Issue 1, 2007
22
Curriculum-based measurement of oral reading fluency: A confirmatory analysis of its relation to
reading. School Psychology Review, 21, 459-479.
Sindelar, P. T., & Stoddard, K. (1991). Teaching reading to mildly disabled students in regular
classes. In G. Stoner, M. R. Shinn, & H. M. Walker (Eds.), Interventions for achievement
and behavior problems (pp. 357-378). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School
Psychologists.
Skinner, C. H. (1998). Preventing academic skills deficits. In T. S. Watson & F. Gresham (Eds.).
Handbook of child behavior therapy: Ecological considerations in assessment, treatment,
and evaluation (pp. 61-83). New York: Plenum.
Skinner, C. H., Neddenriep, C. E., Bradley-Klug, K. L., & Ziemann, J. M. (2002). Advances in
Curriculum-Based Measurement: Alternative rate measures for assessing reading skills in
pre- and advanced readers. Behavior Analyst Today, 3, 270-281.
Skinner, C. H., Pappas, D. N., & Davis, K. A. (2005). Enhancing academic engagement:
Providing opportunities for responding and influencing students to choose to respond.
Psychology in the Schools.
Spargo, E. (1989). Timed Readings - Third Edition. Providence, RI: Jamestown.
Swalm, J. E. (1973). A comparison of oral reading, silent reading, and listening comprehension.
Education, 92, 111-115.
Winn, B. D., Skinner, C. H., Oliver, R., Hale, A. D., & Ziegler, M. F. (in press).The effects of
listening-while-reading and repeated reading on the reading fluency of adult learners.
Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy.
Author Contact Information:
Corresponding Author:
Christopher H. Skinner, Ph.D.
The University of Tennessee
Claxton Complex A-518
Knoxville TN 37996-3452
(865) 974-8403
cskinne1@utk.edu
Andrea D. Hale, Ph.D., NCSP
Assistant Professor/School Psychology Coordinator
Eastern Kentucky University
521 Lancaster Avenue
127 Cammack Building
Richmond, KY 40475
(859) 622-1109
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
The Behavior Analyst Today Volume 8, Issue 1, 2007
23
andrea.hale@eku.edu
Christopher H. Skinner, Ph.D.
Professor and Coordinator of School Psychology Programs
The University of Tennessee
Claxton Complex A-518
Knoxville TN 37996-3452
(865) 974-8403
cskinne1@utk.edu
Christine E. Neddenriep, Ph.D., NCSP
Assistant Professor
Department of Psychology
Winther Hall, Room 5040
The University of Wisconsin-Whitewater
800 West Main Street
Whitewater, WI 53190-1790
(262) 472-1850
neddenrc@uww.edu
Jessica D. Allin, Ph.D.
School Psychologist
Cherokee Health Systems
1925 Sulphur Springs Rd, Morristown, TN 37813;
(865) 693-1279
jessica.allin@cherokeehealth.com
Renee O. Hawkins, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor
University of Cincinnati
P.O. Box 210002
Cincinnati, OH 45221
(513) 556-3342
renee.hawkins@uc.edu
Jacqueline L. Williams, B.S.
Graduate Assistant-Student Counseling Center
University of Tennessee
Home: 4232 Taliluna Ave., Knoxville, TN 37919
Cell: (616) 240-7233
jwilli89@utk.edu
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
... Variations have also been observed among dyslexics and typical students, in loud versus silent reading. In general, loud reading is a more complicated process because it allocates more cognitive resources for pronunciation, intonation and word stress (Hale et al., 2007). However, some studies claimed that loud reading favors comprehension more than reading silently (Burge, 1983;Hale et al., 2007). ...
... In general, loud reading is a more complicated process because it allocates more cognitive resources for pronunciation, intonation and word stress (Hale et al., 2007). However, some studies claimed that loud reading favors comprehension more than reading silently (Burge, 1983;Hale et al., 2007). ...
Article
Full-text available
The main purpose of this study is to compare the silent and loud reading ability of typical and dyslexic readers, using eye-tracking technology to monitor the reading process. The participants (156 students of normal intelligence) were first divided into three groups based on their school grade, and each subgroup was then further separated into typical readers and students diagnosed with dyslexia. The students read the same text twice, one time silently and one time out loud. Various eye-tracking parameters were calculated for both types of reading. In general, the performance of the typical students was better for both modes of reading - regardless of age. In the older age groups, typical readers performed better at silent reading. The dyslexic readers in all age groups performed better at reading out loud. However, this was less prominent in secondary and upper secondary dyslexics, reflecting a slow shift towards silent reading mode as they age. Our results confirm that the eye-tracking parameters of dyslexics improve with age in both silent and loud reading, and their reading preference shifts slowly towards silent reading. Typical readers, before 4th grade do not show a clear reading mode preference, however, after that age they develop a clear preference for silent reading.
... However, it is widely reported in the reading literature that when tested, comprehension following oral reading is usually better than when following silent reading (e.g. Ciuffo et al., 2017;Dickens & Meisinger, 2016;Hale et al., 2007), meaning that we should proceed with caution in attempting to assess and understand the reading comprehension skills of children with CAS. ...
... Reading aloud involves articulating the text as well as the standard process of reading, and evidence from the eye-voice span (the distance between the location of a fixation and the articulated word) demonstrates that oral reading involves additional working memory processes [22]. Hale et al. [23] investigated differences in reading aloud and silently and found that for children across grades 4-12 reading comprehension was higher when reading aloud than when reading silently. In addition, some prior research suggests that changing oral and silent reading tasks in comprehension tests may lead to different outcomes, though this has been noted specifically in relation to differences between children with reading difficulties and average readers [24]. ...
Article
Full-text available
The Jingle fallacy is the false assumption that instruments which share the same name measure the same underlying construct. In this experiment, we focus on the comprehension subtests of the Nelson Denny Reading Test (NDRT) and the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT-II). 91 university students read passages for comprehension whilst their eye movements were recorded. Participants took part in two experimental blocks of which the order was counterbalanced, one with higher comprehension demands and one with lower comprehension demands. We assumed that tests measuring comprehension would be able to predict differences observed in eye movement patterns as a function of varying comprehension demands. Overall, readers were able to adapt their reading strategy to read more slowly, making more and longer fixations, coupled with shorter saccades when comprehension demands were higher. Within an experimental block, high scorers on the NDRT were able to consistently increase their pace of reading over time for both higher and lower comprehension demands, whereas low scorers approached a threshold where they could not continue to increase their reading speed or further reduce the number of fixations to read a text, even when comprehension demands were low. Individual differences based on the WIAT-II did not explain similar patterns. The NDRT comprehension test was therefore more predictive of differences in the reading patterns of skilled adult readers in response to comprehension demands than the WIAT-II (which also suffered from low reliability). Our results revealed that these different comprehension measures should not be used interchangeably, and researchers should be cautious when choosing reading comprehension tests for research.
... Despite the importance of using curriculum-based measurement and the effective role that teachers of learning disabilities play within the school, it faces many obstacles that limit its effective application, as teachers of learning disabilities face problems related to how to deal with students with learning difficulties, school administration, and the cooperation of education teachers [6]. ...
Article
This study aimed to identify the obstacles facing teachers of students’ with learning disabilities in applying curriculum-based measurement in learning disabilities resource rooms. The study sample consisted of 121 male and female teachers. To achieve the objectives of the study, a questionnaire was used, which in its final form consisted of 24 items. Its validity and reliability were verified before it was applied to the study sample.The results of the study showed that the level of obstacles facing learning disabilities teachers in applying curriculum-based measurement in learning disabilities resource rooms was moderate. The results also showed that there were no statistically significant differences due to the variables: gender, level of education, and years of experience in the level of obstacles facing teachers of students with learning disabilities. However, the results showed that there were statistically significant differences on the two dimensions roles and responsibilities of teachers of students with learning disabilities, the school administration attributed to those with experience categories less than 5 years, and 5 years to 10 years.
... Therefore, it seems possible that the 'read-aloud' strategy employed in the educational literature could benefit students' memory for the produced content, even if teachers, not students, were to read aloud. Hale et al. (2007) reported that reading aloud as opposed to silently aided what they referred to as 'comprehension' in school-aged children. But these researchers included half 'factual' (memory) and half 'inferential' (comprehension) questions in their tests and they did not analyze these two types of items separately. ...
Article
The production effect-that reading aloud leads to better memory than does reading silently-has been defined narrowly with reference to memory; it has been explored largely using word lists as the material to be read and remembered. But might the benefit of production extend beyond memory and beyond individual words? In a series of four experiments, passages from reading comprehension tests served as the study material. Participants read some passages aloud and others silently. After each passage, they completed multiple-choice questions about that passage. Separating the multiple-choice questions into memory-focused versus comprehension-focused questions, we observed a consistent production benefit only for the memory-focused questions. Production clearly improves memory for text, not just for individual words, and also extends to multiple-choice testing. The overall pattern of findings fits with the distinctiveness account of production-that information read aloud stands out at study and at test from information read silently. Only when the tested information is a very close match to the studied information, as is the case for memory questions but not for comprehension questions, does production improve accuracy.
... Table 5 revealed the effect of gender on reading skills of student with dyslexia. There was significant of gender on reading skills in (F (1,58) =29.655; P<0.05). ...
Article
Full-text available
Children with dyslexia are student who are diagnosed with reading difficulties these students with reading difficulties often fall behind peers and demonstrate difficulties in that are expected in relation to age, cognitive ability, quantity and quality of instruction and intervention. These problems faced by students with dyslexia have contributed to poor reading skill in reading. In an effort to solve this problem faced by student with dyslexia. The study investigated the effect of silent reading and reading aloud strategies on reading skills of student with dyslexia in Moro Local Government Area, Kwara state, Nigeria. The study adopted pre-test, post-test, quasi experimental research design. A total number of 60 junior secondary school students made up the sample of this study and were purposively sampled. The instruments used for this study were checklist for identifying reading difficulties and reading skill test, four hypotheses were raised and tested at 0.05 significant levels. Data gathered were analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA). The study revealed that silent reading strategy had significant main effect on reading skills of student with dyslexia also, the study revealed that reading aloud strategy had significant main effect on reading skills of students with dyslexia. the finding also revealed that three was significant main effect of gender on reading skill of students with dyslexia. lastly, the result showed that there was no significant interaction effect of gender, silent reading, reading aloud strategies on reading skill of student with dyslexia. Hence the study recommended that English teachers should make use of silent reading and reading aloud strategies while teaching English to student with dyslexia.
... Although reading aloud is often criticized as a mere waste of time and a kind of distracting activity from the viewpoint of content comprehension, a number of studies have shown the significance of reading aloud not only for pronunciation but also for comprehension. Hale, et al. (2007) made a comparison between silent reading and loud reading for comprehension among 4 th , 5 th , 10 th , 11 th and 12 th graders. The students were given 400-word passages to read silently and aloud. ...
Article
This article compares the effectiveness of reading aloud and silent reading for comprehension and speaking motivation. The data were taken from the ninth graders of a community school of Jhapa, Nepal. The students were divided into two groups and each were asked to read ten sample comprehension questions. The groups were provisioned to have a silent reading and reading aloud differently. Each group was given just five minutes of time- two times a day- for three weeks and were measured for their scores. Conclusions were drawn comparing the pre- test and post- test results and by closely observing their oral participation in the class. The results showed that reading aloud is more effective than silent reading for comprehension and speaking encouragement.
... In this category, we also tracked whether the searches were made by voice or typed as research indicates a different mindset-expectations and behaviors are associated with the modality of search [15]. (2) Participant behavior: here, we recorded whether participants read aloud, whether dyads discussed or talked to each other, or whether there were durations of silence without action; behaviors such as these are mechanisms frequently used by beginner or nonproficient readers for memorization and comprehension [31,32]. (3) Content: under this category, we coded the text of the query, the text of a note, and the webpage URLs they accessed. ...
Article
Full-text available
Background Internet searching is a useful tool for seeking health information and one that can benefit low-literacy populations. However, low-literacy Hispanic survivors of breast cancer do not normally search for health information on the web. For them, the process of searching can be frustrating, as frequent mistakes while typing can result in misleading search results lists. Searches using voice (dictation) are preferred by this population; however, even if an appropriate result list is displayed, low-literacy Hispanic women may be challenged in their ability to fully understand any individual article from that list because of the complexity of the writing. Objective This observational study aims to explore and describe web-based search behaviors of Hispanic survivors of breast cancer by themselves and with their caregivers, as well as to describe the challenges they face when processing health information on the web. Methods We recruited 7 Hispanic female survivors of breast cancer. They had the option to bring a caregiver. Of the 7 women, 3 (43%) did, totaling 10 women. We administered the Health LiTT health literacy test, a demographic survey, and a breast cancer knowledge assessment. Next, we trained the participants to search on the web with either a keyboard or via voice. Then, they had to find information about 3 guided queries and 1 free-form query related to breast cancer. Participants were allowed to search in English or in Spanish. We video and audio recorded the computer activity of all participants and analyzed it. Results We found web articles to be written for a grade level of 11.33 in English and 7.15 in Spanish. We also found that most participants preferred searching using voice but struggled with this modality. Pausing while searching via voice resulted in incomplete search queries, as it confused the search engine. At other times, background noises were detected and included in the search. We also found that participants formulated overly general queries to broaden the results list hoping to find more specific information. In addition, several participants considered their queries satisfied based on information from the snippets on the result lists alone. Finally, participants who spent more time reviewing articles scored higher on the health literacy test. Conclusions Despite the problems of searching using speech, we found a preference for this modality, which suggests a need to avoid potential errors that could appear in written queries. We also found the use of general questions to increase the chances of answers to more specific concerns. Understanding search behaviors and information evaluation strategies for low-literacy Hispanic women survivors of breast cancer is fundamental to designing useful search interfaces that yield relevant and reliable information on the web.
Article
Full-text available
هدفت هذه الدراسة إلى قياس الدقة التشخيصية لقياسات المفاهيم والتطبيقات الرياضية القائمة على المنهج في فرز التلاميذ المُعرضين لصعوبات تعلم الرياضيات في الصف الرابع الأساسي. كما سعت الدراسة إلى تحديد المستويات التصنيفية لتصنيف مستويات التلاميذ في المفاهيم والتطبيقات الرياضية. ولتحقيق أهداف الدراسة؛ تم بناء ثلاثة اختبارات متكافئة وفق القياسات القائمة على المنهج في المفاهيم والتطبيقات الرياضية المستخدمة في الفرز، ومراقبة التقدم، وهي على هيئة قياساتٍ قائمةٍ على أساس المهارات، تتضمن جميع المهارات المتوقع إتقانها في نهاية العام الدراسي. وتحتوي على أربعةٍ وعشرين سؤالًا؛ طبقًا لمداخل القياسات القائمة على المناهج التقليدية الإمبريقية المعروفة، وقد تم استخدام المنهج الوصفي التحليلي. تكونت عينة الدراسة من 393 تلميذًا وتلميذةً من تلاميذ الصف الرابع الأساسي بمحافظة مسقط. تم التطبيق ثلاث مرات في العام؛ بهدف الفرز واستخراج المحكات (المستويات التصنيفية)، وأظهر تحليل منحنى (ROC) الدقة التشخيصية للدرجات الفاصلة لكل من المئيني 25 والمئيني 75. وباستخدام الدرجات الفاصلة تم تحديد المستويات التصنيفية الثلاثة: إتقان، وتعليمي، وإحباط. وقد أظهرت النتائج وجود فروق ذات دلالةٍ إحصائيةٍ وفقًا لمتغير النوع في مستوى الإحباط لصالح الإناث. كما أظهرت النتائج أنه لا توجد فروقٌ في المستويات التصنيفية (التعليمي، والإتقان) وفق متغير النوع. وخرجت الدراسة بجملةٍ من التوصيات، أبرزها: أن القياس القائم على المنهج في المفاهيم والتطبيقات الرياضية يتوقع أداء التلاميذ، ويكون عُنصرًا فاعلًا في صنع القرارات، ويكون ملائمًا للفرز الشامل، وأن المئيني 25 يمكن الاعتماد عليه في تحديد التلاميذ المُعرَّضين لصعوبات تعلّم الرياضيات.
Thesis
Full-text available
Bu çalışmanın amacı öğrenme güçlüğü olan öğrencilerin okuduğunu anlama performanslarının desteklenmesine yönelik geliştirilmiş strateji öğretimi yazılımının etkisini incelemektir. Çalışmaya 4. sınıfa devam eden öğrenme güçlüğü tanısı almış dört (3 erkek, 1 kız) öğrenci katılmıştır. Çalışmanın deneysel süreci tek denekli deneysel desenlerden denekler arası çoklu başlama düzeyi modeline göre yürütülmüştür. Veriler başlama düzeyi, müdahale ve izleme oturumları olmak üzere üç aşamada toplanmıştır. Öğrenciler müdahale oturumlarında bağımsız olarak strateji öğretimi yazılımını kullanarak çalışmışlardır. Strateji öğretimi yazılımı ön bilgilerin geliştirilmesi, tahmin etme, paragrafı özetleyen cümleyi bulma ve kendini talimatlandırma stratejilerini içermektedir. Öğrencilerin okuduğunu anlama performansları okuduğunu anlama testi ve metni anlatma değerlendirmesi ile belirlenmiştir. Öğrencilerin kullandıkları okuduğunu anlama stratejileri başlama düzeyi ve izleme oturumlarında görev üzerinde üstbilişsel görüşmeler ile belirlenmiştir. Deney süreci sonunda öğrencilerle, öğrencilerin aileleri ve öğretmenleri ile görüşmeler yapılarak strateji öğretimi yazılımı ve eğitimde teknoloji kullanımına ilişkin görüşleri öğrenilmiştir. Öğrencilerin strateji kullanımları, okuduğunu anlama testi ve metni anlatma puanları tablolar ve grafikler ile gösterilirken görüşmelerde öğrencilerden, ailelerden ve öğretmenlerden alınan yanıtlar betimsel analiz ile incelenmiştir. Bulgular incelendiğinde strateji öğretimi yazılımın öğrencilerin okuduğunu anlama becerileri üzerinde olumlu etkisinin olduğu, öğrencilerin okuduğunu anlama testi ve metni anlatma değerlendirmelerinden aldıkları puanların arttığı, strateji öğretimi yazılımının içerdiği stratejileri kullanmaya başladıkları görülmüştür. Öğrencilerin strateji öğretimi yazılımını kullanmaya yönelik motivasyonlarının yüksek olduğu, ailelerin ve öğretmenlerin strateji öğretimi yazılımına ilişkin görüşlerinin olumlu olduğu ve öğrencilerin okuma becerilerinde artış gözlemledikleri belirlenmiştir. Öğrenciler, aileler ve öğretmenler yazılımın geliştirilmeye açık yönleri bakımından öneriler sunmuşlardır. Elde edilmiş olan bulgular ilgili alanyazın ışığında tartışılmıştır. The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of strategy teaching software to support the reading comprehension performance of students with learning disabilities. Four (3 boys, 1 girl) students with learning disabilities were enrolled in the study. The experimental process of the study was carried out according to the multiple baseline model of single-subject experimental designs. The data were collected in three stages; baseline, intervention and monitoring sessions. In intervention sessions students used strategy instruction software independently and software includes activating background knowledge, prediction, finding summary sentence of paragraph and self intruction comprehension strategies. Reading comprehension performances of students assessed with multiple choice tests and retells. Student's strategy usings are evaluated with on-task metacognitive interviews. After experimental process is done with all participants social validity interviews took place with students, families and teachers. Students' reading comprehension performances(test and retell points) and use of strategies shown with tables and graphs. Social validty interviews investigated with descriptive analys. Findings showed that strategy instruction software has positive impact on students' reading comprehension performances, participants' both test and retell scores increased in intervention sessions and they protect their gains in maintenance phase. It was determined that the students' motivation to use the strategy instruction software was high, the opinions of the families and teachers about the software were positive and they observed an increase in students reading skills. Students, parents, and teachers provided suggestions for creating new softwares. Findings are discussed in the light of the related literature.
Article
Full-text available
Reading traditionally is characterized as having two major components, decoding and comprehension. Published reading tests are created using these two components. Reading fluency, a combination of reading speed and accuracy, typically is not measured. Attention to reading fluency has increased through the emerging literature on Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM), which employs standardized oral reading tests derived from basal readers to make decisions about students' general reading skills. Despite a series of published validation studies, questions about what CBM oral reading fluency measures persist. This study examined the relation of CBM oral reading fluency to the reading process from a theoretical perspective. Reading models were tested using confirmatory factor analysis procedures with 114 third-and 124 fifth-grade students. Subjects were tested on tasks requiring decoding of phonetically regular words and regular nonsense words, literal comprehension, inferential comprehension, cloze items, written retell, and CBM oral reading fluency. For third graders, a unitary model of reading was validated with all measures contributing significantly. For fifth graders, a two-factor model was validated paralleling current conceptions of reading measurement. Regardless of the factor model employed, CBM oral reading fluency provided a good index of reading proficiency, including comprehension.
Article
In this article, we delineate essential commonalities and distinctions between two approaches to measurement for instructional decision making. Specific subskill mastery measurement is explained using a case study, and salient features of this predominant model are described. Then, a major contrasting approach, the general outcome measurement model, is explained; a curriculum-based measurement case study is provided to illustrate general outcome measurement; and the essential features of this alternative model are reviewed. Finally, we describe how general outcome measurement represents an innovative approach to assessment by bridging traditional and contemporary paradigms.
Article
Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) is a standardized form of curriculum-based assessment (CBA) that relies on rate samples to assess academic skills. These measures were empirically derived, but the use of such rate measures also is consistent with developmental reading models such as Chad's stages of reading development and LaBerge and Samuels' model of automaticity. In fact, oral reading rate measures may be a more theoretically sound assessment method than are many traditional reading assessment practices. The empirically validated usefulness of CBM measures in the field in turn provides valuable support for the developmental models of reading.
Chapter
A functional approach to remediating academic skills deficits differs from a functional approach designed to remediate inappropriate behavior. When addressing inappropriate behavior, often the goals are to reduce idiosyncratic behavior that may serve different functions across students and/or environments. Thus, individual behavior change programs may have to be implemented for each student. When addressing academic skill deficits there are similar goals across students, which include increasing or improving performance on academic skills. While some students may go through their education never requiring any psychoeducational services designed to remediate inappropriate social behavior, all students receive services designed to improve academic skills. Therefore, any discussion of approaches designed to remediate academic skills deficits should also address procedures designed to prevent academic skills deficits.
Article
This study investigated the validity of three curriculum-based measures for predicting the performance of secondary students on content-area tasks. It was hypothesized that oral reading, maze, and vocabulary measures would predict students' performance on comprehension, acquisition, and retention of content-area material. Participants were 184 urban middle school students, including 13 with mild disabilities. Reliable correlations were found between each of the three general outcome measures and performance on the content tasks. Results of regression analyses supported the vocabulary measure as the most efficient and effective measure for predicting student performance on the three content-area tasks.
Article
Based on a decade of research, oral reading fluency has been identified as the standard task for monitoring reading progress within Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM). Although a technically sound and useful measure for monitoring growth, collecting reading fluency on a routine basis can be time-consuming for teachers. Moreover, its acceptability as an index of comprehension has been questioned. Consequently, we have conducted a research program investigating alternative reading monitoring measures. The measures share two features: They are suitable for automatic data collection and scoring using computers, and they appear acceptable as measures of reading comprehension. In this research program, the criterion validity of four reading measures was assessed. Based on results, a subset of measures was identified and their usefulness and technical features were studied as ongoing measures of reading progress over a series of years. In this article, this research program is summarized and recommendations are offered for alternative CBM reading monitoring systems and future investigation.
Article
The study examined whether oral and silent sentence reading represent the same cognitive process for children, and whether good and poor readers differ in their approaches to reading in the two modes. Reading rate and comprehension scores for oral and silent reading were compared for sentences which varied in terms of decodability (regularity of phonic patterns), word frequency, syllables in words, and semantic difficulty of sentences. Results suggest that oral and silent sentence reading represent a similar cognitive process. However, there was evidence that readers decrease processing time on difficult words in silent as compared to oral reading. This tendency was particularly striking for poor readers./// [French] L'étude a examiné si la lecture de phrases orale ou silencieuse représente le même procédé cognitif pour les enfants, et si les bons et mauvais lecteurs diffèrent dans leurs approches de lecture dans les deux modes. On a comparé le taux de lecture et les résultats de compréhension en lecture orale et silencieuse pour des phrases qui variaient en termes de déchiffrage (régularité des modèles phoniques), fréquence du mot, syllabes dans les mots et difficulté sémantique de phrase. Les résultats suggèrent que la lecture de phrases orale et silencieuse représente un procédé cognitif similaire. Cependant, il était évident que les lecteurs diminuaient le temps de procédure pour les mots difficiles en lecture silencieuse par rapport à la lecture orale. Cette tendance était particulièrement frappante chez les mauvais lecteurs./// [Spanish] Este estudio examinó si la lectura audible y silenciosa de oraciones por niños representa el mismo proceso cognoscitivo, y si lectores buenos y deficientes varían en enfoque de lectura en los dos modos. Se compararon el puntaje de la velocidad lectora y de la comprensión de lectura audible y silenciosa de oraciones que variaban en términos de descifre (regularidad de configuración fónica), frecuencia de palabras, número de sílabas en palabras, y dificultad semántica. Los resultados sugieren que la lectura audible y silenciosa de oraciones representa un proceso cognoscitivo similar. Pero se observó también que lectores toman menos tiempo procesando palabras difíciles durante la lectura silenciosa que durante la audible. Esta tendencia era especialmente evidente en los lectores deficientes.