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Radiation-induced loss of cell surface CD47 enhances immune-mediated clearance of human papillomavirus-positive cancer

Wiley
International Journal of Cancer
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The increasing incidence of human papillomavirus (HPV) related oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma (OSSC) demands development of novel therapies. Despite presenting at a more advanced stage, HPV(+) oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) have a better prognosis than their HPV(−) counterparts. We have previously demonstrated that clearance of HPV(+) OSCC during treatment with radiation and chemotherapy requires an immune response which is likely responsible for the improved clinical outcomes. To further elucidate the mechanism of immune-mediated clearance, we asked whether radiation therapy induces tumor cell changes that allow the body to recognize and aid in tumor clearance. Here, we describe a radiation-induced change in tumor surface protein expression that is critical for immune-mediated clearance. Radiation therapy decreases surface expression of CD47, a self-marker. CD47 is frequently overexpressed in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma and radiation induces a decrease of CD47 in a dose-dependent manner. We show that both in vitro and in vivo tumor cell CD47 protein levels are restored over time after sublethal radiation exposure and that protein levels on adjacent, normal tissues remain unaffected. Furthermore, reduction of tumor cell CD47 increases phagocytosis of these cells by dendritic cells and leads to increased interferon gamma and granzyme production from mixed lymphocytes. Finally, decreasing tumor cell CD47 in combination with standard radiation and chemotherapy results in improved immune-mediated tumor clearance in vivo. These findings help define an important mechanism of radiation-related immune clearance and suggest that decreasing CD47 specifically on tumor cells may be a good therapeutic target for HPV related disease.
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Radiation-induced loss of cell surface CD47 enhances immune-
mediated clearance of HPV+ cancer
Daniel W. Vermeer1, William C. Spanos1,2, Paola D. Vermeer1, Annie M. Bruns3, Kimberly
M. Lee1, and John H. Lee1,2,+
1Cancer Biology Research Center, Sanford Research/University of South Dakota, Sioux Falls,
South Dakota, 57104 USA
2Department of Otolaryngology/Head and Neck Surgery, Sanford Health, Sioux Falls, South
Dakota, 57104 USA
3Department of Molecular Biosciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, USA
Abstract
The increasing incidence of human papillomavirus (HPV) related oropharyngeal squamous cell
carcinoma (OSSC) demands development of novel therapies. Despite presenting at a more
advanced stage, HPV(+) OSCC’s have a better prognosis than their HPV(−) counterparts. We
have previously demonstrated that clearance of HPV(+) OSCC during treatment with radiation
and chemotherapy requires an immune response which is likely responsible for the improved
clinical outcomes. To further elucidate the mechanism of immune-mediated clearance, we asked
whether radiation therapy induces tumor cell changes that allow the body to recognize and aid in
tumor clearance. Here, we describe a radiation-induced change in tumor surface protein expression
that is critical for immune-mediated clearance. Radiation therapy decreases surface expression of
CD47, a self marker. CD47 is frequently over-expressed in HNSCC and radiation induces a
decrease of CD47 in a dose dependent manner. We show both in vitro and in vivo that tumor cell
CD47 protein levels are restored over time following sub-lethal radiation exposure and that protein
levels on adjacent, normal tissues remain unaffected. Furthermore, reduction of tumor cell CD47
increases phagocytosis of these cells by dendritic cells and leads to increased IFNγ and granzyme
production from mixed lymphocytes. Finally, decreasing tumor cell CD47 in combination with
standard radiation and chemotherapy results in improved immune-mediated tumor clearance in
vivo. These findings help define an important mechanism of radiation related immune clearance
and suggest that decreasing CD47 specifically on tumor cells may be a good therapeutic target for
HPV related disease.
Keywords
HPV; CD47; radiation; immune; HNSCC; OSCC
Introduction
Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) develops in the oral cavity, oropharynx,
larynx or hypopharynx. The most critical risk factors for developing HNSCC are alcohol
consumption and tobacco use. However, twenty-five percent of HNSCC’s are not associated
with these factors but rather are caused by infection with high-risk human papillomavirus
+Dr. John Lee, Sanford Research/USD, 2301 East 60th Street North, Sioux Falls, SD 57104, USA. Phone: 605-312-6103 Fax:
605-312-6201; John.Lee@SanfordHealth.org.
NIH Public Access
Author Manuscript
Int J Cancer. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2014 July 01.
Published in final edited form as:
Int J Cancer. 2013 July ; 133(1): 120–129. doi:10.1002/ijc.28015.
NIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author Manuscript
(HPV). In the oropharynx, HPV positive (HPV(+)) oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma
(OSCC) patients present with more advanced disease, yet, despite this have a better
prognosis than their HPV negative (HPV(−)) counterparts. In fact, HPV status is used as a
prognosticator of response to therapy and survival.1 HPV(+) and (−) OSCCs are recognized
as distinct disease entities. While the incidence of HPV(−) OSCCs is declining, likely a
result of increased public awareness regarding smoking and drinking, the incidence of
HPV(+) cancers is on the rise.2–4 Although HPV(+) tumors respond better to treatment, the
long term effects of therapy severely decrease quality of life. The increased prevalence of
HPV(+) OSCC and its associated long-term treatment related morbidity emphasize a need to
better understand the molecular mechanisms leading to tumor clearance and to develop new
therapies.
Radiation is commonly part of the multi-disciplinary treatment for OSCC. Radiation therapy
has multiple recognized molecular mechanisms that induce overwhelming cellular injury
and cell killing.5–7 However, several recent studies suggest that for certain tumors the
success of radiation therapy depends on an immune-mediated response against the tumor 8–
10. This response synergizes with radiation-induced cellular toxicity, mediating tumor
clearance. We have recently shown that clearance of HPV(+) head and neck cancer during
standard radiation therapy is aided by an immune response 11 and is dependent on an intact
CD4+ and CD8+ cellular response.12 Specifically, we have demonstrated that while
HPV(+) mouse tonsil epithelial cell (MTEC) tumors in C57Bl/6 mice can be cleared with
radiation treatment, these same tumors grow unabated in Rag1 mice despite radiation
therapy. These studies demonstrate that the success of standard radiation therapy requires an
intact immune system. Furthermore, studies in other cancers show that chemotherapeutics
such as oxiplatin and cisplatin induce changes in expression of cell surface proteins, termed
alarmins, whose appearance on the cell surface elicits immune activation.13, 14 Further
defining the molecular mechanisms of radiation/immune synergy may identify novel targets
for therapeutic intervention and improve survival for OSCC patients.
In the context of cancer, immune surveillance cells can often identify and target tumor cells
for destruction.15, 16 Emergence and persistence of tumor growth may therefore be a
reflection of a deteriorated immune response, or alternatively is related to tumor cell
changes that permit evasion from immune surveillance.17, 18 Tumor immune evasion
occurs through multiple mechanisms such as loss of MHC class I molecules on the cell
surface or increasing expression of immune inhibitory molecules.19–22 Standard therapies
may alter these immune evasion mechanisms and contribute to activation of an immune
response.23 The present study supports this hypothesis. We show that alteration of a tumor
cell signaling molecule improves immune-mediated tumor killing.
While radiation likely alters many components of the tumor microenvironment, we focused
on the tumor cell surface because of its direct interaction with antigen presenting cells. We
hypothesized that radiation-mediated tumor cell surface changes would lead to enhanced
immune dependent tumor clearance. As an initial test, cell surface proteins on HPV(+)
mouse OSCC cells were analyzed following radiation treatment using a surface biotinylation
approach. The most significant change in cell surface protein expression in this analysis was
associated with CD47 (also known as Integrin Associated Protein and OA3). CD47 is a
transmembrane protein expressed on the surface of epithelial cells and is a marker of self.24,
25 CD47 binding to integrins in cis augments integrin functions.26 In addition, trans binding
of CD47 to SIRP-alpha, expressed on antigen presenting cells, enforces tolerance.25, 27, 28
Thus, CD47 functions in epithelial attachment and immune modulation. Interestingly, gene
expression array analysis demonstrates that CD47 message is up-regulated in OSCC,29 and
more recently has been shown to be an independent prognosticator of esophageal squamous
cell carcinoma.30 This study examines CD47 protein expression during radiation therapy of
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OSCC both in vitro and in vivo and demonstrates that CD47 surface expression is transiently
lost during radiation treatment. To further understand the physiologic significance of CD47
loss and its potential role in tumor immune surveillance, CD47 was stably knocked-down
and its impact on immune activation, phagocytosis, and tumor response to treatment
analyzed in vivo. The findings suggest that CD47 cell surface expression plays an important
role in immune-related HPV(+) tumor clearance during radiation. The results from this study
have implications not only for the treatment of HPV related cancers, but may also impact
other antigenic solid tumors.
Materials and Methods
Cell Culture
Normal mouse tonsil epithelial cells (MTEC) from male C57Bl/6 mice were harvested.
Human tonsil epithelial cells (HTEC) were harvested from tonsillectomies performed for
non-cancerous reasons and collected under institutional IRB approval with written consent
at the University of Iowa.31 Stable lines of MTEC expressing HPV16 E6, E7 and hRas
(HPV(+) MTEC) and HTEC expressing HPV16 E6 and E7 (HPV(+) HTEC) were generated
as previously described 31, 32 and maintained in E-media.32, 33 HPV(+) MTEC cells serve
as an HPV(+) HNSCC mouse model for in vitro and in vivo studies. The RAWS
macrophage cell line (ATTC), HPV(+) human HNSCC line (UMSCC-47) isolated from
lateral tongue, and HPV(−) human HNSCC lines (UMSCC-1,-19,-84) floor of mouth, base
of tongue and unknown location respectively, were maintained in DMEM with 10% FCS
and 1% penicillin-streptomycin. UM-SCC cell lines were a kind gift from Dr. Douglas Trask
(University of Iowa). The UM-SCC human cell lines were originally generated at the
University of Michigan by the Head and Neck SPORE Translational Research group and
have previously been genotyped.34 In addition, we have authenticated these cell lines by
short tandem repeat (STR) DNA profiling and verified them with the reference STR profile.
Primary HTEC and HPV(+) HTEC cells were similarly authenticated. Bone-marrow derived
dendritic cells (BMDC) were isolated as previously described 35 and maintained in IMDM
with 10% heat inactivated FCS, 1% penicillin-streptomycin, 0.5mM BME, 1mM sodium
pyruvate and 5ng/mL mGMCSF (R&D Systems, Minneapolis, MN).
Mice
Male C57Bl/6 mice or C57Bl/6 Rag 1 mice (The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, Maine)
were maintained at the Sanford Research Laboratory Animal Research Facility (LARF) in
accordance with USDA guidelines. All experiments were approved by the Sanford Research
IACUC and performed within institutional guidelines. Briefly, using a 23-gauge needle
CD47 knockdown HPV(+) MTEC cells, or non-silencing control cells, were implanted
subcutaneously in the right hind flank of mice (n=10/group for each experiment). Ten to
fourteen days after tumor implantation mice were anesthetized with 87.5mg/kg ketamine
and 12.5mg/kg xylazine, and the hind limb treated locally with 8Gy X-ray radiation weekly
for three weeks (RS2000 irradiator, RadSource Technologies, Inc. Suwanee, GA). Cisplatin
(CalBiochem, San Diego, CA) was dissolved in bacteriostatic 0.9% sodium chloride
(Hospira Inc., Lake Forest, IL) at 20mg/m2 and administered intraperitoneally concurrent
with radiation therapy. Tumor growth was measured using previously established
techniques.32 Animals were euthanized when tumor size was greater than 1.5 cm in any
dimension. Mice were considered tumor free when no measurable tumor was detected for a
consecutive period of two months. Survival graphs were calculated by standardizing each
mouse to an endpoint tumor volume of 2000mm3. Statistical analysis for the survival graphs
was performed using the log-rank test.
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Microscopy
All human OSCC patient samples were obtained under written consent and approved by
Sanford IRB protocol “Improving the Understanding and Treatment of Head and Neck
Cancer.” Paraffin embedded blocks were sectioned and stained using standard
immunohistochemical techniques. Human CD47 was localized with the mAb B6H12
(sc-12730, Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, CA). The anti-CD47 pAB H-100
(sc-25773, Santa Cruz Biotechnology) was used for fluorescence staining of mouse tissue
and cells (1:100). For in vitro surface staining, cells were seeded on collagen-coated 8 well
chamber-slides, placed on ice and anti-CD47 antibody bound; after PBS washes, cells were
fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde (Electron Microscopy Sciences, Hatfield, PA), washed,
incubated with Alexa Fluor-conjugated secondary antibody (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA),
washed, and coverslips mounted with Vectashield mounting medium plus DaPi (Vector
Labs, Burlingame, CA). Cells were analyzed by confocal microscopy (Olympus
FluoView1000). For in vivo staining of mouse tumors, mice were euthanized and tumors
with surrounding tissue dissected and flash frozen in TFM (Triangle Biomedical Sciences,
Inc., Durham, NC) using a liquid nitrogen 2-methylbutane bath. Sections (7µm) were cut
from fresh frozen blocks. For fluorescence microscopy, samples were analyzed on an
(Olympus DP71) fluorescent microscope and images quantified with Image J.
Radiation and CD47 Expression
To assess CD47 expression, cells were grown to 40% confluency and treated with the
indicated dose of X-ray radiation (RadSource) or cisplatin (CalBiochem). For all
biochemical experiments, cells were harvested in 0.5 % Tx-100 (Pierce, Rockford, IL),
17.4µg/mL paramethylsulfonylfluoride, and 1X HALT with EDTA (Pierce). Lysates were
spun at 10,000 RPM for 15 min at 4°C. Tx100 soluble cell lysates (40µg /lane) were
separated by SDS PAGE and analyzed by western blot with the following antibodies:
mCD47 (AF1886, R&D Systems), hCD47 clone B6H12 (sc-12730, Santa Cruz
Biotechnology), and GAPDH (Ambion, Austin, TX).
Biotinylation Experiments
Irradiated HPV(+) MTEC cells were biotinylated with NHS biotin (Pierce) on ice as per
manufacturer’s instructions. Following cell lysis, 150µg Tx-100 soluble lysate was
incubated with neutravidin agarose beads (Pierce) for 2 hrs at 4°C and washed before
loading on SDS PAGE gels. Lysate that did not bind neutravidin beads, unbiotinylated
proteins, represents the intracellular protein fraction.
Interferon gamma Assay
Lymphocytes were isolated from the draining node of C57Bl/6 mice bearing HPV(+) MTEC
tumors and red blood cells (RBC) lysed with ACK buffer.36 Lymphocytes were seeded on
top of non-silencing control, CD47 knock-down, or irradiated control cells and IFN-gamma
measured 36 hrs later using the R&D Quantikine immunoassay (R&D Systems).
ELISpot: Mouse Granzyme B Assay
Naïve mice were vaccinated with either Ad5 E6/E7 or Ad5 null virus and boosted 7 days
post vaccination with the appropriate vaccine as previously described.37 Splenocytes were
harvested on day 14 and following incubation with the indicated cells for 4 hrs, granzyme
release was assessed from 5×105 splenocytes using ELISpot Mouse Granzyme B kit (R&D
Systems), methods were followed as per manufacturer’s instructions.
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Cell Viability and Growth
Cells were seeded at 2×104 cells per well in a 12 well plate. After 24 hrs, floating and
adherent cells were harvested for baseline cell counts, duplicate wells were irradiated with
30Gy, or left untreated. Following additional 24 hr incubation, floating and adherent cells
from both the radiated and untreated conditions were harvested. All counts were performed
using Countess Cell Counter (Invitrogen) and viability was assessed by trypan blue
exclusion. Fold increase in cells was calculated by dividing the number of live cells 24 hrs
after radiation by the baseline number of live cells present at the time of radiation treatment.
Phagocytosis Assay
HPV(+) MTEC cells were seeded at 1×105 cells per 150mm dish and fluorescently labeled
with 5µM CFSE (Invitrogen) 12 hrs before scraping cells off the dish and coculturing with
1×106 BMDC’s for 18 hrs. This low seeding density ensured single cells were plated. For
the antibody blocking experiments, HPV(+) MTEC cells were combined with either 7µg/mL
anti-CD47 mAb clone MIAP301 (sc-12731, Santa Cruz Biotechnology) or an equal amount
of non-specific isotype control for 20 min in suspension before incubation with 1×106
BMDC cells for 18 hrs. Cells with intracellular CFSE were analyzed by fluorescence
microscopy (Olympus DP71) as well as by FACS analysis (Accuri C6 cytometer).
Generation of Stable shCD47 Cell Lines
CD47 short hairpin RNA (shRNA) constructs were generated by duplex synthesis (IDT,
Coralville, IA), digested with BamHI and XhoI, gel purified and ligated into pCDNA3.1
Zeocin (Invitrogen). shCD47 sequences were the following:
AATGACACTGTGGTCATCCCTTGTAGTGAAGCCACAGATGTACAAGGGATGACC
ACAGTGTCATT. The non-silencing short hairpin RNA
TCTCGCTTGGGCGAGAGTAAGTAGTGAAGCCACAGATGTACTTACTCTCGCCCA
AGCGAGAG (Control) was purchased from Open Biosystems, (ThermoScientific,
Rockford, IL) and cloned into the pCDNA3.1 Zeocin vector. Stable HPV(+) MTEC cell
lines were generated via random integration following plasmid transfection using Polyfect
Transfection Reagent as per manufacturer’s directions (Qiagen, Valencia, CA) and selection
with Zeocin.
Statistics
Data shown as mean +/− standard deviation (SD). P values were calculated by students T
test. Kaplan Meyer log rank survival calculated in Sigma Plot for all in vivo survival graphs.
Results
Cell surface changes during cisplatin and radiation therapy: CD47 and other reported
alarmins
To better understand the cell surface changes that occur during radiation and cisplatin
treatment we used a biotinylation approach as an initial screening technique to identify
expression of surface alarmins following treatment with radiation alone, cisplatin alone, or
these two agents in combination. Increases in immune-enhancing alarmins or decreases in
immune-attenuating molecules were analyzed in previously characterized HPV(+) and
HPV(−) MTEC cells. The cytoplasmic protein, GAPDH, served as a control for intracellular
leakage of biotinylation reagent and the surface expressed transmembrane protein,
EphrinB1, demonstrates equal loading in the biotinylated fraction. SDS PAGE of the
nonprecipitated (unbiotinylated) fraction assessed intracellular levels of proteins. Both heat
shock protein-90 and protein disulfide isomerase (PDI), previously postulated to move from
the ER to the plasma membrane following cellular injury,38, 39 failed to demonstrate
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surface expression. However, both proteins were present in intracellular, unbiotinylated
lysates suggesting that their translocation to the cell surface is not induced by radiation,
cisplatin, or their combination in these cells (Fig. 1A). Calreticulin, another ER protein
reported to translocate to the cell surface in response to anthracyclines,40, 41 was evident on
the surface following irradiation alone and combined cisplatin and radiation treatment (Fig.
1A). Interestingly, the most significant change in surface protein expression was in an
immune attenuating marker, CD47. The HPV(+) and HPV(−) murine OSCC cell lines
demonstrate a notable decrease in CD47 surface expression following radiation with a
smaller decrease in the cisplatin condition (Fig. 1A). Robust CD47 signal in biotinylated
samples with almost undetectable intracellular, non-biotinylated, CD47 suggests that the
majority of CD47 is expressed at the cell surface in these cells. Since the greatest decrease in
CD47 expression occurs with radiation treatment, we further examined this effect using
human OSCC cell lines. Importantly, both HPV(+) (SCC47) and HPV(−) (SCC1, 19 and 84)
human cell lines demonstrate a slight reduction in CD47 expression following radiation
suggesting the phenomenon is not restricted to murine cells but occurs in their human
counterparts as well (Fig. 1B). Together, these data suggest that radiation induces a decrease
in surface expression of CD47 in OSCC which is irrespective of HPV status.
To determine CD47’s relevance in the clinical setting, we obtained paraffin-embedded
OSCC clinical samples and stained for CD47 expression. CD47 staining in normal tonsil
epithelium was differentiation dependent and evident predominantly in the suprabasal layer.
HPV(+) and HPV(−) tumors showed very high expression in all tumor cells relative to
adjacent normal tissue (Fig. 1C). These findings suggest that OSCC tumors increase
expression of CD47 irrespective of HPV status.
Radiation-induced decrease in CD47 is time and dose dependent and occurs in vitro and
in an in vivo HPV(+) OSCC mouse model
To further characterize radiation-induced CD47 decrease, we analyzed the dose and time
dependency of CD47 loss in HPV(+) versus non-transformed primary oropharyngeal control
cell lines. Comparison of both murine and human HPV(+) cell lines was performed to
determine similarities and/or differences between species and the potential usefulness of the
murine cells as an in vivo model. A radiation dose dependent decrease in CD47 expression
was evident in mouse and human HPV(+) cells with protein loss occurring at doses as low
as 2Gy and increasing with escalating radiation doses up to 40Gy (Fig. 2A). Less dramatic,
but consistent, reduction in CD47 protein occurs following cisplatin treatment at doses
ranging from 0.5µg/mL to 8µg/mL (Fig. S1). A time course of CD47 expression after a
single radiation dose of 30 Gy in both mouse and human cells is shown in Fig. 2B.
Reduction of CD47 protein in the HPV(+) cells begins approximately 12 hrs after irradiation
and persists until three days post-radiation being slightly less pronounced in the human cells.
Conversely, the decrease in CD47 expression is not seen in the control primary mouse and
human oropharyngeal epithelial cells. Supplemental data (Fig. S2A and S2B) demonstrate
that this dose of radiation allows for continued cellular growth and division, albeit at a
slower rate than non-treated controls. Moreover, at this dose, radiation does not result in
cellular membrane disruption as measured by trypan blue exclusion. These data suggest that
cell death does not account for the decrease in CD47.
We attempted to verify that the CD47 change occurred at the membrane using flow
cytometry. However, attempts to enzymatically or non-enzymatically remove these adherent
cells altered CD47 surface expression preventing the use of flow cytometric analysis.
Therefore, we re-verified the radiation mediated change in protein level by confocal
microscopy. Figure 2C shows decreases in CD47 protein levels for both HTEC and MTEC
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HPV(+) cell lines which were significantly reduced compared to untreated cells when
quantified (Fig. 2D).
To determine whether CD47 decreases in response to radiation in vivo, HPV(+) MTEC
tumors were established in mice, irradiated with a single dose of 20Gy, harvested and
analyzed for CD47 expression at sequential time points post-radiation (Fig. 2E). A
significant reduction in CD47 expression in vivo paralleled the in vitro results with the
largest decrease evident at 24–48 hrs post-radiation and subsequent partial return of protein
at later time points (Fig. 2F). Interestingly, and similar to the in vitro control cell lines, the
surrounding normal tissue within the radiation field fails to demonstrate a reduction in CD47
expression (Fig. 2B and 2E).
Stable CD47 protein knockdown increases epithelial tumor cell phagocytosis by BMDC’s
CD47 serves as ligand for the transmembrane protein SIRPα. SIRPα expressed on
macrophages interacts with CD47 on adjacent cells and this interaction regulates a cell-cell
communication system that mediates phagocytosis.42 Previous work has shown that
blocking the interaction of leukemic cell CD47 and SIRPα on macrophages increases
phagocytosis of the cancer cells.43 Because SIRPα is expressed primarily on cells of
monocytic lineage, we asked if the loss of surface CD47 would enhance tumor cell
phagocytosis by other antigen presenting cells associated with solid tumors such as dendritic
cells. We generated non-silencing HPV(+) MTEC (control) and HPV(+) MTEC cells stably
depleted of CD47 (shCD47) (Fig. S3). Following CFSE labeling of shCD47 MTEC cells
and subsequent co-culture with murine bone marrow derived dendritic cells (BMDC’s),
phagocytosis of MTEC’s was examined by fluorescence microscopy as well as flow
cytometry. Fig. 3A shows MHCII positive BMDCs have an 11% increase in phagocytosis of
shCD47 MTEC’s versus control. Additionally, a blocking antibody (MIAP) that disrupts the
interaction between SIRPα and CD47 44 also increased CFSE labeled control cell uptake by
BMDC’s 15.7% compared to an isotype control (Fig. S4). These data suggest that cell
surface expression of CD47 regulates tumor cell phagocytosis by dendritic cells, a key
antigen presenting cell present in OSCC.
Depletion of CD47 enhances IFN-gamma production and granzyme release in a mixed
lymphocyte reaction
IFN-gamma secretion occurs from many immune cells, such as dendritic cells, and indicates
immune activation. Thus, to determine whether reduction of CD47 on tumor cells activates
immune cells, we analyzed release of IFN-gamma in vitro as follows. Mixed lymphocytes
were isolated from the draining lymph node of HPV(+) MTEC tumor bearing mice. These
lymphocytes were incubated with either HPV(+) MTEC control cells, control cells with
decreased CD47 due to radiation or cells depleted of CD47 via shRNA (shCD47) and IFN-
gamma production measured. As shown in Fig. 3B, mixed lymphocytes increased IFN-
gamma production when co-cultured with irradiated or shCD47 cells as compared to control
cells, suggesting an additional role for decreased tumor cell CD47 expression in mediating
IFN-gamma tumor responses.
Granzyme B release has been shown to accurately reflect tumor cell mediated immunity
(CMI) and serves as an indication of cytotoxic T lymphocyte activation.45 Thus, to assess
the possible role of decreased tumor cell CD47 in modulating cell mediated immune killing
we completed a granzyme release elispot assay on the HPV(+) MTEC cells. Splenocytes
from mice vaccinated with an empty adenovirus (naïve splenocytes) versus splenocytes from
mice vaccinated with an adenovirus expressing HPV16 E6/E7 antigens (activated
splenocytes) were evaluated. Fig. 3C shows that depletion of CD47 on HPV(+) MTEC cells
significantly increased granzyme B release from both naïve and activated splenocytes. The
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activated splenocytes from E6/E7 vaccinated mice had the highest release of granzyme B,
suggesting that depletion of CD47 further enhances HPV specific CMI. Taken together,
these studies demonstrate that decrease of surface CD47 on epithelial tumor cells likely
enhances activation of several immune cells, possibly modulating the immune response at
multiple levels.
Epithelial tumor cell specific knockdown of CD47 leads to increased survival in vivo when
combined with standard chemo/radiation therapy
To test whether reduction of surface CD47 on tumor cells in vivo correlates with improved
tumor therapeutic response, we utilized a previously characterized immune competent
syngeneic mouse model of OSCC 12. HPV(+) MTEC cells with CD47 stably knocked-down
were implanted into mice and tumor growth and survival analyzed. In the absence of
radiation or chemotherapy stable knockdown of CD47 alone had no significant effect on
tumor growth or survival in C57Bl/6 mice relative to control (Fig. 4A). Because immune-
mediated clearance of OSCC occurs following radiation and chemotherapy, 11 we tested
whether combining CD47 knockdown with these standard therapies improves tumor
clearance. When combined with radiation and chemotherapy, stable knockdown of CD47
led to a 50% increase in long term survival. To validate that the increase in survival was
immune-mediated, we repeated the experiment in Rag 1 mice that lack functional T and B
cells. In the Rag background, standard chemo/radiation therapy combined with tumor cell
specific CD47 knockdown resulted in increased tumor growth and significantly shorter
survival relative to controls (Fig. 4C). Thus, in the context of a competent immune system
and standard cisplatin/radiation therapy, tumor cell specific reduction of CD47 not only
decreases tumor volumes, but improves long term clearance.
Discussion
It is becoming increasingly evident that radiation therapy induces many cellular and tumor
microenvironment changes in addition to its direct cytotoxic effects. Because clearance of
HPV(+) OSCC is mediated in part through an immune mechanism, we investigated tumor
specific cell surface changes induced by radiotherapy. We identified a radiation-dependent
surface decrease of CD47 on transformed HPV(+) and (−) human epithelial tumor cells.
When tested in an HPV(+) immune competent mouse model, reduction of tumor cell CD47
improved the immune mediated response to standard chemo/radiation therapy.
We demonstrate that the decrease in CD47 is dependent on radiation dose and that protein
expression is restored by tumor cells in a time dependent manner following cessation of
treatment in vivo as well as in vitro. We postulate that the radiation-dependent decrease in
epithelial CD47 surface expression constitutes one of the initial signals alerting antigen
presenting cells of the immune system to the presence of altered self cells after radiation
injury. We noted that blocking CD47 on HPV(+) MTEC cells with a monoclonal antibody
increased phagocytosis by BMDC’s, consistent with what has been shown for leukemic cell
phagocytosis by macrophages,43 and we were able to see the same effect when CD47 was
selectively reduced from the tumor cell surface. Tumor cell reduction of CD47 also resulted
in enhanced IFN-gamma secretion in a mixed lymphocyte assay. Furthermore, granzyme
release, which accurately reflects cell mediated immunity,45 was enhanced from naïve
splenoytes subsequent to CD47 depletion on tumor cells; and intriguingly, the most
significant response was seen in splenocytes from HPV vaccinated mice suggesting CD47
loss further enables an HPV specific immune response. These findings support previous
studies demonstrating a role for CD47 in phagocytosis but also suggest that the
overexpression of CD47 on tumor cells attenuates cell mediated immune responses.
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Immunostaining of patient tumor samples shows that CD47 is present in both HPV(+) and
HPV(−) tumors and its expression is increased in cancerous tissues; results that are
consistent with previous studies showing increased transcript.29, 46 Additionally, we show
that the radiation dependent decrease in CD47 occurs in both HPV(+) and HPV(−) OSCC
cell lines, thus, while reduced CD47 expression may affect the immune response, additional
factors likely contribute to the differences in outcomes noted between the HPV(+) and (−)
OSCC patient populations. These data point to a possible selective advantage for tumor cells
over-expressing CD47. Our current findings suggest that such an up-regulation of surface
CD47 aids tumor cells in immune evasion. Additionally, other roles such as tissue invasion
of B-Cell lymphomas are also strongly associated with CD47 expression,47 suggesting that
radiation-induced changes in CD47 expression may affect the metastatic potential of tumors.
One interesting observation we noted during radiation therapy was the absence of CD47 loss
in adjacent normal tissue within the radiation field. It is possible that the cellular mechanism
leading to increased CD47 expression on tumor cells is attenuated by radiation, thus CD47
over-expressing tumor cells demonstrate a robust change in surface CD47 expression
following radiation compared to non-tumor cells. The finding that non-transformed cells did
not reduce CD47 compared to cancer cell lines (HPV(+) and HPV(−)) and our transformed
HPV(+) and HPV(−) mouse oropharyngeal cells suggests that a currently undefined
mechanism of transformation makes cells susceptible to loss of CD47 during radiation. It is
possible that this mechanism is important for radiation responsiveness of HPV(+) and
HPV(−) cancers. However, it is clear that loss of CD47 alone is not sufficient to cause
immune clearance because HPV+ tumors depleted of CD47 grew equally as well in mice as
controls. Our data would suggest that CD47 loss is part of a multifactoral response which
likely includes additional alarmins as well as presentation of viral antigens resulting in
immune clearance. Ongoing studies examining the regulation of CD47 expression will
further elucidate these mechanisms and may provide a therapeutic target to selectively
reduce CD47 on tumor cells.
One caveat with regards to radiation delivery in the reported studies is that they differ in
respect to radiation delivery in humans with OSCC. Radiation delivery to humans is
administered in 2Gy daily fractions with a total dose between 60–72Gy. Although our
cumulative doses are within this range, the fractionated delivery may affect outcome. Future
work with serial biopsies are planned to examine how daily fractionated radiation impacts
CD47 expression in human OSCC.
Finally, we show that selectively decreasing CD47 expression on HPV(+) tumor cells in
combination with standard chemo/radiation therapy increases tumor clearance in immune
competent, but not in immune incompetent RAG1 mice. These in vivo data further support
our in vitro observations suggesting that HPV(+) MTEC cells with reduced CD47 are not
intrinsically more sensitive to radiation. In a different model examined by Maxhimer et al.,
48 which used systemic delivery of siRNA to reduce CD47 in vivo, decreased tumor
volumes with radiation therapy were also noted in immune competent mice. Our results
indicate that the mechanism likely responsible for these in vivo observations is immune
dependent killing of tumor cells.
The failure to reduce tumor growth or increase survival by stable knockdown of CD47
without chemotherapy/radiation in immune competent mice is not surprising as immune
recognition and activation require multiple co-stimulatory signals.49, 50 Alternatively,
because the shCD47 cells we generated are not entirely devoid of CD47, it is possible that
the absolute amount of tumor cell CD47 present is less important than the change in CD47
levels induced by radiation therapy. It is however clear that tumor specific reduction of
CD47 when combined with cytotoxic or other alarmin effects induced by chemotherapy and
radiation, does enhance tumor clearance. Thus, a targeted approach to reduce the availability
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of CD47 specifically on tumor cells may prove advantageous for the treatment of solid
tumors. Future studies are needed to determine which immune cells are involved in vivo and
whether decreasing tumor cell CD47 enhances recruitment of immune cells or improves
antigen presentation in the peripheral lymphatic system. With the continued identification,
understanding, and targeting of alarmin signals such as CD47, it is hopeful that future OSCC
therapeutic regimens will achieve improved survival rates while decreasing the morbidity
associated with traditional therapies.
Supplementary Material
Refer to Web version on PubMed Central for supplementary material.
Acknowledgments
We thank Cathy Christopherson for administrative assistance, Andrew Hoover for critical review of the manuscript,
and Bryant Wieking, Phillip Snyder, Denise Schwabauer and Nichole Haag for technical assistance. Sanford
Research/USD Flow Cytometry Core Facility (supported by grant NIH 1P20RR024219-01A2). Sanford Research/
USD Imaging Core Facility (supported by NIH grants 5P20RR017662-08 and 1P20RR024219-01A2).
Sources of Support: JHL supported by NIDCR 7R01DE018386-03 grant and subaward 3SB161 State of South
Dakota-2010 Initiative. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or
preparation of the manuscript.
Abbreviations Used
BMDC bone marrow derived dendritic cell
IFNγinterferon gamma
HNSCC head and neck squamous cell carcinoma
HPV− human papillomavirus negative
HPV+ human papillomavirus positive
HTEC human tonsil epithelial cells
MTEC mousem tonsil epithelial cells
OSCC oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma
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Figure 1.
CD47 expression following radiation treatment in mouse and human cell lines. (A) HPV(+)
and HPV(−) MTEC’s were treated with cisplatin, radiation, or combined cisplatin/radiation
therapy. Biotinylated (surface) or non-biotinylated (intracellular) lysates were analyzed by
western blot for the indicated proteins: heat shock protein 90 (HSP-90), protein disulphide
isomerase (PDI), calreticulin, CD47 and GAPDH. EphrinB1 was probed as a loading control
for biotinylated surface protein. (B) CD47 expression before and 24 hrs after 30Gy radiation
in the HPV(+) human cell line (SCC47) and HPV(−) human cell lines (SCC84, SCC1,
SCC19). (C) Immunohistochemical staining of HPV(+) and HPV(−) human tumor samples
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compared to normal human tonsil shown at 4X and 40X magnification. Scale bar for 4X
magnification, 50 µm; for 40X magnification, 20 µm.
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Figure 2.
Radiation dose response and time dependent expression of CD47 in vitro and in vivo. (A)
HPV(+) MTEC and HPV(+) HTEC cells were treated with increasing doses of radiation and
total CD47 protein expression analyzed by western blot. (B) Time course of CD47
expression following 30Gy radiation in mouse empty vector control (MTE LXSN) and
human primary tonsil epithelial cells (Human Control) compared to the corresponding
HPV(+) MTEC and HPV(+) HTEC stable lines. Time following radiation is shown in hours
above each lane on the western blot. (C) En face, stacked Z-series of CD47 staining on
HPV(+) HTEC and HPV(+) MTEC cells 24 hrs following 20Gy radiation (or untreated
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control). Nuclei counterstained with DaPi. Scale bar, 20 µm. (D) Graphical representation of
CD47 fluorescence decrease for HPV(+) HTEC and HPV(+) MTEC cells respectively. (E)
En face fluorescence images demonstrating in vivo CD47 expression at the indicated times
following 20 Gy radiation of HPV(+) MTEC tumors (4X magnification). The white line
delineates the boundary between tumor (upper left) and surrounding normal tissue (lower
right). All fluorescent images were taken under the same intensity and capture settings.
Scale bar, 20µm. (F) Graphical representation of in vivo mouse tumor CD47 at 24 hrs, 48
hrs, and 5 days post radiation time points compared to control.
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Figure 3.
Change in tumor cell phagocytosis by BMDC’s and IFN-gamma secretion or granzyme
release by mixed lymphocytes after tumor cell loss of CD47. (A) Phagocytic uptake of
CFSE labeled HPV(+) cells was analyzed by incubating BMDC’s and shRNA non-silencing
control (Control) or stable shRNA-mediated CD47 knockdown (shCD47) HPV(+) MTEC
cells. Following CFSE treatment, HPV(+) MTEC cells were incubated with BMDC’s for 18
hrs and analyzed by fluorescence microscopy and FACS analysis. Percent of dendritic cells
with phagocytic CFSE uptake are shown in upper right of graph. Graphs were obtained by
FACS analysis for MHC-II and CFSE expression. Representative pictures of dendritic cells
are shown with arrows indicating the CFSE uptake in the BMDC’s. Scale bar, 200µm. (B)
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Mixed lymphocytes were harvested from the draining inguinal node of tumor bearing mice
and incubated with the indicated HPV(+) MTEC cells: shRNA nonsilencing control
(Control), irradiated control (30Gy) or shRNA mediated CD47 knock-down (shCD47). IFNγ
secretion was assayed by commercial ELISA from the supernatant after 18 hrs. (C) ELISpot
Granzyme B assay of splenocytes harvested from null vaccinated (Naïve) or HPV 16 E6E7
vaccinated (Activated) mice. Splenocytes were harvested and evaluated for reactivity
towards non-silencing control or shCD47 HPV(+) MTEC cells through secretion of
granzyme B.
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Figure 4.
Loss of CD47 enhances immune-related clearance of HPV+ tumors only in immune
competent animals. Tumor growth curves (for individual mice) and group Kaplan-Meyer
survival curves are shown for shRNA non-silencing control (Control) or shRNA mediated
CD47 knock-down (shCD47) HPV(+) MTEC tumors. (A) Growth and survival in immune
competent mice receiving no treatment. (B) Growth and survival in immune competent mice
receiving three doses of radiation and cisplatin (8Gy radiation and 20mg/kg cisplatin) on
days indicated by bold arrows. (C) Part B repeated in immune incompetent RAG-1 mice.
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Introduction Programmed death 1 (PD-1)/programmed death 1 ligand 1 (PD-L1)-directed immunotherapy has revolutionized the treatments for advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), whereas the optimal therapeutic combinations remain uncertain. Methods Our study encompassed phase Ⅱ/III randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that involved anti-PD-(L)1-based therapies for stage-IV NSCLC. The primary outcomes included overall survival (OS), progression-free survival (PFS), objective response rate (ORR), and incidences of adverse events (AEs). Subgroup analyses were conducted by treatment lines, PD-L1 expression levels, histological types, and metastatic sites. Results Our analysis incorporated 38 publications, covering 14 therapeutic combinations and involving 18,048 participants. PD-(L)1+chemotherapy (CT), PD-(L)1+ cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen-4 (CTLA4) +CT, and PD-(L)1+ T-cell immunoglobulin and ITIM domain (TIGIT) were notably effective in prolonging OS. Overall, PD-(L)1+CT and PD-(L)1+CT+ vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) were significantly beneficial for PFS and ORR. As for the subsequent-line treatments, incorporating radiotherapy can enhance PFS and ORR (ranked fourth among enrolled treatments). For patients with PD-L1 < 1%, PD-(L)1+CT+VEGF and PD-(L)1+CTLA4+CT were favorable approaches. Conversely, in patients with PD-L1 ≥ 50%, PD-(L)1+CT represented an effective treatment. Patients with non-squamous cell carcinoma or liver metastases might benefit from the addition of VEGF. In cases of squamous cell carcinoma or brain metastases, the combination of PD-(L)1+CTLA4+CT yielded superior benefits. Conclusions This study underscores the enhanced efficacy of combination immunotherapies over monotherapy. It highlights the necessity for personalized treatment, considering individual factors. These insights are vital for clinical decision-making in the management of advanced NSCLC.
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Simple Summary Head and neck cancer (HNC) is an aggressive form of cancer that affects hundreds of thousands of people worldwide and has a relatively poor prognosis. In the last decade, new therapeutics designed to enhance a patient’s immune system have been approved for use, but HNC has developed many different methods that help it escape the immune system. The existing immunotherapies target only one of these mechanisms, allowing HNC to utilize others to continue to elude the immune system. This review details the various strategies used by HNC to escape the immune response, dividing them into four general categories: evade, resist, inhibit, and recruit. Each of the immune escape mechanisms represents a potential immunotherapy target that could be used to treat HNC. Abstract Head and neck cancers (HNCs) arise from the mucosal lining of the aerodigestive tract and are often associated with alcohol use, tobacco use, and/or human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. Over 600,000 new cases of HNC are diagnosed each year, making it the sixth most common cancer worldwide. Historically, treatments have included surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy, and while these treatments are still the backbone of current therapy, several immunotherapies have recently been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in HNC. The role of the immune system in tumorigenesis and cancer progression has been explored since the early 20th century, eventually coalescing into the current three-phase model of cancer immunoediting. During each of the three phases—elimination, equilibrium, and escape—cancer cells develop and utilize multiple strategies to either reach or remain in the final phase, escape, at which point the tumor is able to grow and metastasize with little to no detrimental interference from the immune system. In this review, we summarize the many strategies used by HNC to escape the immune system, which include ways to evade immune detection, resist immune cell attacks, inhibit immune cell functions, and recruit pro-tumor immune cells.
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Cluster of differentiation 47(CD47) is a transmembrane protein that is ubiquitously found on the surface of many cells in the body and uniquely overexpressed by both solid and hematologic malignant cells. CD47 interacts with signal-regulatory protein α (SIRPα), to trigger a "don't eat me" signal and thereby achieve cancer immune escape by inhibiting macrophage-mediated phagocytosis. Thus, blocking the CD47-SIRPα phagocytosis checkpoint, for release of the innate immune system, is a current research focus. Indeed, targeting the CD47-SIRPα axis as a cancer immunotherapy has shown promising efficacies in pre-clinical outcomes. Here, we first reviewed the origin, structure, and function of the CD47-SIRPα axis. Then, we reviewed its role as a target for cancer immunotherapies, as well as the factors regulating CD47-SIRPα axis-based immunotherapies. We specifically focused on the mechanism and progress of CD47-SIRPα axis-based immunotherapies and their combination with other treatment strategies. Finally, we discussed the challenges and directions for future research and identified potential CD47-SIRPα axis-based therapies that are suitable for clinical application.
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Conventional cancer treatments rely on radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Such treatments supposedly mediate their effects via the direct elimination of tumor cells. Here we show that the success of some protocols for anticancer therapy depends on innate and adaptive antitumor immune responses. We describe in both mice and humans a previously unrecognized pathway for the activation of tumor antigen–specific T-cell immunity that involves secretion of the high-mobility-group box 1 (HMGB1) alarmin protein by dying tumor cells and the action of HMGB1 on Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) expressed by dendritic cells (DCs). During chemotherapy or radiotherapy, DCs require signaling through TLR4 and its adaptor MyD88 for efficient processing and cross-presentation of antigen from dying tumor cells. Patients with breast cancer who carry a TLR4 loss-of-function allele relapse more quickly after radiotherapy and chemotherapy than those carrying the normal TLR4 allele. These results delineate a clinically relevant immunoadjuvant pathway triggered by tumor cell death.
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CD47 inhibits phagocytosis and its overexpression is correlated with poor prognosis in patients with several types of cancer. It has also been reported that CD47 expression in multiple sclerosis is regulated by microRNAs. However, the regulatory mechanism of CD47 in cancer tissues has not been yet clarified. Re-analysis of a public microarray database revealed that miR-133a is downregulated in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC). Moreover, in silico algorithms predicted that miR-133a is a regulator of CD47. The purpose of this study was to clarify the clinical significance of CD47 and its regulatory mechanism by miR-133a in ESCC. Quantitative real-time RT-PCR was used to evaluate CD47 and miR-133a expression in 102 cases of curative resected ESCC and adjacent non-cancerous tissue. The regulation of CD47 by miR-133a was examined with precursor miR-133a-transfected cells. A mouse xenograft model was used to investigate the ability of miR-133a to suppress tumor progression. High expression levels of CD47 were associated with lymph node metastasis (P=0.049). Multivariate analysis showed that CD47 expression was an independent prognostic factor (P=0.045). miR-133a expression was significantly lower in cancer tissues compared to adjacent non-cancerous tissues (P<0.001). In vitro assays showed that miR-133a is a direct regulator of CD47. miR‑133a significantly inhibited tumorigenesis and growth in vivo. CD47 expression is a novel prognostic marker in ESCC that is directly inhibited by the miR-133a tumor suppressor. This correlation could provide new insight into the mechanism of cancer progression and a promising candidate for target therapy in ESCC.
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Dendritic cells are innate sentinels of the immune system and potent activators of naÏve T cells. Mechanisms must exist to enable these cells to achieve maximal activation of T cells specific for microbial antigens, while avoiding activation of T cells specific for self-antigens. Here we discuss how a combination of signals from pattern recognition receptors and T cells co-ordinates subcellular trafficking of antigen with both major histocompatibility complex class I and class II molecules and T-cell costimulatory molecules, resulting in the preferential presentation of microbial peptides within a stimulatory context.
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Immunogenic cell death is characterized by the early surface exposure of chaperones including calreticulin and HSPs, which affect dendritic cell (DC) maturation and the uptake and presentation of tumor antigens. It has also been shown that it is characterized by the late release of high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), which acts through Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and augments the presentation of antigens from dying tumor cells to DCs. Most of the data on immunogenic tumor cell death were obtained using mouse models. In this study, we investigated the capacity of clinically used chemotherapeutics to induce immunogenic cell death in human tumor cell lines and primary tumor cells. We found that only anthracyclines induced a rapid translocation of calreticulin, HSP70, and HSP90 to the cell surface and the release of HMGB1 12 hours after the treatment. The interaction of immature DCs with immunogenic tumor cells led to an increased tumor cell uptake and induces moderate phenotypic maturation of DCs. Killed tumor cell-loaded DCs efficiently stimulated tumor-specific IFN-γ-producing T cells. DCs pulsed with killed immunogenic tumor cells also induced significantly lower numbers of regulatory T cells than those pulsed with nonimmunogenic tumor cells. These data indicate that human prostate cancer, ovarian cancer, and acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells share the key features of immunogenic cell death with mice tumor cells. These data also identify anthracyclines as anticancer drugs capable of inducing immunogenic cell death in sensitive human tumor cells.
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Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is one of the major health problems in Sri Lanka and the disease is associated with the habit of Betel Quid (BQ) chewing. Using 35k oligo microarrays, we analyzed the gene expression profile of 15 Sri Lankan patients diagnosed with OSCCs and pair-wised normal controls and correlated the findings with the clinicopathological data. Following the recording of the scanned array images and data analysis, results for selected candidate genes were verified using QRT-PCR. Upon analysis, a total of 263 genes [71 (27%) of unknown functions previously not reported in OSCCs and 192 (73%) of known functions] were found as differentially expressed between tumors and controls. For the genes with known functions, 66 (34%; such as COL4A1, MMP1, MMP3, PLAU, SPARC and KRT19) were previously reported in OSCC and for the remaining 126 (66%; such as CD47, APOL3, RRAGC, BPIL1 and AZGP1) this is the first report in OSCCs. Hierarchical clustering of the differentially expressed 263 genes grouped the samples into several clusters with the larger one being dominated by tumors of stage 3 and 4. Two cases (a verrucous SCC and an advanced SCC), did not cluster with any of the other samples. We found two main biological pathways (cell communication and integrin-mediated cell adhesion) and 5 gene ontology categories (transcription regulator activity, structural molecule activity, intracellular signaling, cytoskeleton and signal transduction) of relevance to the OSCCs examined. Results from the QRT-PCR verified the results from the microarray experiment. This study provides valuable information on gene expression profile of OSCCs of habitual users of BQ from Sri Lanka. Of particular interest were the list of genes of known and unknown functions and the two biological pathways that we suggest as candidate genes in oral cancers associated with BQ chewing in Southeast Asia, in particular Sri Lanka. The suggested candidate genes might be used as molecular biomarkers in the early detection of the alarming problem of OSCCs in Southeast Asia in association with BQ use. These findings provide valuable information that might help in the selection of possible biomarkers that can be used in early detection of the alarming problem of oral cancer in Southeast Asia.
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Integrin-associated protein (IAP or CD47) is a receptor for thrombospondin family members, a ligand for the transmembrane signaling protein SIRPα and a component of a supramolecular complex containing specific integrins, heterotrimeric G proteins and cholesterol. Peptides containing a VVM motif in the C-terminal domain of thrombospondins are agonists for CD47, initiating heterotrimeric Gi protein signaling that augments the functions of integrins of the β1, β2 and β3 families, thus modulating a range of cell activities including platelet activation, cell motility and adhesion, and leukocyte adhesion, migration and phagocytosis.
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Two-signal models have a rich history in immunology. In the classic two-signal model of T-cell activation, signal one consists of engagement of the T-cell receptor by antigen/major histocompatibility complex, whereas signal two arises from costimulatory ligands on antigen-presenting cells. A requirement for two independent signals helps to ensure that T-cell responses are initiated only in response to bona fide infectious threats. Our studies have led us to conclude that initiation of innate immune responses to pathogens also often requires two signals: signal one is initiated by a microbe-derived ligand, such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or flagellin, whereas signal two conveys additional contextual information that often accompanies infectious microbes. Although signal one alone is sufficient to initiate many innate responses, certain responses-particularly ones with the potential for self-damage-require two signals for activation. Many of our studies have employed the intracellular bacterial pathogen Legionella pneumophila, which has been established as a valuable model for understanding innate immune responses. In this review, we discuss how the innate immune system integrates multiple signals to generate an effective response to L. pneumophila and other bacterial pathogens.
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Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) presents as both localized and disseminated disease with spread to secondary sites carrying a worse prognosis. Although pathways driving NHL dissemination have been identified, there are few therapies capable of inhibiting them. Here, we report a novel role for the immunomodulatory protein CD47 in NHL dissemination, and we demonstrate that therapeutic targeting of CD47 can prevent such spread. We developed 2 in vivo lymphoma metastasis models using Raji cells, a human NHL cell line, and primary cells from a lymphoma patient. CD47 expression was required for Raji cell dissemination to the liver in mouse xenotransplants. Targeting of CD47 with a blocking antibody inhibited Raji cell dissemination to major organs, including the central nervous system, and inhibited hematogenous dissemination of primary lymphoma cells. We hypothesized that anti-CD47 antibody-mediated elimination of circulating tumor cells occurred through phagocytosis, a previously described mechanism for blocking anti-CD47 antibodies. As predicted, inhibition of dissemination by anti-CD47 antibodies was dependent on blockade of phagocyte SIRPα and required macrophage effector cells. These results demonstrate that CD47 is required for NHL dissemination, which can be therapeutically targeted with a blocking anti-CD47 antibody. Ultimately, these findings are potentially applicable to the dissemination and metastasis of other solid tumors.
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Endothelial colony-forming cells (ECFCs) are endothelial progenitor cells that circulate at low concentration in human umbilical cord and adult peripheral blood and are largely resident in blood vessels. ECFCs not only appear to be critical for normal vascular homeostasis and repair but may also contribute to tumor angiogenesis and response to therapy. To begin to characterize the potential role of ECFCs during the treatment of tumors in children and adults with radiation, we characterized the X-ray sensitivity of cord and adult blood-derived ECFCs. We found both cord blood and adult ECFCs to be highly radiation sensitive (3 Gy resulted in >90% killing without induction of apoptosis). The X-ray survival curves suggested reduced potential for repair capacity, but X-ray fractionation studies demonstrated that all the ECFCs exhibited repair when the radiation was fractionated. Finally, the mechanisms of X-ray-induced cell death for cord blood and adult ECFCs were different at low and high dose. At low dose, all ECFCs appear to die by mitotic death/catastrophe. However, at high radiation doses (≥ 10 Gy) cord blood ECFCs underwent p53 stabilization and Bax-dependent apoptosis as well as p21-dependent G₁ and G₂/M cell cycle checkpoints. By contrast, after 10 Gy adult ECFCs undergo only large-scale radiation-induced senescence, which is a cellular phenotype linked to premature development of atherosclerosis and vasculopathies. These data demonstrate that the ECFC response to radiation is dose-dependent and developmentally regulated and may provide potential mechanistic insight into their role in tumor and normal tissue response after ionizing radiation treatment.