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Human Communication Research ISSN 0360-3989
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Workplace Friendship in the Electronically
Connected Organization
Patricia M. Sias1, Hannah Pedersen2, Erin B. Gallagher3, & Irina Kopaneva2
1 Eller College of Management, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
2 Edward R. Murrow College of Communication, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington,
DC 99164-0000, USA
3 School of Arts and Communication, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
This study examined information communication technologies and workplace friendship
dynamics. Employees reported factors that influenced their initiation of friendship with a
coworker and reported patterns and perceptions of communication with their workplace
friend via different communication methods. Results indicated that personality, shared
tasks, and perceived similarity are the most important factors to coworker friendship
initiation, and the importance of physical proximity to workplace friendship is diminishing
in the electronically connected workplace. Results confirm the primacy of face-to-face
interaction for workplace friendship initiation and maintenance. E-mail, phone, and
texting were also central to communication among workplace friends. The amount of time
spent telecommuting affected workplace friendship initiation and communication. Finally,
generational differences were identified with respect to Internet-based communication
methods.
doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2012.01428.x
Technological innovations have always had profound influence on societies (Chesley
& Johnson, 2010). While many, such as assembly line technologies, have enabled
changes in organizational production processes, communication technologies such
as the Internet, e-mail, cell phones, teleconferencing, and other forms of informa-
tion communication technologies (ICTs) have dramatically altered organizational
communication practices. As Bleecker observed in 1998,
In the 1980s we noted proudly that we were a wired society. Soon we can
proudly say we are an unwired society. It’s the age of emancipation. Time and
space will collapse, and the barriers to communications will fall away. It won’t
matter if you are in America and your trading partner is in Bulgaria. You will be
truly connected—linked to one another by an invisible web of communications
networks and intelligent, integrated appliances: the electronic virtual
office. (p. 47).
Corresponding author: Patricia M. Sias; e-mail: psias@email.arizona.edu
Human Communication Research 38 (2012) 253– 279 ©2012 International Communication Association 253
Workplace Friendship P. M. Sias et al.
The large-scale connectedness communication technologies enable has fundamen-
tally changed not only organizational operations but also employee interaction,
which likely affects employee relationships. As Wheatley (1994, 2001) noted, rela-
tionships are the basis of living systems, including organizations. Thus, understanding
organizations requires understanding the interpersonal relationships that comprise
them. Moreover, interpersonal relationships are socially constructed entities (Sigman,
1995). They are produced and reproduced in the partners’ interaction. Accordingly,
understanding coworker relationships requires understanding the communication
practices and patterns that characterize those relationships. Developing knowledge
about the role of ICTs in those communication practices is particularly important
given the wide array of ICTs available in today’s organizations. To date, however,
links between ICTs and employee relationships have been largely ignored.
Along with developments in communication technology, organizations have
changed in two other fundamental ways that likely have implications for workplace
friendship dynamics. First, ICTs have enabled employees to increasingly engage in
telecommuting (i.e., working some or all the time from an off-site location) and,
second, organizations are increasingly populated by employees from generations
as varied as millennials, generation X and Y, baby boomers, and the ‘‘greatest
generation’’ (Carlson, 2008; New Politics Institute, 2008). Again research has ignored
the implications of such trends for workplace friendship. This study addressed these
important voids.
Communication technology and workplace friendship initiation
Scholars have long acknowledged the importance of workplace relationships to
organizational processes (e.g., Graen & Cashman, 1975; Jablin, 1979; Sias, 2009).
Peer relationships, or relationships among employees at the same hierarchical level
and with no formal authority over one another, are the most common (Porter
& Roberts, 1973), and often the most important, workplace relationships. As Sias
(2009) explained,
Most people have one supervisor and several peer coworkers. Consequently,
most of us spend more time with our peer coworkers than with anyone else at
work [Comer, 1991]. And many of us spend more time with our peer coworkers
than we spend with our family and friends. (p. 57)
Peer workplace relationships often develop into affiliative bonds known as
friendships (Sias & Cahill, 1998; Sias, Smith, & Avdeyeva, 2003). Workplace friendships
differ from other workplace relationships in two primary ways. First, they are
voluntary; that is, even in highly regulated work environments individuals choose
whom to befriend. Friendship development is an ongoing and privately negotiated
process that depends on the free will of the persons involved (Rawlins, 1992; Wright,
1978). Second, friendships have a personalistic focus in which the individuals come to
know and interact with each other as whole persons beyond their direct organizational
roles (Sias, 2006).
254 Human Communication Research 38 (2012) 253– 279 ©2012 International Communication Association
P. M. Sias et al. Workplace Friendship
Although friendships can create strain among coworkers (Litwin & Hallstein,
2007) and ‘‘chain’’ them to unhealthy work environments (Sias & Cahill, 1998),
research indicates their effects are largely positive for individuals and organizations.
Workplace friends provide each other with instrumental and emotional support
(Kram & Isabella, 1985). They become a ‘‘second set of eyes and ears’’ (Rawlins,
1992) for each other by sharing important information related to the organization.
Friendships also facilitate employee career advancement and serve as buffers between
subordinates and supervisors and as sources of support for those experiencing anxiety
or stress (Sias, 2009). Workplace friendships are linked to higher quality information
sharing, decision-making influence, and enhanced creativity (Marks, 1994; Sias,
2005; Yager, 1997). Peer friendships help employees make sense of their working
environments (Fritz, 1997; Louis, Posner, & Powell, 1983; Miller & Jablin, 1991)
and provide a source of intrinsic reward for employees, increase job satisfaction, and
reduce turnover (Kram & Isabella, 1985).
Given their importance, research has focused on understanding how workplace
friendships initiate and develop. These studies indicate two primary types of factors
affect workplace friendship development— individual and contextual (Sias & Cahill,
1998; Sias et al., 2003). Individual factors are those that derive from the individual
partners themselves and include personality and perceived similarity. Research con-
sistently shows that individuals tend to seek ties with similar others and tend to form
relationships with people whose personality traits they like and admire (Sias & Cahill,
1998; Sias et al., 2003).
Contextual factors derive from the contexts in which the friendship exists, includ-
ing those internal and external to the organization (Sias & Cahill, 1998). External
contextual factors include significant life events, such as divorce, illness, and so
forth, and socializing outside the workplace. Internal contextual factors refer to
elements within the workplace such as physical proximity,shared tasks and projects,
and work-related problems. Proximity refers to having workspaces (e.g., desks and
stations) physically near one another. This creates opportunities to interact and
learn about coworkers as people beyond their specific role. Shared tasks and projects
require that people work together on specific tasks. Thus, coworkers are more likely
to become friends in organizations with more interactive potential, as opposed
to those with individual or highly supervised operations (Hodson, 1996; Shah,
1998). Work-related problems, such as issues with a supervisor, lead employees
to seek support from their coworkers, which contributes to closer relationships
(Sias & Jablin, 1995).
Personal and contextual factors influence workplace friendships differently at
different stages of friendship development. Of particular relevance to this study, the
factors most important to the initiation of a workplace friendship are proximity,
similarity, personality, shared tasks, and socializing (Sias & Cahill, 1998; Sias et al.,
2003). These factors enhance friendship initiation because they provide opportunities
for employees to interact with one another (e.g., proximity, shared tasks, and
socializing), and such interaction enables employees to get to know one another’s
Human Communication Research 38 (2012) 253– 279 ©2012 International Communication Association 255
Workplace Friendship P. M. Sias et al.
personalities, interests, and backgrounds (e.g., personality and similarity). In contrast,
life events and work-related problems tend to be more important as workplace
friendships develop into close and very close friendships. These factors provide
issues about which employees can communicate in a more intimate and open
manner, which requires the levels of trust enjoyed between close friends (Sias &
Cahill, 1998).
To date, research has ignored the role of ICTs in workplace friendship processes.
Given the increased communication media choices available to employees and the
increase in the number of individuals who accomplish their work from remote
locations (Rabby & Walther, 2003), such investigation is necessary to develop an
understanding of workplace friendship initiation in the contemporary ‘‘electronically
connected’’ organization.
Developmental factors in friendship initiation
Quan-Haase and Wellman (2004) coined the term ‘‘local virtualities’’ to refer to
the increased reliance of employees on computer-mediated communication and
ICTs. Their research indicates that employees rely heavily on such technologies to
communicate with one another even when they are in the same physical location
(Quan-Haase & Wellman, 2004; Wellman, Quan-Haase, Witte, & Hampton, 2001).
Thus, they simultaneously communicate virtually and locally.
The local virtualities concept suggests that the importance of various devel-
opmental factors to friendship initiation has likely changed since earlier work
that examined these issues before the widespread proliferation of ICTs (e.g., Sias
& Cahill, 1998). For example, a key precursor to workplace friendship initiation
noted above is physical proximity between individuals. In fact, past research found
proximity to be one of the most important factors to workplace friendship initi-
ation (Sias & Cahill, 1998; Sias et al., 2003). Those studies, however, ignored the
potential role of technology in friendship dynamics. ICTs remove the necessity
of physical proximity or direct face-to-face communication between employees
(Fehr, 1996). As mentioned above, Quan-Haase and Wellman (2004) found that
employees rely heavily on ICTs even when they worked in the same physical
location. In addition, Mok, Wellman, and Carrasco (2010) found that people use
e-mail and telephone similarly to communicate with friends and relatives regardless
of distance; however, the use of face-to-face interaction was linked to distances
between the interaction partners of 5 miles or less. Moreover, work practices such
as telecommuting, flextime and virtual offices alter people’s perceptions of time
and space. Synchronous communication, when individuals can receive immediate
response no matter the distance, results in technological, spatial, and temporal
simultaneity (Paragas, 2009). Mobile technologies compress time to such an extent
that every ‘‘dead’’ moment (e.g., on the road) can be filled with communication
(Arminen, 2009). According to Arminen, ‘‘mobile communication is reshaping
person-to-person communication: there will be more contacts, shorter exchanges,
and new multi-modal, real-time communicative practices’’ (p. 102). Taken together,
256 Human Communication Research 38 (2012) 253– 279 ©2012 International Communication Association
P. M. Sias et al. Workplace Friendship
the above suggest that physical proximity may be less important to the initiation
of friendships among employees who have access to multiple mediated forms of
communication.
ICTs lack the richness (e.g., speed of feedback, formality, and structure) that
characterizes face-to-face communication (Daft & Lengel, 1986; Rice, Chang, &
Torobin, 1992). In addition, social presence theory (Short, Williams, & Christie,
1976) argues that mediated communication also lacks social presence (e.g., socia-
bility, warmth, personalness, and sensitivity). This suggests that ICTs may impede
employees’ abilities to learn more about each other’s background and personality.
Others, however, note that ICTs vary in the extent to which they enable or hinder
social presence (Walther, 1996). Group decision software systems, for example, tend
to foster impersonal interaction, while others such as e-mail and chat rooms can
actually enable ‘‘hyperpersonal’’ communication or interaction that surpasses ‘‘the
level of affection and emotion of parallel FtF [face-to-face] interaction’’ (Walther,
1996, p. 17). This is due to a variety of factors, including the fact that individuals often
find it easier to manage their impressions (Godwin, 1994) and focus on messages
rather than physical and other contextual aspects of the communication situation
(Daly, Weber, Vangelisti, Maxwell, & Neel, 1989) using ICTs than using face-to-face
interaction. At the same time, the weight of personal acquaintance may be decreasing
in an era in which social networking systems, such as MySpace or Facebook, enable
individuals to have a few hundred ‘‘friends’’ and all we need ‘‘to friend’’ someone
is click ‘‘accept.’’ Accordingly, we expect personal factors such as personality and
similarity to be less important for friendship initiation for employees with access to
multiple forms of mediated communication.
ICTs do, however, enable and often enhance employees’ abilities to work
together (Fonner & Roloff, 2010). Employees who work on shared tasks and
projects must communicate with one another to do so. Communication meth-
ods that enable contact and information exchange likely enhance shared task
accomplishment. ICTs have been shown to enable quality information exchange
among telecommuting coworkers (Fonner & Roloff, 2010). Thus, shared tasks
likely remain important to friendship initiation among employees. Accordingly, we
propose,
H1: Employees will perceive shared tasks as more important to workplace friendship
initiation than physical proximity, personality, and perceived similarity.
Telecommuting and workplace friendship initiation
Among the many outcomes of the increased use of ICTs in organizations is telework.
Telework refers to ‘‘an arrangement between employers and employees in which
employees work part- or full-time from alternate locations, such as their homes
or telework centers’’ (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2005, p. 1).
Employees in such arrangements are called telecommuters (Kossek, Lautsch, & Eaton,
2006). ICTs enable employees to work at a distance and accomplish tasks, including
those that require communicating with other employees and customers/clients, from
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Workplace Friendship P. M. Sias et al.
various physical locations. Not surprisingly, as ICTs have become more widespread,
so has telecommuting. Recent research indicates employees in North American
organizations spend an average of 20% of their time on the job doing telework
(Forrester Research, 2009).
Proximity is difficult, if not impossible, for employees who telecommute part-
or full-time. Increased time spent offsite means less time in the physical proximity
of coworkers. Given the social presence afforded by face-to-face interaction, it is
also likely that the more time an employee spends working offsite, the less they
are able to learn about and enjoy their coworkers’ personality and backgrounds. As
noted above, however, ICTs enable employees to work together on shared tasks and
projects. Shared tasks may, therefore, be more important for friendship initiation
as employees’ time working offsite increases. Accordingly, we propose the following
hypothesis:
H2: The amount of time employees spend telecommuting will be negatively associated
with the importance of physical proximity, personality, and similarity and positively
related to the importance of shared tasks to the initiation of their workplace
friendships.
Communication and workplace friendship
The above hypotheses address links between ICTs and workplace friendship ini-
tiation, suggesting ways in which access to ICTs may influence the importance
of contextual and personal factors to relationship initiation. In addition to the
concept of local virtualities, we ground our study in social construction theory
(Allen, 2005; Berger & Luckmann, 1966). Specifically, we conceptualize workplace
friendships as socially constructed entities, constituted and maintained in interaction
(Sias, 2009; Sigman, 1995). Communication is, therefore, crucial to the initiation,
development, and maintenance of workplace friendships, because communication
constitutes the relationship itself. In the following sections, we develop a set of
hypotheses addressing the communication practices of coworkers once they have
initiated a friendship and as they work to maintain that friendship. Specifically, we
address the frequency with which they communicate using various methods, the
perceived quality of their communication with one another using various methods,
and the importance of different communication methods to the maintenance of their
friendships.
Communication frequency
Employees generally have a variety of media from which to choose to communicate
with their coworkers and much research has identified factors that influence an
individual’s media choice. Media richness theory (Daft & Lengel, 1986), for example,
posits that people will choose ‘‘rich’’ media (i.e., those that provide multiple
cues and enable instant feedback such as face-to-face conversation) in situations
involving complex or equivocal messages and ‘‘lean’’ media (i.e., those that provide
limited cues and do not enable quick feedback such as written documents) in
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P. M. Sias et al. Workplace Friendship
situations involving simple, unequivocal messages. Others note that individual
characteristics (e.g., organizational level and communicator style) influence media
choice (e.g., Norton, 1983; Trevino, Lengel, Gerloff, & Muir, 1990). Social influence
models, on the other hand, suggest people choose communication media based
on what they hear others say about it (Fulk, 1993). As Fulk found, for example,
employees’ use of technology was influenced primarily by what their coworkers said
about the technology, not by the technology itself.
Another factor, however, may be the opportunities (or lack of opportunities) to
engage in various types of communication. Employees who spend much or all their
time telecommuting, for example, likely communicate more frequently using text,
e-mail, and other forms of ICTs than do onsite employees, not necessarily because
they choose to, but because other physically copresent methods are less available to
them. Thus,
H3: The more time employees spend telecommuting, the less frequently they use
face-to-face interaction to communicate with their workplace friends and the more
frequently they will use ICT modes of communication.
Communication quality
Because relationships are socially constructed, communication quality is closely tied
to relationship quality (Emmers-Sommer, 2004; Keeley & Hart, 1994)—the higher
the quality of communication between relationship partners, the higher the quality of
the relationship. We know little, however, about the extent to which a communication
medium enables quality interaction. In general, interpersonal scholars conceptualize
quality communication to be smooth, relaxed, positive, intimate, and open (Duck,
Rutt, Hurst, & Strejc, 1991; Montgomery, 1998). Montgomery provided the most
comprehensive conceptual definition of communication quality in the context of
interpersonal relationships. She conceptualized quality communication between
relationship partners as positive (e.g., supportive, cheerful, and agreeable), intimate
(e.g., the partners disclose information about themselves to one another), and in
control (e.g., the partners are able to produce coherent conversations and develop
shared meaning).
Communication methods likely vary in the extent to which they enable quality
communication. Face-to-face interaction, for example, enables intimate commu-
nication via rich verbal and nonverbal cues and immediate feedback that enables
coherent conversations and shared meaning, and thus, a positive experience. Intimate
self-disclosure may be more difficult to accomplish via text messages, social networks,
or written documents. Additionally, the asynchronous nature of those media may
interfere with conversational coherence. As Fonner and Roloff (2010) found, how-
ever, employees who communicate primarily via ICTs perceive their information
exchange to be as high in quality as do onsite employees, indicating that ICTs
can enable quality communication. To address the extent to which communication
media enable or hinder quality communication and the extent to which perceptions
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Workplace Friendship P. M. Sias et al.
of communication are associated with telecommuting, we examined the following
research questions:
RQ1: What is the relative perceived quality of communication between workplace friends
using different communication methods?
RQ2: How is the amount of time spent telecommuting associated with the perceived
quality of communication between workplace friends using different communication
methods?
ICTs and workplace friendship maintenance
Once a friendship begins, the partners communicate with each other in ways that
further develop the relationship, accomplish distancing from the relationship, or
maintain the relationship at a desired level. Because relationships are central ele-
ments in organizational processes, relationship maintenance is important for stable
organizational functioning (Sias, Gallagher, Kopaneva, & Pedersen, 2012). Friendship
initiation is an identifiable short-lived phase of a relationship’s trajectory (e.g., the
first meeting and the first few conversations). In contrast, relationship maintenance
is an ongoing accomplishment that lasts as long as the relationship itself.
Relationship maintenance has been conceptualized in a variety of ways, including
keeping the relationship in a ‘‘satisfactory condition’’ (Dindia, 2003, p. 3). This
conceptualization refers to a general concern for maintaining the relationship, but
not specific concerns that are responsive to actions by the partner (e.g., concerns that
the partner wants the relationship to grow closer or more distant), in other words,
routine relationship maintenance situations (Lee, 1998).
Again, because workplace friendships are socially constructed entities, their main-
tenance is accomplished communicatively. Along these lines, studies indicate that
routine relationship maintenance is accomplished via consistent, regular interaction
that shows positive regard for the other (e.g., Dainton, 2007; Lee, 1998). This suggests
that ICTs can both enable and hinder workplace friendship maintenance. ICTs
such as telephone, e-mail, texting, and social networking provide opportunities for
coworkers to interact frequently and regularly, regardless of whether they work in
physical proximity or at a distance. Along these lines, Ellison, Steinfield, and Lampe
(2007) found that students’ use of the social networking site, Facebook, helped them
maintain their social relationships. On the other hand, as noted earlier, such tech-
nologies vary in the extent to which they provide the level of social presence required
to express the positive regard and affection required for interpersonal relationship
maintenance. Ledbetter (2010), for example, found that face-to-face interaction was
more influential in (nonwork) interpersonal friendship maintenance than was online
communication, concluding that ‘‘...online maintenance (more globally, i.e., the
medium-oriented construct) does not substitute or compensate for lack of access
to face-to-face contact’’ (p. 950). Thus, although ICTs enable quality information
exchange (Fonner & Roloff, 2010), that exchange does not necessarily enhance
affiliative goals. Other communication methods such as face-to-face interaction and
260 Human Communication Research 38 (2012) 253– 279 ©2012 International Communication Association
P. M. Sias et al. Workplace Friendship
telephone may, therefore, be more important for relationship maintenance. For
employees who telecommute all or much of the time, however, ICTs will likely
be very important to relational maintenance because of the lack of opportunities
to interact face-to-face. To address these possibilities, we examined the following
research questions:
RQ3: What is the relative importance of different communication methods for
maintaining workplace friendships?
RQ4: How is telecommuting associated with the relative importance of different
communication methods for workplace friendship maintenance?
ICTs, age, and workplace friendship communication
The preceding section set forth a number of hypotheses and research questions
regarding ICTs and workplace friendship. Along with the increasing array of com-
munication media available to employees, the U.S. workplace has changed in another
important way. Specifically, scholars and practitioners note the multigenerational
nature of today’s workplace. As employees increasingly delay retirement, organi-
zations increasingly comprise workers representing different age cohorts (Buckley,
Beu, Novicevic, & Sigerstad, 2001; D’Aprix, 2010). The workplace now includes
employees from age cohorts as varied as millenials and generation X—generally
considered to be under the age of 40—along with older cohorts labeled young or
‘‘echo’’ baby boomers, older baby boomers, and the ‘‘silent,’’ ‘‘greatest,’’ or ‘‘GI’’
generation (Carlson, 2008; New Politics Institute, 2008). Consequently, employees
are increasingly working and interacting with coworkers from different generational
cohorts.
Research indicates generational differences with respect to the use of some ICTs,
particularly those enabled by the Internet. According to the most recent Pew survey,
people from generations ranging from 18 to 74 years of age use e-mail with similar
frequency. However, those from younger generations such as ‘‘millenials’’ and ‘‘gen
X’’ are more likely to use social networking and instant messaging than are older
employees (Pew Research Center, 2010). Another recent survey examined technology
use in the workplace setting and found similar patterns (WorldOne Research, 2009).
Specifically, its results indicated that respondents from younger generational cohorts
(i.e., millenials and generation X) use Internet media such as bulletin boards,
multimedia sharing, and social networking more frequently than people from older
generations. The cohorts did not differ, however, in their use of other communication
methods such as face-to-face, e-mail, and phones.
This suggests that perhaps individuals from different generations experience
communication technologies differently. With respect to the current study, the
findings mentioned above indicate that older people may not experience social
presence or hyperpersonal communication via Internet-based communication as
much as the younger cohort. Because of the importance of social presence to
friendship communication, it is likely that older and younger employees use different
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Workplace Friendship P. M. Sias et al.
methods to communicate with their friends. It is important to note, however, that
these studies examined technology use generally and did not specify with whom
the respondent was communicating via the various methods. Employees may use
communication media differently with different people for different reasons. For
example, one might be less likely, regardless of age, to communicate with a supervisor
via social networking than with a friend. In addition, they only examined the
frequency of use, not the perceived quality and importance of interaction via the
various methods. Accordingly, we examined the following research question in lieu
of specific hypotheses:
RQ5: How is employee age associated with the use, perceived quality, and importance to
workplace friendship maintenance of different communication methods?
Method
Sample
We distributed an online survey to 274 adults employed full-time at a variety of
organizations. Participants were recruited by students in a large undergraduate class
at a midsized public university in the United States. After securing permission
from participants, the students provided participants’ e-mail addresses to the senior
researcher who contacted participants directly, confirmed their willingness to par-
ticipate, and forwarded them the survey link via e-mail. Students received extra
class credit for recruitment. Of the 274 participants contacted, 145 completed the
survey. After discarding five surveys that were either substantially incomplete or
noticeably biased (e.g., answering ‘‘3’’ for every item), the final sample consisted of
140 respondents, for a final response rate of 51%. In total, 52 (37%) participants
were male and 77 (55%) were female. Eleven respondents did not report their sex.
With respect to the sex composition of the referent friendship dyads, 66 (44%) were
female–female, 38 (27%) were male–male, and 22 (16%) were male–female. A total
of 5 employees (3%) were 18–21 years old, 16 (11%) were 22–25 years old, 12 (9%)
were 26–30 years old, 7 (5%) were 31– 40 years old, 45 (32%) were between 41 and
50 years old, 42 (30%) were 51–60 years old, and 9 (6%) were over the age of 60.
Four participants declined to report their age. Most participants were Caucasian
(84%) and had worked at their current organization for an average of 9 years (range
1 month to 41 years). They reported that at the time of the survey, they had known
their referent coworker/friend an average of 7 years (range 1 month to 35 years). The
sample represented a wide variety of occupations and industries, including school
superintendent, bookkeeper, probation officer, speech therapist, real estate broker,
loan officer, teacher, lawyer, restaurant server, and engineer, to name a few.
Measures
Communication frequency, quality, and importance
Participants reported the frequency with which they communicate with their coworker
using eight different methods, including telephone, e-mail, texting, face-to-face
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P. M. Sias et al. Workplace Friendship
conversation, paper documents, teleconferencing/videoconferencing/Skype, social
networking (e.g., Facebook, MySpace, LinkedIn, and Twitter), and instant mes-
saging, using a 7-point Likert-type scale where 1 indicated never and 7 indicated
very often.
We assessed the importance of the communication methods to the routine
maintenance of coworker friendship by asking respondents ‘‘How important do
you think each of the following communication methods are to maintaining your
friendship with this coworker?’’ For each method, respondents used a 7-point
Likert-type scale where 1 indicated extremely unimportant and 7 indicated extremely
important.
We used Emmers-Sommer’s (2004) instrument to assess the communication
quality of each of the above-listed communication methods. Specifically, partic-
ipants rated each method on a series of five 9-point semantic differential scales
that included the following dimensions: in-depth–superficial, free of commu-
nication breakdowns–laden with communication breakdowns, relaxed–strained,
personal–impersonal, and free of conflict–laden with conflict. The prompt for this
section read, ‘‘Please indicate your feelings about typical communication with your
coworker/friend using various communication methods by checking a box on each
line for each of the five dimensions provided.’’ A series of principal components
analyses of these items (a separate analysis for each medium) indicated that the eight
items for each medium represented a single dimension. Thus, we created commu-
nication quality scores for each method by averaging the scores on the eight items.
Alpha coefficients for the resulting communication quality scales ranged from .75 to
.86, indicating that the scales were reliable.
Telecommuting status
As noted earlier, few employees telecommute 100% of the time and most employees
tend to engage in telecommuting at various degrees (Forrester Research, 2009).
To assess the amount of time respondents telecommuted for their jobs, we asked
participants to: ‘‘Please estimate the percentage (0%–100%) of your total work time
per month that you conduct your work from an offsite location.’’ Respondents
reported they spent, on average, 20% of their work time working from an offsite
location (range = 0–100%). This is consistent with recent estimates that employees
in North American organizations spend an average of 20% of their time telecom-
muting (Forrester Research, 2009); thus, the sample is representative of the relevant
population.
Friendship developmental factors
Sias et al.’s (2003) 28-item instrument was used to assess the importance of various
developmental factors for the initiation of participants’ workplace friendship. The
prompt read, ‘‘The following are factors which may contribute to friendship initiation.
Please think back to the time during which your relationship with this coworker
turned into a friendship. Please rate the extent to which each factor was important in
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Workplace Friendship P. M. Sias et al.
causing you and your coworker to go from being acquaintances/coworkers to being
‘friends’.’’ Participants rated the items on a 7-point Likert-type scale with 1 indicating
extremely unimportant and 7 indicating extremely important.
To assess the validity of the Sias et al. (2003) instrument, we first tested the items in
an exploratory factor analytic framework using the maximum likelihood estimation
procedure included in the Mplus statistical software package. The appropriate number
of factors was established by examining the Eigenvalues and global fit statistics, to
include chi-square, confirmatory fit index (CFI), standardized root mean square
residual (SRMR), and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). The
specific parameter estimates were also examined, in addition to the overall model
fit, to verify which items loaded onto which factors. The initial exploratory factor
analysis revealed one item representing shared tasks that performed poorly and was
removed before further analysis. In addition, the items representing life events and
work problems did not clearly load onto separate factors, but grouped together as
one factor. Thus, we combined these two elements of friendship development into
a single factor called work/life events for the remainder of the analyses. The resulting
six-factor solution provided a good global fit: χ2(225, N=140) =371.92, p=.00,
CFI =0.908, RMSEA =0.069, SRMR =0.043.
We then used a maximum likelihood estimation procedure to empirically test
the six-factor model in a confirmatory factor analytic framework. The standardized
loadings of the items onto their corresponding factors were generally high, indicating
support for the empirically derived model. The global fit of the model, however,
was lower than ideal, indicating a substantial difference between the hypothesized
model and the actual data, χ2(303, N=140) =444.23, p<.00, CFI =0.893,
RMSEA =0.058, SRMR =0.074.
We made two modifications to the model to establish a better overall fit to the
data. The combined EFA factor representing work/life events comprised eight items.
We dropped two items with weak loadings to trim the factor and make it more
similar to the other factors with respect to the number of items per factor. We also
decided to allow a correlated error between the items work problems 1 and work
problems 2, based on the modification indices produced by Mplus. These two items
are very similar, thus the modification represents an acceptable change to the model.
The final CFA model provided a good fit to the data, χ2(236, N=140) =335.67,
p<.00, CFI =0.91, RMSEA =0.055, SRMR =0.075. Although a nonsignificant
chi-square is ideal, the statistic is sensitive to sample size. Consequently, the other fit
statistics are more accurate for assessing model fit. The final solution comprised five
factors. Table 1 provides the factor loadings.
Factor 1, shared tasks, contained three items (α=.76). Factor 2 contained four
items representing extra organizational socializing (α=.93). Factor 3 comprised four
items representing personality (α=.81). Four items made up Factor 4, which repre-
sented perceived similarity (α=.81). As noted above, the final factor, work/life events,
comprised six items representing work-related problems and life events (α=.81)
Table 2 provides the means, standard deviations, and score ranges for all variables.
264 Human Communication Research 38 (2012) 253– 279 ©2012 International Communication Association
P. M. Sias et al. Workplace Friendship
Table 1 Developmental Factor Item Loadings
Item Socializing
Work/Life
Events Personality Similarity
Shared
Tasks
Spending time together after
work or on weekends
0.82∗0.07 0.07 0.12 −0.15
Socializing after work 0.91∗0.04 −0.02 0.18 0.05
Spent time together outside the
workplace
0.92∗−0.01 0.01 0.21 0.05
Started going out away from
work
0.82∗−0.01 0.05 0.18 −0.11
Problems with a boss or
coworker(s)
−0.18 0.78∗−0.03 −0.16 0.08
Office politics/problems −0.09 0.74∗0.03 0.13 −0.04
Work-related problems −0.05 0.72∗−0.02 −0.04 0.12
Personal problems/issues 0.16 0.41∗0.08 0.10 0.14
Important changes in our
personal lives
0.22 0.62∗0.27 0.04 0.17
Events in our personal lives 0.17 0.59∗0.15 0.14 0.18
Enjoying his/her personality 0.01 −0.01 0.83∗0.08 0.06
She/he is a nice person −0.09 0.10 0.81∗0.21 0.18
I liked him/her −0.02 0.13 0.62∗0.10 −0.02
Attraction to his/her
personality
0.24 0.05 0.58∗0.26 0.05
Share similar values and
interests
0.21 −0.05 0.35 0.66∗−0.02
Share similar values/attitudes 0.07 0.11 0.53 0.45∗0.13
Having a lot in common 0.31 0.09 0.28 0.76∗−0.02
S/he is a lot like me 0.37 0.13 0.19 0.61∗−0.04
Working together on a
project(s)
0.02 0.02 0.10 −0.02 0.72∗
Sharing tasks −0.06 0.22 0.00 0.04 0.75∗
Helping each other with tasks −0.01 0.26 0.13 −0.04 0.69∗
∗Loaded on this factor.
Results
H1 predicted that employees would perceive shared tasks as more important to the
initiation of their workplace friendships than proximity, personality, and similarity.
A series of paired t-tests were used to test H1. A Bonferroni adjustment was used
to correct for the number of planned pairs tested (n=3), resulting in a required
p-value of at least .02. Results of paired t-tests provided partial support for this
hypothesis. As expected, respondents perceived shared tasks (M=5.01; SD =1.02)
as more important to friendship initiation than physical proximity (M=4.26,
SD =1.25), t(139) =6.85, p<.01, d=0.61. Contrary to expectations, however,
Human Communication Research 38 (2012) 253– 279 ©2012 International Communication Association 265
Workplace Friendship P. M. Sias et al.
Table 2 Means, Range, and Standard Deviations
Variable Mean Range SD
Communication method frequency
Frequency—face-to-face 4.27 1–5 0.76
Frequency—phone 3.20 1–5.0 0.99
Frequency—e-mail 3.39 1– 5 1.12
Frequency—text 2.86 1–5 1.36
Frequency—teleconference 1.43 1–5 0.92
Frequency—social networking 1.95 1–5 1.23
Frequency—instant messaging 1.75 1 –5 1.19
Frequency—paper documents 1.86 1–5 0.97
Communication method—quality
Quality—face-to-face 7.93 3.2–9 1.21
Quality—phone 7.24 2.4–9 1.38
Quality—e-mail 6.26 1– 9 1.43
Quality—text 5.95 1.4–9 1.70
Quality—teleconference 4.89 1–8.2 1.81
Quality—social networking 4.61 1 –9 1.89
Quality—instant messaging 4.74 1 –9 1.91
Quality—paper documents 4.77 1 –9 1.61
Communication method—importance
Importance—face-to-face 6.22 1–7 1.23
Importance—phone 4.93 1–7 1.44
Importance—e-mail 4.7 1–7 1.40
Importance—text 3.8 1–7 1.86
Importance—teleconference 2.58 1 – 7 1.70
Importance—social networking 2.84 1 –7 1.67
Importance—instant messaging 2.87 1 –7 1.75
Importance—paper documents 3.02 1 –7 1.67
Developmental factors—importance to friendship initiation
Personality 5.83 2.25–7 0.79
Similarity 5.23 2.0–6.75 0.87
Shared tasks 5.01 1.67–7.0 1.02
Extra-org socializing 4.52 1–6.75 1.4
Events 4.49 1–6.67 0.87
Proximity 4.26 1–7 1.25
respondents perceived shared tasks as significantly less important than personality
(M=5.83, SD =0.79), t(139) =−8.03, p<.01, d=−0.70. In addition, although
not statistically significant, respondents also perceived shared tasks as less important
than similarity (M=5.23, SD =0.87), t(139) =−2.0, p<.05, d=−0.18. A series
of post hoc, paired t-tests also indicated that personality was perceived as more
important than similarity, t(139) =8.60, p<.01, d=0.77, and proximity, t(139) =
13.49, p<.01, d=0.78, and similarity was significantly more important than
266 Human Communication Research 38 (2012) 253– 279 ©2012 International Communication Association
P. M. Sias et al. Workplace Friendship
proximity, t(139) =7.94, p<.01, d=0.72. In sum, personality was perceived as the
most important factor to workplace friendship development, followed by similarity
and shared tasks. Physical proximity was the least important factor.
H2 predicted that the amount of time employees spend telecommuting would
be negatively related to the importance of physical proximity, personality, similarity,
and socializing and positively related to the importance of shared tasks to the
initiation of their workplace friendships. Results of regression analyses indicated
partial support for H2. As predicted, telecommuting was negatively associated
with the importance of personality to workplace friendship initiation, b=−0.23,
t(138) =−2.55, p<.02, R2=.05, and positively related to the importance of shared
tasks, b=0.18, t(138) =2.03, p<.05, R2=.02. The remaining developmental
factors did not enter the equation at a significant level.
H3 predicted that the amount of time spent telecommuting would be negatively
related to the frequency of using face-to-face interaction and positively related
to the frequency of using ICT methods to communicate with their workplace
friends. Results of regression analyses provided partial support for this hypothesis.
As expected, telecommuting was negatively related to using face-to-face interaction,
b=−0.20, t(138) =−2.41, p<.02, R2=.04, and positively related to using paper
documents, b=0.21, t(138) =2.50, p<.02, R2=.07, and teleconferencing b=
0.21, t(138) =2.43, p<.02, R2=.04. The remaining communication methods did
not enter the model at a significant level.
RQ1 asked about the perceived quality of communication between workplace
friends using different communication methods. Table 3 presents the mean quality
scores for the communication methods. Respondents perceived face-to-face interac-
tion as the highest quality form of communication, followed by telephone, e-mail,
texting, paper documents, teleconferencing, instant messaging, and social network-
ing, in that order. A series of paired t-tests were computed to examine differences
between the perceived quality scores (Table 3). Because of the large number of pairs
tested, a Bonferroni adjustment resulted in a required p-value of .0001. Results indi-
cated that all the methods differed significantly from each other at p=.0001, with
the exception of teleconferencing and social networking, teleconferencing and paper
documents, teleconferencing and instant messaging, social networking and instant
messaging, social networking and paper documents, paper documents and instant
messaging, and e-mail and texting.
RQ2 asked how the amount of time telecommuting is related to the perceived
quality of communication via the various methods. Regression analysis indicated that
telecommuting was negatively related to the quality of both social networking, b=
−0.28, t(138) =−2.63, p<.01, R2=.07, and face-to-face interaction, b=−0.22,
t(138) =−2.04, p<.05, R2=.05. The remaining methods did not enter the model
at a significant level.
RQ3 sought information about the importance of different communication meth-
ods for maintaining workplace friendships. As seen in Table 3, respondents perceived
face-to-face interaction as most important to workplace friendship maintenance,
Human Communication Research 38 (2012) 253– 279 ©2012 International Communication Association 267
Workplace Friendship P. M. Sias et al.
Table 3 Paired t-Test Results for Communication Frequency, Quality, and Importance
Comm. Method—Mean Compared to —Mean t-Value Cohen’s dp-Value
Frequency of use
Face-to-face interaction—4.27 Telephone—3.20 9.29∗0.80 .000
E-mail—3.39 7.47∗0.67 .000
Texting—2.86 11.25∗1.45 .000
Teleconference—1.43 27.66∗2.33 .000
Social networking—1.95 20.03∗1.73 .000
Instant message—1.75 21.26∗1.84 .000
Paper docs.—1.86 21.81∗2.05 .000
Telephone—3.20 E-mail — 3.39 −1.80 −0.15 .074
Texting—2.86 2.93∗0.24 .004
Teleconference—1.43 17.90∗1.55 .000
Soc. network—1.95 11.30∗0.97 .000
Instant message—1.75 11.45∗0.98 .000
Paper docs.—1.86 11.90∗1.05 .000
E-mail—3.39 Texting—2.86 3.40∗0.30 .001
Teleconference—1.43 18.89∗1.67 .000
Soc. network—1.95 10.69∗0.92 .000
Instant message—1.75 13.58∗1.17 .000
Paper docs.—1.86 13.65∗1.22 .000
Texting—2.86 Teleconference —1.43 10.60∗0.94 .000
Soc. network—1.95 8.45∗0.73 .000
Instant message—1.75 8.68∗0.72 .000
Paper docs.—1.86 6.19∗0.69 .000
Teleconference—1.43 Soc. network— 1.95 −4.90∗−0.44 .000
Instant message—1.75 −3.33∗−0.29 .001
Paper docs.—1.86 −4.06∗−0.37 .000
Social networking—1.95 Instant message—1.75 1.78 0.15 .079
Paper docs.—1.86 0.65 0.06 .517
Instant messaging—1.75 Paper docs.—1.86 0.83 −0.08 .408
Communication quality
Face-to-face interaction—7.93 Telephone—7.24 6.23∗0.60 .000
E-mail—6.26 10.80∗1.00 .000
Texting—5.95 10.37∗1.03 .000
Teleconference—4.90 13.76∗1.48 .000
Social networking—4.61 14.07∗1.55 .000
Instant message—4.74 13.59∗1.47 .000
Paper docs.—4.77 14.66∗1.60 .000
Telephone—7.24 E-mail — 6.26 7.86∗0.68 .000
Texting—5.95 7.70∗0.71 .000
Teleconference—4.90 10.80∗1.10 .000
Soc. network—4.61 11.62∗1.17 .000
Instant message—4.74 10.38∗1.10 .000
Paper docs.—4.77 12.45∗1.28 .000
268 Human Communication Research 38 (2012) 253– 279 ©2012 International Communication Association
P. M. Sias et al. Workplace Friendship
Table 3 Continued
Comm. Method—Mean Compared to —Mean t-Value Cohen’s dp-Value
E-mail—6.26 Texting—5.95 1.28 0.17 .202
Teleconference—4.90 6.45∗0.73 .000
Soc. network—4.61 8.07∗0.89 .000
Instant message—4.74 7.90∗0.85 .000
Paper docs.—4.77 8.66∗0.94 .000
Texting—5.95 Teleconference —4.90 4.25∗0.46 .000
Soc. network—4.61 6.25∗0.63 .000
Instant message—4.74 5.85∗0.61 .000
Paper docs.—4.77 5.62∗0.57 .000
Teleconference—4.90 Soc. network— 4.61 2.41 0.25 .018
Instant message—4.74 1.50 0.09 .136
Paper docs.—4.77 1.27 0.09 .208
Social networking—4.61 Instant message—4.74 −0.73 −0.10 .471
Paper docs.—4.77 −0.82 −0.12 .413
Instant messaging—4.74 Paper docs.—4.77 −0.39 −0.10 .695
Importance to friendship maintenance
Face-to-face interaction—6.22 Telephone—4.93 9.61∗0.82 .000
E-mail—4.70 10.69∗0.94 .000
Texting—3.80 12.92∗1.13 .000
Teleconference—2.58 18.16∗1.58 .000
Social networking—2.84 18.45∗1.61 .000
Instant message—2.87 16.11∗1.47 .000
Paper docs.—3.02 17.73∗1.53 .000
Telephone—4.93 E-mail — 4.70 1.72 0.15 .088
Texting—3.80 6.42∗0.56 .000
Teleconference—2.58 13.23∗1.16 .000
Soc. network—2.84 11.74∗1.00 .000
Instant message—2.87 10.71∗0.98 .000
Paper docs.—3.02 11.87∗1.01 .000
E-mail—4.70 Texting—3.80 4.73∗0.41 .000
Teleconference—2.58 12.54∗1.12 .000
Soc. network—2.84 10.79∗0.89 .000
Instant message—2.87 9.75∗0.92 .000
Paper docs.—3.02 10.26∗0.92 .000
Texting—3.80 Teleconference —2.58 6.13∗0.53 .000
Soc. network—2.84 6.32∗0.55 .000
Instant message—2.87 5.38∗0.43 .000
Paper docs.—3.02 3.66∗0.31 .000
Teleconference—2.58 Soc. network— 2.84 −1.44 −0.15 .153
Instant message—2.87 −1.49 −0.05 .139
Paper docs.—3.02 −3.07∗−0.26 .003
Social networking—2.84 Instant message—2.87 −1.04 −0.02 .176
Paper docs.—3.02 −0.58 −0.08 .501
Instant messaging—2.87 Paper docs.—3.02 −0.97 −0.07 .423
∗p<.0001.
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Workplace Friendship P. M. Sias et al.
followed by telephone, e-mail, texting, paper documents, instant messaging, social
networking, and teleconferencing, in that order. A series of paired t-tests were com-
puted to examine differences between the perceived importance scores (Table 3).
Because of the large number of pairs tested, a Bonferroni adjustment resulted in
a required p-value of .0001. Results indicated that all the media differed signifi-
cantly from each other at p=.0001, with the exception of e-mail and telephone,
teleconferencing and instant messaging, teleconferencing and social networking,
teleconferencing and paper documents, paper documents and instant messaging,
and paper documents and social networking. In sum, face-to-face interaction was
perceived as the most important form of communication for workplace friendship
maintenance, telephone, e-mail and texting were the next most important, and
teleconferencing, social networking, instant messaging, and paper documents were
significantly less important.
RQ4 asked how telecommuting is associated with the importance of different
communication methods for routine workplace friendship maintenance. Regres-
sion analysis indicated that telecommuting was positively related to the perceived
importance of teleconferencing to friendship maintenance, b=.24, t(138) =2.62,
p<.01, R2=.06. The remaining communication methods did not enter the model
at a significant level.
RQ5 sought information regarding generational use and perceptions of the
various communication methods. We created a dummy variable to examine this
question by splitting the sample into two groups—those older than 40 years of
(N=96) and those 40 or younger (N=40). We then computed a series of t-tests
for difference in means to examine the research question. A Bonferroni adjustment
for each set of tests (N=8 per set) resulted in a required p-value of <.01. Table 4
presents the means for both age groups.
Results indicate that respondents from the younger cohort used social networking,
t(139) =7.28, p<.01, d=1.37, instant messaging, t(139) =3.03, p<.01, d=
0.57, texting, t(139) =4.85, p<.01, d=0.91, and face-to-face interaction, t(139) =
2.78, p<.01, d=0.52, more frequently to communicate with their workplace friends
than did respondents from the older cohort. Younger employees also perceived
communication with friends via social networking, t(139) =3.51, p<.01, d=0.66,
instant messaging, t(139) =2.47, p<.01, d=0.47, and texting, t(139) =2.93,
p<.01, d=0.55, to be of higher quality than did older employees. Finally, employees
from the younger generations perceived communicating with friends via texting,
t(139) =3.66, p<.01, d=0.69, and social networking, t(139) =4.44, p<.01,
d=0.84, as more important for maintaining their workplace friendships than did
older employees.
Discussion
Communicating via ICTs and the telecommuting such technologies enable have
increased dramatically over the past decade. These changes have substantially altered
270 Human Communication Research 38 (2012) 253– 279 ©2012 International Communication Association
P. M. Sias et al. Workplace Friendship
Table 4 Generational Communication Method Preferences
Comm. Method Over 40 40 and Younger
Frequency of use
Face-to-face∗4.15 4.54
Telephone 3.14 3.38
E-mail 3.46 3.25
Texting∗2.53 3.68
Social networking∗1.54 2.98
Instant message∗1.56 2.23
Teleconferencing 1.34 1.68
Paper documents 1.96 1.62
Perceived quality
Face-to-face 7.98 7.77
Telephone 7.28 7.09
E-mail 6.30 6.22
Texting∗5.65 6.62
Social networking∗4.19 5.51
Instant message∗4.41 5.38
Teleconference 4.72 5.23
Paper documents 4.58 5.15
Importance to friendship maintenance
Face-to-face 6.17 6.35
Telephone 4.83 5.10
E-mail 4.78 4.54
Texting∗3.44 4.67
Social networking∗2.46 3.78
Instant message 2.78 3.08
Paper documents 3.15 2.73
∗Statistically significant difference in means at p<.01.
how people communicate with one another, both in their personal and occupational
spheres (Fonner & Roloff, 2010; Rabby & Walther, 2003). This study contributes to
the body of knowledge regarding communication and relationships among workplace
friends by examining the links between ICTs and workplace friendship dynamics.
Results have important implications for theory and practice.
Theoretical implications
ICTs and friendship initiation
Results regarding ICTs and workplace friendship initiation demonstrate both consis-
tencies and differences with past work. Consistent with past research (Sias & Cahill,
1998), respondents reported that personality, similarity, and shared tasks remain
central to the initiation of friendships with coworkers. Although we expected the
influence of personality and similarity to be mitigated by the lack of social presence
Human Communication Research 38 (2012) 253– 279 ©2012 International Communication Association 271
Workplace Friendship P. M. Sias et al.
ICTs afford, these factors retained their important roles in workplace friendship
initiation. Consistent with research suggesting certain ICTs can enable personal,
even hyperpersonal, communication (Walther, 1996), the employees in the current
study appeared to be able to glean insights into their coworkers’ personalities and
backgrounds sufficient for friendship initiation via many communication methods.
However, results also indicated that the more time employees spent telecommuting,
the less important personality was to their workplace friendship initiation, suggesting
that the lack of social presence does somewhat hinder employees’ abilities to learn
about one another’s personalities or perhaps renders personality less important.
Also consistent with prior work (Sias & Cahill, 1998), we found that opportunities
to work together on shared tasks remain an important catalyst for coworker friendship
initiation. Results further indicate that the more time employees spend telecommut-
ing, the more important shared tasks were to friendship initiation, suggesting that
this factor is particularly important for employees who telecommute.
In contrast, past research highlighted the importance of physical proximity to the
initiation of workplace friendships (Sias & Cahill, 1998; Sias et al., 2003). However,
our respondents reported that physical proximity was the least important factor
in the initiation of their friendships. In fact, proximity was even less important
than work/life events, which traditionally play their greatest role in later stages of
relational development (Sias & Cahill, 1998). Moreover, contrary to expectations,
the importance of proximity was unrelated to telecommuting. Thus, employees
reported proximity as the least important factor to their workplace friendship
initiation regardless of the amount of time they spent working offsite. These
results are consistent with the local virtualities concept identified in prior work
(Quan-Haase & Wellman, 2004) and demonstrate that the importance of physical
proximity to workplace friendship is diminishing in the electronically connected
workplace.
In sum, this study indicates that personality, shared tasks, and similarity are the
most important factors to coworker friendship initiation in today’s electronically
connected workplace. Shared tasks become particularly important, and personality
less important, as employees spend more time telecommuting.
Technology and coworker communication
Results regarding frequency of use, quality, and importance of the communication
methods indicate a clear hierarchy across the board. Face-to-face interaction remains
the primary communication method for workplace friends. Respondents reported
using that method most frequently, that it enables the highest quality communication,
and is the most important form of communication for maintaining a workplace
friendship. Thus, despite the increased variety of choices available, face-to-face
interaction was still the most used and the most valuable for workplace friends.
Consistent with Wellman et al. (2001) and Ledbetter (2010), our results indicate
that ICTs do not substitute for, but rather supplement, face-to-face interaction with
respect to friendship communication and maintenance.
272 Human Communication Research 38 (2012) 253– 279 ©2012 International Communication Association
P. M. Sias et al. Workplace Friendship
After face-to-face interaction, respondents showed a clear preference for tele-
phone, e-mail, and texting. These communication methods were used with similar
frequency and perceived as generally similar in quality and importance. These
results indicate that telephone, e-mail, and texting have become central to coworker
communication.
Next, and lowest, in the communication method hierarchy were teleconferenc-
ing, social networking, instant messaging, and paper documents. These methods
consistently grouped together and received the lowest ratings with respect to fre-
quency of use, quality of communication, and importance to workplace friendship
maintenance. These results indicate that, for our respondents, these forms of com-
munication generally played a tangential, rather than central, role in coworker
communication and friendship maintenance. These results are also consistent with
research examining nonworkplace relationships, which suggests that with respect
to relationship maintenance, ICTs supplement, rather than replace, face-to-face
conversation (Rabby & Walther, 2003; Wellman et al., 2001).
The time employees spend telecommuting matters, however. As expected, the
more an employee telecommuted, the less frequently they communicated with
their friend using face-to-face interaction. Time spent telecommuting did not pre-
dict communication method quality or importance, however. Thus, telecommuting
employees appeared to use face-to-face interaction less frequently by necessity, not
choice. Time spent telecommuting was positively related to frequency of teleconfer-
encing, indicating that telecommuting employees replaced face-to-face interaction
with teleconferencing to communicate with their workplace friends. This makes sense
because teleconferencing is the most similar to face-to-face interaction with respect
to both richness and social presence—the parties can see and hear each other and
provide immediate feedback as they converse.
Results indicated some generational differences with respect to communication
and workplace friendship. Consistent with recent surveys (Pew Research Center,
2010; WorldOne Research, 2009), employees from younger generations used social
networking and instant messaging more frequently to communicate with their
workplace friends than did employees from older generational cohorts. Younger
employees also perceived communication via those methods to be of higher quality
than did older employees. Thus, social networking and instant messaging appear
to play more central roles in workplace friendship communication for younger
employees. Results also indicated generational differences with respect to texting—a
communication method unexamined in the Pew Research Center and WorldOne
Research surveys. Specifically, younger employees reported communicating more
frequently with their workplace friends via texting, perceived that interaction to be of
higher quality, and more important to the maintenance of their workplace friendship
than did older employees.
No generational differences were found with respect to the other communi-
cation methods, with the exception of the frequency of face-to-face interaction
(younger employees communicate with their friends more frequently via face-to-face
Human Communication Research 38 (2012) 253– 279 ©2012 International Communication Association 273
Workplace Friendship P. M. Sias et al.
interaction than did older employees). In sum, our results indicate that social net-
working, texting, and instant messaging are more central to communication among
workplace friends for employees under 40 years of age (i.e., millennials, gen Y, and
gen X) than for those over 40 (i.e., younger and older baby boomers and the silent,
greatest, and GI generations). This suggests that perhaps employees of younger gen-
erations are more likely to experience social presence and engage in hyperpersonal
communication via ICTs than are those from older generations.
Despite the differences described above, it is important to note that employees
from both age groups reported essentially the same preference hierarchy discussed
earlier. As seen in Table 4, both older and younger employees rated face-to-face
interaction, telephone, e-mail, and texting clearly above the other communication
methods with respect to frequency of use, quality, and importance to friendship
maintenance. Thus, regardless of age or generation, those communication methods
remain primary elements in communication among workplace friends.
At first glance, the findings regarding physical proximity and face-to-face inter-
action seem counterintuitive. Recall, however, that proximity refers to coworkers’
work spaces (e.g., desks and stations) being physically near each other. Face-to-face
interaction refers to friends talking to each other in physical proximity, but that
does not necessarily mean that their work areas are near each other. In other words,
the results suggest that people like and need face-to-face interaction to initiate and
maintain friendships, but they do not need to work near each other to engage in that
interaction. Taken together, the results indicate that ICTs appear to reduce the need
to work in physical proximity by providing employees other ways of connecting.
In addition, employees are able to find opportunities (e.g., via shared tasks) to
communication face-to-face regardless of whether they work in physical proximity.
Practical implications
The study provides important implications for practitioners. First, practitioners
should provide opportunities for face-to-face interaction among employees whenever
possible. This is not difficult in organizations where employees work primarily on-site.
In organizations in which employees telecommute frequently, however, practitioners
should design organizational processes so that employees meet and work in face-to-
face proximity on a regular basis. This could be accomplished by scheduling regular
on-site meetings or meetings at a satellite location, telework center, professional
conference, or similar venue. Designing opportunities for face-to-face interaction
will provide opportunities to develop the personal understanding and connection
required for friendship initiation and maintenance.
Practitioners should also encourage employees to work together on shared tasks
and projects. Such work need not be accomplished in physical proximity. In fact,
the many ICT methods available can support and enhance shared work among
employees. This is particularly important for employees who telecommute much or
all the time. Having them work in collaboration with others can minimize the sense
of isolation that can result from telework and enrich coworker relationships.
274 Human Communication Research 38 (2012) 253– 279 ©2012 International Communication Association
P. M. Sias et al. Workplace Friendship
We also recommend that practitioners ensure telecommuters have access to
and opportunities to use teleconferencing to communicate with their coworkers.
Teleconferencing helps compensate for the social presence lost when employees
cannot communicate face-to-face. Enabling employees to teleconference can help
employees initiate and maintain workplace friendships when physical proximity and
face-to-face interaction are difficult or impossible to access.
Limitations and future research
The study by design only examined developmental factors as they affected friendship
initiation. Yet it is likely that the effects of various factors at later stages of friendship
development have changed as ICT methods have become more ubiquitous in
workplace settings. We encourage future work examining these issues as workplace
friends become close and even best friends. Friendships at these later stages are
marked by increased communication intimacy and openness. Understanding what
communication methods enable such interaction and relational development would
provide important contributions to theory and practice.
The developmental factor structure derived from the Sias et al. (2003) instrument
was somewhat different from previous studies. Specifically, the single life/work events
factor in this study loaded as two separate factors in prior research. This could
be due, in part, to the fact that this study examined friendship initiation only.
Prior research indicates that work-related problems and life events do not play
important roles in friendship initiation; rather, they influence workplace friendship
development into close-friend and best-friend levels. Because respondents only rated
the importance of the various developmental factor items for initiating a friendship,
distinctions between work problems and life events may have been masked. Because
our hypotheses only addressed friendship initiation, however, this limitation did not
pose an important threat to the study.
This study provided only quantitative insights into ICTs and workplace friend-
ship dynamics. Thus, for example, while we know that the more employees
telecommute, the more they rely on teleconferencing, we do not know why they
do so. Future research that obtains qualitative insights into these issues would
enhance our understanding of workplace friendship dynamics in the electroni-
cally connected organization. In addition, the small and homogeneous sample
size limits our ability to generalize our findings to a broader population. We
encourage future work examining these issues with a larger and more diverse
sample.
Finally, although we examined how respondent age was associated with com-
munication with workplace friends, we did not address communication dynamics
within intergenerational friendship dyads. Existing research has highlighted the
sometimes problematic issues that arise from employees of different generations
working together (Buckley et al., 2001; D’Aprix, 2010). Given younger employees’
preferences for certain methods (i.e., social networking, instant messaging, and
texting), future research should examine communication dynamics in friendships
Human Communication Research 38 (2012) 253– 279 ©2012 International Communication Association 275
Workplace Friendship P. M. Sias et al.
comprising relationship partners from different generational cohorts. Such research
would provide new and useful insights into intergenerational coworker dynamics.
Conclusion
Overall, our results confirm the long-lasting primacy of face-to-face interaction for
workplace friendship initiation and maintenance. Despite innovations in communi-
cation technology, employees continue to prefer talking with their workplace friends
in person. At the same time, employees also rely heavily on ICTs such as phone,
e-mail, and texting, indicating that these methods are also central to coworker com-
munication. Face-to-face interaction, however, was still rated significantly higher in
frequency, quality, and importance by employees.
Our findings indicate, however, that two fundamental changes in the nature
of organizations affect the developmental factors and communication preferences
noted above. First, increased telecommuting reduces employee access to face-to-face
communication; thus, the more time employees engage in telecommuting, the more
they rely on teleconferencing to communicate with their friends—a technology that
provides a degree of social presence unavailable with other forms of ICTs. Second,
our results indicate that younger employees are more likely to rely on ICTs to
communicate with their workplace friends than are older employees.
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电子联络组织里的职场友谊
【摘要:】
本研究探讨信息通信技术(ICT)和工作场所的友谊动态。员工们自报影响他们和同
事友谊开始的因素以及不同的沟通方法对交流的模式和感想所起作用的看法。结果表明,
个性,共同的任务,与感觉相似性是同事友谊开始的最重要因素。在依赖电子联络的组
织里,地理接近在职场友谊中的重要性逐渐减少。结果证实了面对面互动对职场友谊的
萌生和维护的首要地位。电子邮件,电话,短信也在职场友谊中扮演重要的沟通作用。
电子沟通花费的时间影响职场友谊的萌生和沟通。最后我们也确定了互联网的通信方式
有代际差异。
Les amitiés au travail dans l’organisation connectée électroniquement
Résumé
Cette étude a examiné les technologies d’information et de communication (TIC) et la
dynamique de l’amitié au travail. Des employés ont signalé des facteurs qui influençaient
leur initiation d’une amitié avec un collègue de travail. Ils ont signalé des régularités et
des perceptions de communication avec leur ami au travail par différentes méthodes de
communication. Les résultats indiquent que la personnalité, des tâches partagées et une
perception de similarité sont les facteurs les plus importants dans l’initiation d’une amitié
avec un collègue, et que l’importance de la proximité physique pour l’amitié au travail
diminue dans le contexte d’un lieu de travail connecté électroniquement. Les résultats
confirment la primauté des interactions face à face pour l’initiation et l’entretien des
amitiés au travail. Le courriel, le téléphone et les messages texte étaient eux aussi
centraux à la communication entre amis au travail. La quantité de temps passé à faire du
télétravail influençait l’initiation et la communication amicale au travail. Enfin, des
différences générationnelles ont été identifiées en lien avec les méthodes de
communication basée dans l’Internet.
Freundschaften am Arbeitsplatz im elektronisch vernetzten Unternehmen
Diese Studie untersucht Informationskommunikationstechnologien und Dynamiken von
Freundschaften am Arbeitsplatz. Angestellte machten Aussagen zu Faktoren, welche die
Anbahnung einer Freundschaft mit einem Kollegen beeinflussten und äußerten sich zu
Mustern und der Wahrnehmung von Kommunikation mit ihren Freunden am Arbeitsplatz
mittels verschiedener Kommunikationsmethoden. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass
Persönlichkeit, gemeinsame Aufgabenfelder und wahrgenommene Ähnlichkeit die
wichtigsten Faktoren für die Anbahnung einer Freundschaft mit einem Kollegen sind,
wohingegen sich die Bedeutung physischer Nähe für Freundschaften am Arbeitsplatz bei
elektronisch vernetzten Arbeitsplätzen verringert. Die Ergebnisse stützen das Primat der
Face-to-Face Interaktion für die Initiierung und Aufrechterhaltung von Freundschaften am
Arbeitsplatz. E-Mail, Telefon und Textbotschaften nahmen eine zentrale Rolle bei der
Kommunikation zwischen Freunden am Arbeitsplatz ein. Die Menge an Zeit, die mit
Telekommunikation verbracht wurde, beeinflusste die Initiierung und Aufrechterhaltung von
Freundschaften am Arbeitsplatz. Letztlich zeigten sich mit Blick auf internetbasierte
Kommunikationsmethoden Generationsunterschiede.
전자적으로 연계된 조직내에서의 작업장 우정에 관한 연구
요약
본 연구는 정보통신기술들과 작업장 우정의 역동성에 관한 연구이다. 고용자들은 동료들
과의 우정을 만들어나가는데 있어 영향을 준 요소들을 보고하도혹 하였으며, 동료들과
의 커뮤니케이션 개념들이 다양한 커뮤니케이션 방법들을 통하여 보고되었다. 결과들은,
개인성격, 공유된 작업들, 그리고 인지된 유사성들이 동료들과의 우정을 만들어 나가는
초창기에 있어 가장 주요한 요소들이었으며, 작업장내에서의 우정에 있어 육체적 유사성
의 중요성은 전자적으로 연계된 작업장에서 감소함을 보여 주었다. 결과들은 작업장내
에서의 우정 형성과 유지에 있어 면대면 접촉의 주요성을 확인하였다. 이메일, 전화, 그
리고 텍스트가 작업장 친구들 사이의 커뮤니케이션의 핵심이었다. 텔레커뮤니케이션을
위한 시간의 양은 작업장 우정 초기화와 커뮤니케이션에 영향을 주었다. 마지막으로 세
대간 차이는 인터넷에 근거한 커뮤니케이션 방법들과 상이햐게 일치하는 것으로 나타났
다.
La Amistad en el Lugar de Trabajo en una Organización Conectada Electrónicamente
Resumen
Este estudio examinó las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación ( I C Ts ) y las dinámicas de las
amistades en el lugar de t rabajo. Los empleados reportaron factores que influenciaron en la iniciación de la
amistad con un compañero de trabajo, y reportaron pau tas de l as percepciones de la comunicación con su amigo en
el lugar de trabajo a través de modelos de comunicación diferentes. Los resultados indicaron que la personalidad, el
compartimiento de tareas, y la percepción de simili tud fue ron los factores más importantes en la in iciación de
amistad entre los compañeros de trabajo, y que la importancia de la proximidad fís ica de la amistad en el lugar de
trabajo es disminuido cuando el lugar de trabajo está conectado electrónicamente. Los resultados confirman la
primacía de la in teracción cara a cara para la iniciación y el mantenimiento de la amistad en el lugar de trabajo. El
correo electrónico, el teléfono, y el escribir un tex to f ueron t ambién centrales para la comunicación entre los amigos
en el lugar de trabajo. L a cantidad de t iempo pasado en el trabajo a distancia impactó la iniciación y la
comunicación de la amistad en el lugar de trabajo. F inalmente, las diferencias generacionales fueron identificadas
con respecto a los métodos de comunicación basados en el internet.