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OBSIDIAN SOURCE LOCALITIES IN THE NORTH
ISLAND OF NEW ZEALAND [1973]
G. K. Ward
Department of Anthropology
University of Otago
New Zealand Archaeological Association Newsletter 16(3): 85-103
Previous research has shown the potential of analyses of artefact obsidian,
especially source identification, to contribute to knowledge of New Zealand
prehistory. As part of an investigation which sought to characterize obsidians by
trace element analysis, deposits of raw material in northern and central regions
of the North Island were located and sampled. The localities of these potential
sources of artefact obsidian are listed along with brief hand specimen
description of the material.
INTRODUCTION
Obsidian is a natural volcanic glass, usually of rhyolitic composition. Its vitreous or non-
crystalline character is produced by the rapid cooling of a highly siliceous molten magma,
often by quenching in a body of water, as when a lava flow runs into the sea. Thus mineral
formation is effectively prevented and a supercooled liquid, a glass, results. The amorphous or
extremely fine grained structure of the glass permits the phenomenon of conchoidal fracture,
so that wherever in volcanic areas of the world obsidian was located it as sought after as a raw
material for artefacts, particularly where metals were scarce or unknown.
The homogeneity of obsidian has allowed investigators to apply geochemical
techniques to source obsidian artefacts. Because of its method of formation a geological
deposit of volcanic glass is likely to have firstly, a uniform chemical composition – or, at
least, to be much more homogeneous than crystalline rocks – and, secondly, to differ
from other discrete deposits of obsidian, so that a source may be distinguished by its
unique chemical composition. This characterization has been most successfully
accomplished in terms of the proportions of groups of trace elements. Consequently,
artefactual material, when similarly charactered, can be shown to have been derived from
a particular source on the basis of comparison of its trace element constituents with those
of the sources. This method of tracing the origin of a raw material has been widely used
in recent years by archaeologists to provide information about patterns of prehistoric
behaviour (vide Cann, Dixon and Renfrew 1969).
[Pp.85-86]
Another attribute or Obsidian has been made use of by the archaeologist is the
technique of hydration rim dating. A freshly flaked surface of obsidian takes up water
from the air or ground at a discernible rate, in which one of the ~ain variables 1s
temperature. For various temperature zones of the world, rates of hydration have been
measured or estimated, so that the phenomenon can be used as a chronometric as well as
relative dating technique (vide Michels and Bebrich 1972). There are, however, particular
problems with chronometric application in New Zealand (Ward n.d.; 10 ff).
Green (1964: 134) has outlined the potential fields of information available from an
analysis or obsidian from flake assemblages: Firstly, relative and 'absolute' dating by
measurement of the hydration rim might be attempted. Secondly, changes in proportions
of obsidians from different sources might provide evidence of the maximum possible age
of an assemblage and indicate its position in a local or relative regional chronology.
Thirdly, variations in the proportions of obsidian through time might be indicative of
changes in trading relationships again, the documentation of the location of find spots of
obsidian might assist in the identification of the routes by which the raw material .as
transported. Finally, the study of the technological attributes per se of a flake assemblage
is a valuable source of information. Obsidian flake technology has been investigated
systematically by Shawcross (1964) and by Jones (n.d.), but while the use of hydration
rim measurement for relative dating was applied only briefly in New Zealand (Green
1962; Ambrose and Green 1962; Green 1964), a greater degree of success was
experienced with the application of sourcing methods. Green initially developed the
characterization of obsidian by refractive index (RI) procedures then, more recently
applied a technique of elemental analysis (Green 1962, 1964; Green, Brooks and Reeves
1967).
INFERENCE FROM CHARACTERIZATION DATA
One of the first dividends that Green derived from the study of obsidian flake assemblages of
the Auckland region was found in the pattern of distribution of material from the same source.
The common derivation of some obsidians from sites clustering around the Auckland lsthmus
suggested an adjacent source of raw material; an investigation of geological criteria indicated
the likelihood of a deposit being located on Great Barrier or another of the Hauraki Gulf
islands. Accordingly, the Great Barrier Island source of obsidian was located in the field
(Green 1962:15; Spring-Rice 1963: 27; Green 1964: 136). Similarly, the distribution of other
obsidians with characteristic RI values in both Northland and central North Island regions led
to the rediscovery of the major sources at Huruiki and Taupo respectively (Green 1964: 136).
[Pp.86-87]
As part of his programme of investigation analyses of obsidian from a number of
archaeological sites were made, and Green was able to report (1964: 139) that the Mayor
Island source was the most important and was probably the first discovered by the
prehistoric inhabitants of the country. This was evident for, despite the proximity of some
early sites to other sources, material from Mayor Island was distinctly predominant in
proportion to others. At the inland Archaic site of Tokoroa, for example, nearly all the
obsidian was brought from Mayor Island even though there are several obsidian outcrops
in the vicinity (Cook and Green 1962). Similarly, the major part of the obsidian
assemblage from the Tairua site (itself! adjacent to several natural deposits of obsidian)
derived from the Mayor Island source. In their report of the Tairua excavations, Smart
and Green commented (1962: 250) that the predominance of Mayor Island obsidian was
"characteristic of many early sites whether close or distant from the source".
Building upon these and other results, Green demonstrated the possibility of
constructing a relative chronology by comparison of the proportions of Mayor Island to
non-Mayor Island obsidian from assemblages at a number of sites in the ~Auckland
province (1964: 138, Figure 2. q.v.). Insufficient data was available to attempt a seriation
of sites based on obsidian types, but the evidence supported the relative order of the
sequence in which sites were placed by reference to other criteria (ibid: 140; Green 1963.
1970).
The success of this programme is all the more remarkable when the restrictions
defined by the range of available data are considered. Evidence for the conclusions
outlined above came from characterization of a number of obsidian sources by the RI
method. Although material from four areas - Mayor Island, Mangakino, Taupo and Arid
Island - was originally measured (Green 1962) and other sources subsequently included
(Green 1964). the RI measurement were able to effectively distinguish only Mayor Island
obsidian from the rest due to the considerable overlap with one another of the RI values
of material from the non-Mayor Island sources. It was evident that to develop the full
potential of the technique, more powerful means of separating the sources were required.
In a subsequent study a technique of estimating the proportion of four trace elements was
applied to the characterization of obsidian from seven localities (Green, Brooks and
Reeves 1967). It appears, however, that the results of these analyses have not been used
to allocate artefact obsidian to its source and, further. the technique used (emission
spectroscopy) is no longer regarded as the most suitable for this type of investigation
(Reeves, 1970: pers. comm.). Nevertheless, it was evident from a review of Green's
earlier contributions that there is considerable scope for the application of evidence from
characterization studies to the investigation of New Zealand prehistory.
[Pp.87-88]
LOCATION OF POTENTIAL SOURCES OF ARTEFACT OBSIDIAN
Research into a number of aspects of the archaeology of obsidian in New Zealand was
initiated in 1969 at the Department of Anthropology, University of Otago. One facet of the
study sought to establish a simple, accurate method of allocation of artefact obsidian to its
source. A survey of the available methods of trace element analysis indicated that the
technique of X-ray fluorescence spectrography (XRF) was the most suitable for the purpose of
obsidian source characterization (Ward n.d.: 47 ff). An initial concern of the investigators was
the availability for inclusion in the analysis of material from original deposits. It was evident
that previous efforts to source New Zealand obsidians had been hampered by the lack of a
systematic approach to the rediscovery of potential sources of artefact raw material and the
process of collection from in situ deposits. It was necessary to relocate natural deposits which
were utilizable in the past in order that, firstly, material from as many as possible be included
in the analysis and, secondly, so that they could be systematically sampled. Concern with
sampling arose from the recognition that it is not sufficient merely to define variation between
two sources in terms of a number of trace element proportions: it must be demonstrated that
this inter-source difference is significantly greater than the variation Within the sources for the
distinctions to be adequate and credible. Thus, a large Dumber of individual analyses are
required and these must be based on an adequate sampling of the original deposit.
At least seven localities had been successfully investigated for the presence of
Obsidian, suitable and available for artefact manufacture, since Green commenced his
research in 1958 (Anon. 1958: 3; Green et al 1967), but it was realised that the number of
known sources contributing obsidian to the archaeological record was incomplete (Green
1970: pers. comm.). Consequently, a review was made of historical, archaeological and
geological literature pertaining to areas where obsidian might have been deposited (Ward
n.d.: 96 ff).
Extensive areas of later silicic volcanic material are found in the North Island of New
Zealand. Because obsidian absorbs water over time, eventually forming perlite and so
considerably altering its flaking properties (Friedman, Smith and Long 1966), only those
areas where relatively recent deposition of Vitreous Volcanics has occurred need be
considered. While volcanic activity has been an essential feature of New Zealand
geomorphology since the Cambrian, silicic volcanism was more prevalent during the later
stages, the Tertiary and Quaternary. Grindley et al. (1959: 10) divided Tertiary volcanism
into three distinct stages of which the third, during the Upper Miocene , saw several
masses of dacite and rhyolite erupted from vents in eastern Northland and from a section
of the
[Pp.88-89]
Coromandel arc. During the Quaternary, rhyolitic eruptions produced extensive ignimbrite
sheets and tuffs in several areas of the North Island, and in the last two thousand years there
have periodic eruptions from vents in the Rotorua-Taupo region. Thus more recent silicic
volcanics are confined to the area of the Coromandel arc and to the central volcanic district
(Map 1). Their chemical composition is predominantly normal rhyolite but they show much
variation in physical form, from extensive ignimbrite sheets to flows and domes of flow-
banded, perlitic and spherulitic rhyolite and obsidian, with widespread pumice and ash
showers (Harrington 1969: 56).
Three main regions of geologically late silicic volcanism may there tore be de fined:
Northland. Great Barrier-Coromandel-Mayor Island, and Rotorua-Maraetai-Taupo. It is in
these regions that the rhyolitic glass obsidian may be expected to be found. Indeed, Green
reported material from all of these regions, and not from without, in his 1962, 1964 and
1967 papers. The localities he defined, combined with those possible deposits gleaned
from the survey of the historical and geological literature (which turned out to be of
widely varying usefulness), comprised a total of more than fifty potential sources of
artefact obsidian (Ward n.d.: 123 ff. Table III.1). Of these, about thirty were relocated and
sampled as a result of a period of fieldwork during May and June 1970, or subsequently
provided from deposits inaccessible at that time or which were reported later by persons
in their vicinities. Thus material from a wide area was able to be included in the
characterization analysis. The results of the field survey and collection are presented
briefly here; the methodology, results and conclusions of the characterization study are
discussed elsewhere (Ward n.d.).
The localities of potential sources of artefact obsidian from the North Island of New
Zealand are listed in the Table. The locality name, by which reference is made to material
from a given deposit is accompanied by an identifying number which is also found on the
maps (Maps 2- 5). Indication of the type of deposit is followed by a brief statement
giving more precise location of the place where the outcrop or flow was sampled, and
reference is made, where possible, to the N.Z.M.S. maps. In this respect it should be
noted that there was not available in this series a map of Mayor Island. A brief hand-
specimen description is given of typical obsidian from each locality. The term 'flake
quality' was used by Green (1962: 15) to differentiate obsidians that lent themselves to
successful tool manufacture, from those which broke fragmentedly and so were useless
for this purpose. 'Semi-flake quality' is used here to indicate that, although various
inclusions render it of poorer quality, the obsidian could be used to form implements of
limited size and use if, for example, lack of better glass made this necessary. Non-flake
quality and semi-flake quality obsidian was included in the characterization analysis
because of the possibility that it is associated with flake quality obsidian' in another part
of the deposit of similar trace element composition and so could be
[Pp.89-90] / Map 1
[Pp.90-91] / Map 2
[Pp.91-92] / Map 3
[Pp.92-93] / Map 4
[Pp.93-94] / Map 5
[Pp.94-95]
used to indicate the source of artefactual material. Finally, persons who forwarded specimen
obsidians are acknowledged at the end of each listing.
DISCUSSION
More than seventeen hundred specimens were systematically collected and made available for
inclusion in the characterization study (vide Catalogue, Anon. n.d.: GS 105-999, GT 000-850).
In the Table are listed the thirty more or less discrete localities of potential sources of artefact
obsidian from which samples were collected. The localities represent eight major areas in the
North Island and include nearly fifty subsources. The method of sampling in situ deposits was
adjusted to suit the various types of deposition encountered (Ward n.d.: 169 ff). One form of a
primary natural deposit was found as an obsidian selvage on a rhyolite flow as, for instance, at
Mayor Island localities. Secondly, deposits which outcrop massively, but which are not
obviously parts of a discrete flow, were found on the Central Volcanic Plateau particularly
around Rotorua and Maraetai. Volcanic bomb deposits which are in situ in as much as it is
unlikely that they would have been moved more than a few metres since their original
deposition, were found on Te Ahumata, on Huruiki and on the hillsides above Cooks Bay,
Weta and Pungaere. A fourth type of deposit is detrital. Water-worn material in pebble or
boulder form was found located in stream beds, beaches and on flats susceptible to flooding,
as at the Waiare, Hahei and Tairua localities. For the purposes of the present study the last
type is included in the category of in situ depositions although such material must originally
have derived from one of the previous types of primary deposit. It was often more difficult to
decide, however, if the detrital material was available for prehistoric exploitation (vide infra).
Comparison of the list of possible obsidian deposit localities originally derived from the
literature (Ward n. d.: 123 ff. Table III.1) with than given here, will show that not all of the
possible localities given in the former are represented in the list of localities of potential
artefact obsidian from which the specimens were collected (Table). It proved impossible to
relocate some of the putative deposits in the field; others were inaccessible at that time; still
other localities have been brought to the notice of the collector since June 1970, and other
potential sources of artefact obsidian are rumoured to exist in several areas. Material from
some of these localities was made available by other persons; some disputed sources are noted
below and elsewhere (Ward n.d.: 96 ff), but the location of many others remains problematical
and the subject, it is to be hoped, of further investigation.
On the basis of the results of the characterization analysis all of the geographically
located sources and subsources have been reduced to only eighteen petrographically
distinct source groups
[Pp.95-96]
(Ward n.d.: 169 ff). Where one of these groups contains more than one locality the
petrographic similarity of members reflects geographic relationships; for example, all of the
Mayor Island sources listed in the table are subsumed under the Mayor Island petrographic
grouping. Were a greater number of variables used in a similar analysis, it may prove possible
to distinguish amongst the subgroups. It is doubtful, however, if the definition of separate
localities in such a case could be claimed to have any cultural significance; it appears most
likely that prehistorically, Mayor Island, as it was during the protohistoric phase (Gold-Smith
1885), was controlled by a single social group. Therefore the identification of obsidian from
one locality on the island plausibly has the same significance in at least this respect as that
from another Mayor Island source.
Assessment of the validity and significance of the eighteen groups must await the
production of more data concerning flake assemblages than is available at present. It is
possible, however, to anticipate the foci of some appraisals. For instance, it is probable
that some of the localities represented in the basic reference list were not accessible or for
other reasons not exploited for raw material by the prehistoric inhabitants of the vicinity.
Although an attempt was made in the field situation to evaluate the likelihood of an
obsidian deposit being available tor utilization, ambiguous cases remain. One example
that falls into this category is the Waiare (12) locality. Detrital material in the bed of the
Upokorau stream derives from a slip in the upper reaches. Intensive farming in the area is
a recent phenomenon that has been accompanied by considerable erosion: it is possible
that effective exposure of the deposit dates from relatively late times. To the knowledge
or the present writer, no artefact analysis has yet identified Waiare as a prehistorically
exploited source of obsidian. Further, it has not been possible to check on the
provenances of obsidian from several localities. Hahei (42) is an example of a probable
secondary deposit. In this respect also it may be noted that few of the deposits exhibited
certain evidence of quarrying. Conspicuous exceptions are found at Mayor Island and
Taupo. The commanding site of KI/5 (Pos 1965: 108) is littered with evidence of
extraction and flaking activities, and one section of the seam has been mined for more
than a metre. At least two of the Whangamata Fault localities (30 and 31) attest to
extensive working of implements besides obvious quarrying and could well benefit
further investigation by the archaeologist.
Again, more intensive enquiry might well indicate that it is not possible to make a
useful discrimination between material from two closely related groups, or that it was
mistaken to include the Rotorua area localities from which no flake quality obsidian has
been reported. More importantly, it is evident, from the initial
[Pp.96-97]
flake assemblage analyses by the XRF technique in which an artefact obsidian was unable to
be allocated to a group within the range of sources for which characterization data is available,
that not all of the deposits that were exploited prehistorically have yet been rediscovered by
the archaeologist. Known omissions include material from the supposed sources at Arid Island
and Ohakuri (Green 1963: 15; Green et al. 1967: 678; note, however, that both these are of
doubtful status as natural deposits: Ward n.d.: 111-112, 121-122). Inevitably, more potential
sources will be located. Areas which might bear fruitful investigation are those of the Puhipuhi
plateau and other districts near Whangarei; the Coromandel Peninsula and adjacent island
groups are sure to reveal further minor deposits; and the regions to the west and north of Lake
Taupo need to be more thoroughly searched. While it is conceivable that no evidence now
remains of a source which was of some importance, so that the origin of a class of flake
obsidian will remain unknown and unidentifiable, it is possible to be confident that the
majority of significant sources of obsidian in New Zealand will soon be identified; further
analysis of flake assemblages in the future will indicate the proximity of this goal.
CONCLUSION
In summary, this paper has attempted to re-introduce the reader to the value of the information
potential in assemblages of artefact obsidian. Some of the inferences drawn from evidence
resulting from an earlier programme of investigations by Green and his co-workers were
outlined and it was suggested that even greater use might be made of data available from the
application of methods based on elemental analysis. As part of a research programme at the
University of Otago sources of Obsidian in the North Island of New Zealand were relocated
and systematically sampled. 'list of localities of possible sources of artefact obsidian,
accompanied by a brief description of the material from each, was made in tabular form.
Discussion of other aspects of the study will be made elsewhere.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper is based on part of a thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Arts, University
of Otago. Mr B. F. Leach supervised this study and I wish to record my gratitude for his
advice and encouragement. Support for fieldwork was made from a grant of the University
Grants Committee to Professor C.F.W. Higham, for which assistance acknowledgement is
made. I am pleased to note also a considerable debt to Dr R. C. Green, Cook Bicentenary
Fellow, for advice and the interest he showed in this research, to Dr R. D. Reeves, Massey
University, for valuable discussion and to the many persons who provided me with assistance
during the collection of source material.
[Pp.97-98]
TABLE: LOCALITIES OF POTENTIAL SOURCES OF ARTEFACT
OBSIDIAN IN THE NORTH ISLAND OF NEW ZEALAND
Northland (Map 2)
Huruiki 2 - 11
Nine apparently distinct deposits of bomb material over an area of
approximately 4 km
2
west of Huruiki Trig. N 16/825315. Black, vitreous
lustre. Flake quality.
Waiare 12
Detrital material located in bed of Upokorau stream near Kaeo. N
11/346662. Black with matt surface due to pitting; thin section pale
green in transmitted light. Flake quality.
Pungaere 38
Bomb deposited obsidian thinly scattered over wide area north or
Pungaere settlement. N 11/365615. Black, matt, pitted; pale yellow-
green in thin section. Flake quality.
Weta 39
Bomb deposit thinly spread over wide area south of Weta Trig. N
11/771348. Black with white inclusions; red with white inclusions;
vitreous lustre. Semi-flake quality. (D. Miller, Weta)
Great Barrier Island
(Map 3)
Te Ahumata 1
Bomb deposited material spread over flat south of Te Ahumata. N 30 &
31/924335. Grey-black, vitreous lustre. Flake quality.
Awana 37
Detrital material from Awana stream east of Mt Hobson. N 30 &
31/955408. Grey-black; some with white vesicles; vitreous lustre. Flake
quality. (Spring-Rice 1962)
Fanal Island (Map 3)
Fanal Island 48
Block from beach. Grey-black, vitreous lustre. Flake quality. (Fleming
1950; Geological Survey sample P 10284)
Coromandel
Peninsula (Map 3)
Cooks Bay 13, 14
Bomb material from two spatially discrete deposits on ridge behind bay.
N 44/241613, N 44/244611. Black with some white vesicular material,
vitreous lustre. Flake quality.
[Pp.98-99]
Wairua 15
Detrital material, mainly small pebbles from Swampy Stream
approximately 20 km south of Tairua. N 49/316378. Black, vitreous
lustre. Flake quality.
Hahei 42
Detrital material from beach, probably river boulder; may be naturally or
cultural deposited. Black, vitreous lustre. Flake quality. (J. Price, Tairua)
Waihi 43, 44
Detrital material from near Waihi. Red-brown, bands of grey and black
respectively; vitreous lustre. Flake quality. (P. Murdock, Hikutaia)
Purangi 45
Piece from large boulder near Purangi. Red-brown, vitreous lustre. Flake
quality. (Mineralogical Museum, Thames)
Maratoto 46
Small pebbles from stream near Maratoto. Black, highly vitreous lustre.
Flake quality. (P. Murdock, Hikutaia)
Rotorua (Map 4)
Hemo Gorge 23
Deposits outcropping in the vicinity of the junction of Rotorua-Taupo
and Rotorua-Atiamuri Highways. N 76/711998. Black with white
vesicular material. Not flake quality.
Whakarewarewa 24,
25
In this modern quarry, only fragmental material remains of obsidian
which is said to have previously outcropped in the vicinity. N
76/745010. Red, matt, and black with some white vesicular material,
vitreous lustre, respectively. Semi-flake quality.
Ngongotaha 26
Deposits outcropping in the vicinity of a modern quarry on the eastern
side of the mountain. N 76/686073. Black with white vesicular material,
vitreous lustre. Not flake quality.
Maraetai (Map 4)
Maraetai 27
Outcrops cut by Plateau Road, one of many on the forested Plateau east
of Mangakino. N 84/308748. Black with white vesicular material,
vitreous lustre. Semi-flake quality.
Whakamaru 36
Material from outcrops situated on the southern slopes of Whakamaru.
N 84/369715. Red-brown, vitreous lustre. Flake quality. (J. Crewys,
Atiamuri)
[Pp.99-100]
Material from a number of outcrops on a ridge W of the Ongaroto Road.
N 84/385725. Black with some white vesicular material, vitreous lustre.
Semi-flake quality.
Taupo (Map 4)
Whangamata Fault
28
Obsidian flow exposed by road cutting near Ben Lomond Station. N
93/436498. Black material, vitreous lustre. Flake quality.
29
Immediately adjacent to 28. Predominantly grey material banded with
different intensities of grey/grey-black, showing flow structure, vitreous
lustre. Flake quality.
30
Immediately adjacent to 28 and 29. Predominantly black material with
some white vesicular inclusions, vitreous lustre. Flake quality.
31
From scattered large rocks at foot of fault 2.5 km from road. N
93/428473. Black and grey-black material showing flow banding,
vitreous lustre. Flake quality. Evidence of quarrying.
32
Outcrop of flow 2.25 km from road. N 93/429477. Black and grey-black
material showing flow banding, vitreous lustre. Flake quality. Quarry.
Tahua (Mayor
Island) (Maps 3 & 5)
Raumata 16, 17
Southern end of Oira Bay. Parts of flow nearest sea and cliff
respectively. Opaque, in some sections flow banded, showing a vitreous
lustre, pale olive-green in transmitted light. Flake quality.
Oira Bay 18
Northern end of Oira Bay. Sample widely dispersed over flow. Colours
range from black to tan in reflected light, green in transmitted light,
vitreous lustre. Flake quality.
Oira Bay 19
From flow at northwestern end of the bay. Opaque with vitreous lustre,
green in transmitted light. Flake quality.
[Pp.100-101]
Taratimi Bay 20
From 'Staircase' section of ridge about 200 m above sea level. Opaque,
vitreous lustre, green in transmitted light. Flake quality.
Opo Bay 21, 22
Flow at northern end of bay from upper and lower seams respectively.
Opaque with vitreous lustre, green in transmitted light. Flake quality.
MI/5 33
From quarry near 'Staircase' section of the ridge of crater 200 m a.s.l.,
Taratimi Bay. Opaque, vitreous lustre, green in transmitted light. Flake
quality. (T. Inman, Opo Bay)
Honey 34
From flow in bay on section of coast between Waitangi and Te Horo.
Light tan or 'honey' coloured, vitreous lustre. Flake quality. (T. Inman,
Opo Bay)
Okawa 35
From flow on southernmost tip of Okawa Point. Opaque, vitreous lustre,
green in transmitted light. flake quality. (T. Inman, Opo Bay)
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NOTE. Page numbers of the published version have been inserted into the text to permit accurate
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GKW August 2014