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Diffusion of Disc Golf Courses in the United States
Abstract
This paper examines the diffusion of disc golf across the continental U.S. We provide a descriptive analysis of the spatial distribution of the sport beginning with its formal inception in 1975 through 2010. We investigate the role of common macro-level factors in determining the diffusion of sports facilities, such as population and land availability. We also consider the role of micro-level factors in influencing the diffusion of disc golf at the individual level. Our results demonstrate that disc golf has diffused rapidly and thoroughly throughout the U.S. Several disc golf regions have developed, including the upper Midwest, the mid-Atlantic I-95 corridor, and the Pacific Coast. Population has been an important determinant of diffusion patterns, with contagious diffusion evident at the local level. Disc golf facilities can be found in demographically diverse communities, however the overwhelming majority of disc golfers are white, creating an unintentional cultural barrier.
... Disc golf is a publicly accessible form of leisure time physical activity and social engagement. Roughly 90% of disc golf courses are in public parks (Oldakowski & Mcewen, 2013). During a typical 18-hole round, players walk an average of 5,613 steps, or about 3 miles (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2020;Menickelli et al., 2016). ...
... The first course was installed in Oak Grove Park in Los Angeles County, California in 1975 (Palmeri & Kennedy, 2015). Early courses were especially prevalent in the upper Midwest, the mid-Atlantic I-95 corridor and the Pacific Coast, but today they can be found throughout the US (Oldakowski & Mcewen, 2013). As expected, states with large populations, such as California and Texas, have more disc golf courses than small states (Woods, 2017). ...
... This may partly explain why black people are underrepresented among disc golfers. Previous studies suggest that 91% to 95% of disc golfers are white (Woods, 2019a;Oldakowski & Mcewen, 2013;Siniscalchi, 2004). Yet, the association between race and disc golf presence is smaller than the six other relationships investigated in this study, suggesting that normative constraints may also limit the participation of minority groups (Oldakowski & Mcewen, 2013). ...
Research questions
To what extent are racial, socioeconomic and health characteristics of US counties associated with access to a specific recreational resource – disc golf courses? We contribute to the literature by using a national scope and exploring how these relationships vary along the rural-urban continuum.
Research methods
We use data from six sources to (1) map the county-level locations of disc golf courses, (2) provide descriptives of the sociodemographic and health characteristics for US counties, including by rural-urban distinctions and by presence/absence of at least one disc golf course and (3) show via multivariate logistic regression the relationship between these county-level variables and the presence of at least one disc golf course for US counties and by rural-urban distinction (N = 3,138).
Results and findings
Disc golf courses exist throughout the US, but are prevalent in the upper Midwest, the mid-Atlantic I-95 corridor, the Pacific Coast and New England. A greater proportion of urban counties have disc golf courses than rural counties. Counties are more likely to have a disc golf course as poverty and the percent of black residents decrease and as educational attainment and percent of residents under age 25 increase. However, when looking only at urban counties, the relationship between poverty and disc golf availability reverses – poverty is positively associated with the presence of a disc golf course. Healthier counties are associated with a higher likelihood of disc golf presence but do little to improve model fit.
Implications
The findings provide evidence in favor of both sides of an ongoing empirical debate about racial and socioeconomic inequities in access to recreational resources. At the national level, the findings support the many studies showing that poorer, black communities tend to have fewer activity-supportive resources than richer, white communities. However, the results also partially support several urban-based studies that have refuted these relationships. While contributing to this important debate, we also argue that disc golf courses can be creatively built in areas with fewer financial resources, thereby lessoning the inequities in access to health-benefiting public recreation.
... Each course, and even each hole, presents with its distinct barriers, including terrain, elevation, curvature, obstacles and wind conditions. 4,5 The player then seeks to overcome these barriers using a variety of different types of throws, of which the backhand and the forehand throws are the most common. 5 Recreational disc golf appeals to a large portion of the population, as the vast majority of courses are public, 4 and the sole requirement to play is a single disc that costs approximately fifteen dollars. ...
... 4,5 The player then seeks to overcome these barriers using a variety of different types of throws, of which the backhand and the forehand throws are the most common. 5 Recreational disc golf appeals to a large portion of the population, as the vast majority of courses are public, 4 and the sole requirement to play is a single disc that costs approximately fifteen dollars. Disc golf is a viable option for those who wants to remain active and competitive in middle age, because of the low-intensity non-contact nature of the sport and the social component, inherent to golf-type sports. ...
Background:
Disc golf is rapidly increasing in popularity and more than two million people are estimated to regularly participate in disc golf activities. Despite this popularity, the epidemiology of injuries in disc golf remains under reported.
Purpose:
The purpose of the present study was to investigate the prevalence and anatomic distribution of injuries acquired through disc-golf participation in Danish disc golf players.
Methods:
The study was a cross-sectional study conducted on Danish disc-golf players. In May 2015, invitations to complete a web-based questionnaire were spread online via social media, and around disc-golf courses in Denmark. The questionnaire included questions regarding disc-golf participation and the characteristics of injuries acquired through disc golf participation. The data was analyzed descriptively.
Results:
An injury prevalence of 13.3% (95% CI: 6.7% to 19.9%) was reported amongst the 105 disc-golf players who completed the questionnaire. The anatomical locations most commonly affected by injury were the shoulder (31%) and the elbow (20%). Injuries affecting the players at the time of completion of the questionnaire had a median duration of 240 days (IQR 1410 days), and the majority (93%) had a gradual onset.
Conclusions:
A 13.3% point prevalence of injury was reported. Most injuries occurred in the shoulder and elbow regions, and were gradual in onset. Injuries affecting the players at the time of data collection had median symptomatic duration of 240 days.
Levels of evidence:
3b.
... To avoid problems, it is important to pay more attention to the sustainability of recreational activities by increasing awareness of sustainable development, learning about disc golf player profiles, their behavior, the social and ecological impact of the activities, and potential solutions (e.g., area expansion, course demarcation, raising awareness among visitors, people flow management, continuous area monitoring and maintenance) (Clark, 2005;Marzano & Dandy, 2012;Ingver, 2013;Newsome et al., 2013;James, 2018;Mansfield, 2021;Woods et al., 2020). There are several data from different regions confirming that disc golf players represent the younger generation, for example, mainly 26ñ36-year olds in Finland (Alasalmi & Apiainen, 2013), 30ñ50-year olds in the USA (Siniscalchi, 2004;Oldakowski & McEwen, 2013) and 24ñ35-year olds in Canada (Haley, 2002), indicating that playing disc golf often starts in upper secondary school or university. ...
The demand for outdoor recreational activities is rising. Therefore, it is important to pay more attention to their environmental impact and sustainability. However, there is a lack of methodology for measuring the impact of novel recreational activities, such as disc golf. This research aimed to address the existing environmental problems with disc golf in Estonia and elaborate on the methodology for assessing the environmental impact of disc golf courses and using it as a teaching tool for rising environmental awareness of the students. Based on existing research, the environmental impact assessment methodology for disc golf areas was developed and tested. The developed methodology is relevant for discovering negative impacts and for minimizing them. It could be used as an assessment tool for service providers and destination managers. Using the methodology as practical exercise proved to be an effective tool for rising the student’s environmental awareness.
... Scholars, such as Lee Biao, have studied word-of-mouth effects, such as the 'neighbour effect' in the diffusion of low-carbon energy technologies in rural areas and the dissemination of information [19]. R. Oldakowski and J. W. McEwen argue that social ties and spatial agglomeration are key factors in the popularity of golf courses [20]. ...
In recent years, in order to improve the quality of living, China has carried out a series of urban renewal projects, such as adding elevators to old communities. Taking Hangzhou as an example, this paper studies the decision to install elevators in old residential buildings. This study used cold spots and hot spots, local autocorrelation and fishnetting analysis to show the spatial and temporal patterns of lift retrofitting in old communities. Finally, the spatial lag model is used to test whether there is a spatial spillover effect in the behavior of residents installing elevators. The research shows that: (1) Hot spots areas for retrofitting lifts are clustered in the central urban areas of Hangzhou, such as the intersection of Shangcheng District, Xiacheng District, Jianggan District, Gongshu District and Xihu District (scenic area); (2) The trend of retrofitting areas spreading from the center to the periphery; (3) In different communities, the number of elevators added in neighboring communities has a positive effect on the decision of adding elevators in other local communities. Therefore, the neighborhood effect cannot be ignored in the topic of community renovation, in which residents spontaneously participate.
This study examines the domestic overnight travel motivations of Finnish disc golfers, with a specific focus on the concept of serious leisure. Data gathered from 989 Finnish disc golfers were divided into clusters based on the serious leisure inventory and measure model. The results indicate that disc golfers are generally interested in travelling domestically to participate in disc golf, and that they tend to share common push and pull motives. Preferences for general destination attributes and specific disc-golf-related destination attributes tend not to vary significantly between the clusters. Although the relationship is not strictly hierarchical, disc golfers who are more serious tend to report higher mean values than their more-casual counterparts. Disc golfers travelling to play their sport expect well-maintained and versatile courses and tend to prefer courses they have not previously visited. Factors related to the quality of courses are significantly more influential in disc-golfers' motivations to travel than those associated with the destination in general, such as accommodation or nightlife. This knowledge is vital to inform marketers as participation in this relatively new sport continues to grow. ARTICLE HISTORY
Disc golf is experiencing immense recent growth that, in 2020, noticeably outpaced the steady growth seen in the sport over the past decade. This spirited movement has vaulted disc golf into the position of a suddenly and perhaps unexpectedly emerging sport. “Growth” has become a central paradigm around which the sport (its institutions and participants) concentrates. Alongside this emergence, social and political issues emerge, unexpectedly for some, from the sport’s (recent) past that serve to challenge its present trajectory. To examine these emergences, I develop Derrida’s associated concepts of hauntology, absence/presence, and the trace to draw out and play with connections between the sport’s emergence issues. Revolving around “growth” as a central paradigm, production, excess, access, diversity, inclusion, toxicity, and sustainability all appear as related issues in the sport’s emergent present. Beginning with empirically based vignettes, I question the present social material condition of disc golf. This questioning, and emerging understanding, proceeds by drawing connections between the present condition of social relations in the sport and social and political theory. Here, I draw on an array of post-structural and political-economic theory during my analysis to carry through the vocabulary established by a hauntological framework and a sense of play. The resulting deconstruction provides both a playful vocabulary and conceptual apparatus for analyzing disc golf’s emergence and the status of other emerging sports. This process, in turn, demonstrates the transformative potential of embracing the decentering, disruptive potential inherent to ‘play’ in the double sense. The “play” of writing (with language) and the “play” of direct action that promotes difference to challenge fixed positions that are central to producing cultural phenomena, such as disc golf.
In this chapter, I review the book’s key ideas and use them to theorize the future of the sport. In the next two decades, disc golf will likely experience consistent growth driven partly by grassroots efforts and the availability of public resources. Barring the arrival of large-scale human and material resources, the movement will rely on its volunteer leadership, generous talent donations from insiders, partnerships with public parks, the development and cultural convergence of local disc golf groups, the mobilizing forces of identity, and its legitimacy as a socially redeeming sport and recreational activity. This chapter also considers the possibility of an alternative path forward that involves privatization and mass-market commercialization. While the business of disc golf may have been on the precipice of a new era of development in 2020, the most likely future involves elements of both grassroots and commercial growth. I conclude the book with a discussion of how these contrasting elements may create tension and conflict within the disc golf movement in the years to come.
Research on emerging sports focuses primarily on participants’ lifestyles, motives, modes of expression, and consumption. Few scholars have examined sports as social movements. With this chapter, I attempt to fill this gap in the literature. In the late twentieth century, new types of collective action emerged, such as anti-nuclear energy protests, gay rights, alternative medicine, New Age, and ecology movements, which attracted the attention of several scholars and led some to reconceptualize social movements. Johnston, Laraña, and Gusfield (New Social Movements: From Ideology to Identity, Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994) identified three defining characteristics of new social movements. I argue that disc golf’s grow the sport movement (GSM) shares these attributes, which include (1) an alternative culture, (2) a social identity rooted in pragmatic objectives, and (3) a lack of central authority.
While experiences in online communities produced both integrative and disruptive social forces, as shown in the previous chapter and other studies, this chapter argues that digital interactions have had a net positive effect on the disc golf movement. Using the fifty United States as units of analysis, I show that social media use is positively correlated with the volume of face-to-face disc golf activity. States with more disc golf courses, PDGA members, and events tend to have more Facebook group members than states with fewer courses, PDGA members, and events. At the individual level, I also found that players’ involvement in social media is positively associated with their skill levels.
The previous chapter dovetails into this chapter, where I examine the relationship between the framing of disc golf in the news media and its popularity across the fifty United States. News organizations in states with higher levels of disc golf participation produce higher volumes of disc golf coverage and more favorable framing of the sport than news organizations in states with lower levels of participation. However, measures of the sport’s commercialization, such as stories about past tournaments and references to private companies like Innova and Discraft, did not change over time and were not correlated with regional participation patterns. This chapter suggests that non-normative sports may develop through two processes: One driven primarily by large investments and mass-market commercialization, and one that relies more on public resources and grassroots efforts to grow the sport.
Ultimately, the future of a sport depends on people’s perceptions of it. Even a sport movement with promising internal characteristics—a cohesive culture, a pronounced identity, strong leadership, and long-term investors—depends on outside organizations and institutional players to convert these resources into increased legitimacy and new participants. Non-normative movements like disc golf face the added challenge of breaking through the public’s indifference, negative perceptions, and stereotypes. Building on the inward-looking perspective of resource mobilization theory, this chapter and Chap. 9 utilize a cultural approach to social movements and examine the role of news media in the development of non-normative sports. This chapter shows how both the volume of coverage and the framing of disc golf in news media are positively correlated with reliable measures of the sport’s growth over a twenty-year period. The sport received more news coverage and more favorable portrayals as the number of disc golf courses, PDGA members, and events increased.
Many disc golfers gravitate toward the lifestyle domain, where commitment to the sport is high, but players tend to be less focused on winning or even keeping score. Among other reasons, they participate because they enjoy the outdoors, the health benefits of playing or the social aspects of the game. Their participation is guided more by local customs than official rules. Like rock climbers, mountain bikers, hikers, and skateboarders, they experience disc golf primarily as a lifestyle rather than a strictly competitive endeavor. In this chapter, I explain how organizational and technological changes have influenced the lifestyle domain over time. I also identify the conflicting values among people who play disc golf as a modern achievement sport and those who experience it as a lifestyle.
This study examines relationships between media and the growth of disc golf. Using the 50 United States as units of analysis, four indicators of disc golf activity are measured. The volume of coverage and framing of the sport in traditional media are measured using a content analysis of 2920 newspaper articles. Social media activity by state is measured with a random sample of 2551 individual profiles from disc golf groups on Facebook. This study shows that disc golf’s historical and regional growth are positively correlated with the volume and favourable framing of the sport in news media. Social media use is also positively correlated with regional growth. However, measures of the sport’s commercialization did not change over time and are not correlated with regional growth patterns. Non-normative sports may develop through two processes: One driven primarily by commercialization, and one that relies more on grassroots efforts to grow the sport.
Why have some small, emerging sports communities grown faster than others? To begin answering this question, the analysis presented here considers the case of disc golf, a flying disc sport that has grown rapidly since the early twenty-first century. This research conceptualizes the disc golf community as a new social movement and examines how the news media has influenced its development. Drawing on a large, diverse sample of local and national news materials, this study finds that the volume of disc golf news coverage is correlated with reliable measures of the sport’s growth. In addition, a content analysis of 2920 newspaper articles is used to identify the news frames that may promote, or attenuate disc golf’s “grow the sport movement.” The theoretical and methodological contributions of this study shed further light on the complex relationship between the news media and the evolution of small, non-normative sports movements.
The current study tested the validity of the Psychological Continuum Model and its usefulness in understanding the progressive nature of participation in recreational golf. Attitudinal and behavioral characteristics that underpin each of the framework's four different stages of increased participation were examined. Surveys were collected from recreational golfers and non-golfers (N= 1224) in southern Queensland Australia. A three-step staging procedure classified respondents into one of four stages: Awareness, Attraction, Attachment and Allegiance. MANOVA comparisons supported the distinct nature of progressive stages of participation and revealed consistent, positive links between each level's attitudinal and behavioral indicators. Evidence supports the framework's ability to distinguish distinct stages of physically active leisure and practical insights are offered on how recreation professionals can promote and maintain activity levels in adults.
One approach to studying the motivations for leisure is to focus on the desired goal states that are attained through participation in leisure. The Recreation Experience Preference (REP) scales were developed for measuring these goal states. In an attempt to provide a summary integrative analysis of the structure of the REP scales, the present study conducted a meta-analysis of 36 studies that have used REP items. The studies were used to obtain population estimates of correlations between scale item pairs. Correlations were then used as input to confirmatory factor analysis that tested the structure of domains (item groupings that represent a broad goal construct) and the structure of scales (within-domain item groupings that represent dimensions of the broader goal construct) established in previous research. Results provided support for the a priori domain and scale structures. Inter-item correlations were computed for domains and scales and compared "within" and "between" clusters. The results show high average inter-item correlations within scales and domains and relatively low average correlations between domains and scales. Variability of interitem domain correlations due to response scale, instruction set, geographic location of study, and type of recreation area visited was tested. Overall consistency in domains and scales was shown. Recommendations are made to help assure appropriate applications and advance refinement of the REP scales.
Using data from a supplement to the 1995 National Health Interview Survey, this article examines the relationship among three major work and family roles—marriage, parenthood, and employment—and time spent on exercise among American men and women ages 18 to 64 (N = 13,496). As the time availability perspective suggests, work and family roles curtail time for exercise. Married adults spend less time on exercising than unmarried adults. Although the number of children is not related to time spent on exercising, having children under age 5 is negatively associated with exercising. Long hours of employment are also related to less time spent on exercising, although the effect is small. Across the board, women spend less time on exercising than men, but the negative association of work and family roles, especially the role of spouse, with time for exercise is greater for men than for women.
Almost three decades ago, cultural geographer Richard Pillsbury documented the national expansion of NASCAR and what he considered the erosion of major-league stock car racing as a unique southern tradition. This claim is reassessed in light of recent research, leading us to suggest that the sport is actually “transcultural” in nature. It is influenced simultaneously by tradition and transition, as well as regional and national forces. In revisiting Pillsbury's seminal work, we document major changes and continuities in Winston Cup racing and briefly examine two North Carolina cases that provide contradictory views on the current relationship between the sport and the American South. North Wilkesboro illustrates how the changing geography of track locations can devalue and demoralize places associated with the tradition of southern stock car racing. The greater Charlotte area demonstrates that the South remains an important part of NASCAR, serving as a gathering place and “knowledge community” for drivers, racing teams, and fans from across the country. In addition to advancing research in the geography of sport and popular culture, the article encourages readers to think critically about regional cultures and their relationship to the forces of nationalization.
Early in the 20th century, thousands of trees were planted in Tucson, and the city became an arborescent oasis. By the midcentury population boom planting had declined. Mechanical cooling reduced the need for tree shade, and golf and tennis replaced gardening as the preferred leisure-time activities. Perceived water shortage has spurred the adoption of a new desert landscape marked by stone mulch and arid-adaptive plants. This landscape may have precedence for other cities similarly facing water shortages. -Authors
Golf underwent rapid growth in northeastern United States between 1888 and 1900 and then dispersed throughout the country by 1920. Regional variation in access to courses is still a function of income, population density, settlement patterns, ethnic and racial patterns, land costs, and availability of water. Changes in the economics of course development have led to modifications of design and new relationships between the game and real-estate ventures. Continued attraction of new players may be dependent on alternative forms for courses and equipment.
In recent years, NASCAR (National Association
for Stock Car Auto Racing) has undertaken an
aggressive campaign of geographic expansion.
With the hopes of becoming a national sport, new
races have been held in the Chicago, Dallas-Fort
Worth, Kansas City, Las Vegas, Los Angeles, and
Miami markets. While the traditional southeastern
United States core continues to host the
majority of races, some argue that expansion has
resulted in a re-writing of stock car history and a
decline of southern distinctiveness in the sport.
Changing NASCAR Nextel (formerly Winston)
Cup race locations, driver hometowns, and fan
club membership will be considered as part of an
attempt to assess the impact of NASCAR expansion
upon southern regional identity.
This paper investigates the spatial accessibility of African Americans to golf as an example of continued social injustice. Because of its developmental diversity, demographic diversity, and rich golf history, North Carolina is chosen to examine the relationship between the spatial distributions of golf courses and African Americans. Most previous analyses of golf and ethnicity have focused on other dimensions of inaccessibility and have ignored the spatial dimension. Despite the impression that is left by Tiger Woods' success and notoriety, African Americans remain disproportionately inaccessible to golf. An index of net accessibility, controlling for market size, indicates that census tracts with high percentages of African-American population also are unexpectedly underserved with golf. The correlation between net access and percent black is -.56. Inaccessibility is illustrated in rural, metropolitan, elite golf resort, and coastal geographic settings. This case study illustrates the outcomes of profound power relations and tensions that are played out on carefully crafted islands of privilege that signify humanity's power over nature and its willingness to exclude portions of itself from the fruits of that power.
Consideration of the sporting landscape within which an activity takes place is an aspect that is often taken for granted but close inspection can reveal a wealth of information that is easily found, waiting to be decoded (Cosgrove 1989). Such information is important because it allows the values ascribed to the landscape to become more clearly visible (Lewis 1979). This study examines the sport of Ultimate Frisbee and uses a modified framework devised by Meinig (1979) to analyse different 'views of the sports landscape'. An ethnographic approach was used and data were gathered through participant observation, the conducting of interviews and the examination of documentary evidence. Findings indicate that since the formation of a new governing body in the UK, greater standardisation of the sporting landscape has become apparent, however, spatial, temporal and constitutional boundaries within Ultimate Frisbee remain 'soft' and continue to be indicative of the sport's origins and 'the alternative sports movement' of the 1960s (Bale 1994).
Although Football Club Barcelona has been closely tied to Barcelona and Catalonia throughout its history, the narrative of that relationship has varied. Those narratives provide different understandings of how FC Barcelona is implicated in the social construction of Barcelona and Catalonia as places. The relationship between club and place is dynamic and constantly renegotiated. Not only does the club change, but the political and social context in which FC Barcelona relates to these places also changes. This paper examines the place/identity/club nexus from 1975 to 2005 to illustrate how the club is mobilized to advance different ideas about Barcelona and Catalonia as places.
The five indoor bowling games of the Anglo-American culture realm and French Canada—tenpins, fivepins, duckpins, candlepins and rubberband duckpins— all occupy specific regions. Tenpins is played everywhere except in the Canadian Maritimes. Fivepins is an exclusively Canadian game, strongest in western Canada. Candlepins is restricted to Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire and parts of the Maritimes. Duckpins occupies two regions, one around Baltimore/Washington and the second in southern New England. Rubberband duckpins is the dominant game in Quebec and dying out in its region of origin around Pittsburgh. The four small-ball games developed in the late 19th and early 20th century as innovators in Worcester, Massachusetts (candlepins), Toronto (fivepins), Pittsburgh (rubberband duckpins) and an unknown location (duckpins) changed the equipment and rules of tenpins to find a less strenuous and technically more challenging game. All the games quickly won local converts and some succeeded in expanding their region of play as population moved and organizations were founded to spread the games. Today tenpins and fivepins dominate bowling in the United States and Canada, but in the East small-ball games still exist as a case of persistent regional variation within a national popular culture.
Between the time of its opening, in 1923, and 1956, when the last vestiges of official segregation were swept away by the courts, the Carroll Park Municipal Golf Course in Baltimore, Maryland, figured prominently in the struggle to desegregate the city's recreational facilities. In this article we use historical sources to examine how access to Carroll Park was shaped by issues of race and ethnicity during the first half of the twentieth century, focusing specifically on the role the park played in the struggle to desegregate Baltimore's golf courses. We also consider how this victory ultimately contributed to desegregation at the city's other recreational facilities, including ball fields and swimming pools.
Twenty-five million Americans play golf on the nation's 16,000 courses each year. These golf courses constitute a significant national landscape feature. Since 1878, when the game arrived in the United States, golf has filtered down the urban, economic, and social hierarchies to become accepted by and accessible to most Americans. During the ensuing thirteen decades the number, location, and layout of the nation's golf courses have responded to many of the same driving forces that impacted the nation, including decentralization, growth of the middle class, war, economic depression, suburbanization, and the increasing role of the federal government. Four epochs of golf-course growth and diffusion show the growing acceptance of the sport and depict where courses were most likely to be constructed as a result of the prevailing forces of each epoch.
The study of built environments such as gymnasiums, football stadiums, swimmimg pools and skating rinks provides unique information about the historical enclosure of the gendered and sexualised body, the body's capabilities, needs and desires. It illuminates the tensions between the globalising tendencies of sport and the importance of local culture and a sense of place. This collection uses spatial concepts and examples to examine the nature and development of sporting practices. At a time when the importance of spacial theories and spacial metaphors to sport is being increasingly recognised, this pioneering work on the changing landscape of sporting life will appeal to students of the history, sociology and management of sport.
Atlas of American Sport
- J F Rooney
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- Pillsbury
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Race and Sports: How an Historical Construct Continues to Shape Sports, Space and Society
- A Coleman
Coleman, A. 2006. Race and Sports: How an Historical Construct Continues to Shape Sports, Space and Society. In The Geography-Sports Connection: Using Sports to Teach Geography, edited by L. M. DeChano and F. M. Shelley, 89–102.
The Role Sports Can Play when Teaching Geography
- L M Dechano
- F M Shelley
DeChano, L. M., and F. M. Shelley. 2006. The Role Sports Can Play when Teaching Geography. In The Geography-Sports Connection: Using Sports to Teach Geography, edited by L. M. DeChano and F. M. Shelley, 1–4.
The Golf Construction Boom
- J F Rooney
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Rooney, J. F., Jr. 1993. The Golf Construction Boom, 1987–1993. Sport Place: An International Journal of Sports Geography 7 (1): 15–22.
The Sports-Physical Environment Relationship
- L M Dechano
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DeChano, L. M., and L. E. Hruska. 2006. The Sports-Physical Environment Relationship. In The Geography-Sports Connection: Using Sports to Teach Geography, edited by L. M. DeChano and F. M. Shelley, 5–16.
Sport and Place: A Geography of Sport in Sports Geography Landscapes of Modern Sport Sports Geography
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Bale, J. 1982. Sport and Place: A Geography of Sport in England, Scotland, and Wales. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. -. 1989. Sports Geography. New York, N.Y.: E. & F. N. Spon. -. 1996. Landscapes of Modern Sport. Leicester, U.K.: Leicester University Press. -. 2003. Sports Geography, 2nd edition. New York: Routledge.
The Geography of Sport and Leisure
- S Terrell
Terrell, S. 2004. The Geography of Sport and Leisure. London, U.K.: Hodder & Stoughton.
American Golf Courses: A Regional Analysis of Supply
- R L A Adams
- J F Rooney
Sport and Place: A Geography of Sport in England
- J Bale
- Wales Scotland
- Lincoln
Disc Golf: All You Need to Know About the Game You Want to Play
- M S Gregory