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Why was cattle-stalling introduced in prehistory? The significance of byre and stable and of outwintering
... Although it is possible to keep cattle outdoors through winters with temperatures well below freezing (Zimmermann 1999), snow and frost make winter grazing impossible in most parts of Norway. Thus, fodder needs to be collected. ...
Geoarchaeological research captures dimensions of the past at an unprecedented level of detail and multiple spatial and temporal scales. The record of the past held by soils and sediments is an archive for past environments, climate change, resource use, settlement lifeways, and societal development and resilience over time. When the McDonald Institute was established at Cambridge, geoarchaeology was one of the priority fields for a new research and teaching environment. An opportunity to develop the legacy of Charles McBurney was bestowed upon Charles French, whose ‘geoarchaeology in action’ approach has had an enormous impact in advancing knowledge, principles and practices across academic, teaching and professional sectors. Many journeys that began at Cambridge have since proliferated into dozens of inspired geoarchaeologies worldwide. This volume presents research and reflection from across the globe by colleagues in tribute to Charly, under whose leadership the Charles McBurney Laboratory became a beacon of geoarchaeology.
Full open access: https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/344516
... The reasons behind byre-houses are a debated issue in European archaeology [135]. Zimmermann [136] denies that housing animals warms up the domestic space, this practice more frequently resulting in unhealthy and humid conditions. Nisly [11] states that stalled animals prefer lower temperatures than humans, and that in winter shelter from wind and dry bedding are the only requirements. ...
High-resolution sediment analysis allowed us to identify two Middle Bronze Age (MBA 1, 1650–1550 cal a BCE) byre-houses at the waterlogged site of Oppeano “4D”, south of Verona (Veneto region, NE Italy). The site lies in a low-lying valley incised by the Adige River in its LGM alluvial fan. In this fluvio-palustrine environment burial and taphonomic conditions were such that the archaeological record was extremely well preserved. The wooden elements making up basal parts of nine ‘huts’ were in fact exposed at Oppeano, and so were their internal accretion deposits. These featured finely laminated dung units deriving from the stalling of small herbivores, possibly ovicaprids, intercalated with repeated accumulations of wood ash. This was produced in large and multi-stratified hearths that were exposed within each hut. Organic petrology provided evidence of the production of wood tar inside one of the studied structures. At Oppeano 4D it was thus demonstrated that these structures were not just byres or stables, but spaces that housed humans together with animals at least during some periods of the year, hence byre-houses. The identification of byre-houses in a Middle Bronze Age settlement is key for the reconstruction of socio-economic aspects of Bronze Age economy and production systems.
... Soil micromorphology from the fill of internal Pit 462 in Structure 1A demonstrated the presence of animal faecal matter possibly derived from animal bedding, which would support the argument for stalling animals within houses. However, Zimmerman has questioned the functional necessity of overwintering cattle within houses, pointing out that there are alternative methods (Zimmerman 1999, cited in Webley 2008. ...
The extensive remains of enclosed and unenclosed prehistoric settlements, including the remains of at least 14 circular structures, were discovered within ten areas of archaeological interest, situated on well-drained knolls in an undulating landscape north of Blackford village. The settlements have been dated principally to the Middle and Late Bronze Age, although continued habitation can be traced through to the Early Iron Age. Most of the structures were probably roundhouses, and were likely to have been the foci of domestic and economic life across generations. The remains ranged from single isolated structures to groups of closely spaced structures. Some were enclosed by palisades, possibly for defence, others were not. Diachronic changes in architecture are readily identifiable. The community made their living from a mixed farming economy, with some craft production also undertaken. Evidence for funerary rites was rare, but what little there was suggests that the dead were cremated and buried in urns.
... This rarity can be explained by cultural as well as taphonomic factors (these features are identified in Roman farms). Indeed, it has been argued that livestock (Caprinae, pigs, and a few cattle; Bayle, 2011Bayle, , 2010 were not stalled, but herded outdoors, with light shelters (Zimmermann, 1999). Penning livestock on cultivated plots during intercrop periods after daily grazing fertilises the land without having to store and transport manure. ...
The studied area on the Beauce plateau (France) was densely inhabited during the Iron Age and several archaeological excavations have enriched our knowledge of agrarian systems during this period. This study investigates fertilisation management between 400 and 80 BCE focusing on numerous crop storage remains from three neighbouring farms. We sampled 18 cereal groups with 50 grains to conduct stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses commonly used for reconstructing past agricultural practices, in particular δ¹⁵N as a proxy for manuring.
The δ¹⁵N values range between 1.3‰ and 7.6‰, with an increase over time from 3.2‰ to 5.6‰ (mean by occupation phase), reflecting a continuous use of manure, consistent with the dynamism of agricultural activities during the Second Iron Age. All three farms seem to have applied the same manuring strategies. Barley and emmer may have been manured more often than free-threshing wheats, even when free-threshing wheats are the dominant crop. This contrasts with the neighbouring Ile-de-France region and indicates diversity in agropastoral systems between regions. The analysis of several grain groups from the same silo shows diversified δ¹⁵N values between crops, reflecting various manuring rates: some fields were fertilised while others were less so. This is consistent with the description of a large-scale farming system, with a large cultivated area and a mosaic landscape.
... Pastoralism, i.e., farming systems based on free-ranging livestock in extensive, probably communal, pastures was common during the Bronze Age [53,54]. Stalling (keeping livestock indoors) occurred long before the infield systems appeared, and was probably related to factors such as preventing cattle-raiding, or increasing efficiency of milk production [55,56]. ...
Infield systems originated during the early Iron Age and existed until the 19th century, although passing many transitions and changes. The core features of infield systems were enclosed infields with hay-meadows and crop fields, and unenclosed outland mainly used for livestock grazing. We examine the transitions and changes of domesticated landscapes with infield systems using the framework of human niche construction, focusing on reciprocal causation affecting change in both culture and environment. A first major transition occurred during the early Middle Ages, as a combined effect of a growing elite society and an increased availability of iron promoted expansion of villages with partly communal infields. A second major transition occurred during the 18th and 19th centuries, due to a then recognized inefficiency of agricultural production, leading to land reforms. In outlands, there was a continuous expansion of management throughout the whole period. Even though external factors had significant impacts as well, human niche construction affected a range of cultural and environmental features regarding the management and structure of domesticated landscapes with infield systems. Thus, niche construction theory is a useful framework for understanding the historical ecology of infield systems.
... In fact, there is no clear evidence of byres or barns during the Iron Age in this region. Pits located in enclosed plots were noticed (van den Bossche et al. 2009), andZimmermann (1999) describes such structures in Western Europe as manure pits, which were used to collect animal dung and organic waste. Once a year the contents of the pit were dug out and then spread on the fields and the pits were backfilled later. ...
New plant macrofossil studies in northwestern France enable a better insight into agriculture through the Bronze and Iron Age. Most of the previous analyses, carried out in Calvados (Normandy) on Late Iron Age dwellings, suggested distinctive characteristics such as the increase of Avena (oat) and the abundance of pulses in storage pits. The collection of a new database with 25 sites was done in response to the previous lack of studies, which became an issue in Brittany, Normandy and the Loire region, which are known for their western location and trade links throughout Europe. This paper deals with farming practices and their changes during the Bronze and Iron Ages. The aim was to gather new evidence related to sowing times, tilling of fields and fertility management of soils in order to discuss extensive or intensive cultivation in northwestern France. The crop cultivation techniques were investigated by studying the weed flora composition according to the FIBS approach (Functional interpretation of botanical survey). The results reveal combinations of evidence and a pattern of intra-regional diversity.
Geoarchaeological research captures dimensions of the past at an unprecedented level of detail and multiple spatial and temporal scales. The record of the past held by soils and sediments is an archive for past environments, climate change, resource use, settlement lifeways, and societal development and resilience over time. When the McDonald Institute was established at Cambridge, geoarchaeology was one of the priority fields for a new research and teaching environment. An opportunity to develop the legacy of Charles McBurney was bestowed upon Charles French, whose ‘geoarchaeology in action’ approach has had an enormous impact in advancing knowledge, principles and practices across academic, teaching and professional sectors. Many journeys that began at Cambridge have since proliferated into dozens of inspired geoarchaeologies worldwide. This volume presents research and reflection from across the globe by colleagues in tribute to Charly, under whose leadership the Charles McBurney Laboratory became a beacon of geoarchaeology.
The toft is the Cinderella of early medieval farmhouses. Most maintenance and social reproduction activities occurred in this space: harvest processing and storage, animal husbandry, daily chores, manure collection, tool, fodder, and fuel storage, etc. Archaeological characterization of this space was overlooked in convergent conceptual and methodological circumstances and has deprived deprived these dwellings of their context. This paper reviews the informative potential of domestic enclosures by analysing several case studies from inner Iberia, all of which were scrutinized under homogeneous criteria. After addressing the main problems arising from archaeological recognition and analysis of these enclosures, we discuss the research challenges that lie ahead in using these data to generate critical knowledge of early medieval rural society.
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