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Efficiency in Learning: Evidence-Based Guidelines to Manage Cognitive Load
... Cognitive loads are intrinsic, germane, and extraneous based on the amount of mental effort. Intrinsic load is "the mental work imposed by the complexity of the content in the lessons and is primarily determined by your instructional goals" (Clark et al., 2005). Germane load is "mental work imposed by instructional activities that benefit the instructional goal" (Clark et al., 2005). ...
... Intrinsic load is "the mental work imposed by the complexity of the content in the lessons and is primarily determined by your instructional goals" (Clark et al., 2005). Germane load is "mental work imposed by instructional activities that benefit the instructional goal" (Clark et al., 2005). Extraneous load refers to "the mental work that is irrelevant to the learning goal and consequently wastes limited mental resources" (Clark et al, 2005). ...
... Germane load is "mental work imposed by instructional activities that benefit the instructional goal" (Clark et al., 2005). Extraneous load refers to "the mental work that is irrelevant to the learning goal and consequently wastes limited mental resources" (Clark et al, 2005). Together these form the construct of "cognitive load." ...
... Cette navigation est le résultat du croisement d'une série de décisions basées sur l'analyse des informations repérées en ligne, et du besoin d'information identifié par le·a lecteur·rice internaute (Rouet et Britt, 2011). Lors du développement de son expertise, ce·tte dernier·ère élabore une représentation de différents parcours en ligne; une représentation mobilisée lors de navigations futures (Clark et al., 2006). Au primaire, ce parcours peut s'amorcer par la consultation du moteur de recherche Google (Cordier, 2017). ...
... Elle met en évidence la sémiotisation de l'information par la convocation et l'élaboration de représentations mentales (Kintsch, 1998), tout en soulignant l'importance de l'agentivité du·de la lecteur·rice internaute face à ses apprentissages (Demers et al., 2016). L'intégration réfère à la direction et au maintien de l'attention du·de la lecteur·rice internaute envers le traitement des informations consultées (Wylie et al., 2018), ce qui interpelle le concept de charge cognitive (Clark et al., 2006). Définir l'intégration, c'est considérer le rôle essentiel des connaissances antérieures dans la compréhension des informations consultées en ligne (Amadieu et Tricot, 2006;Amadieu et al., 2011;Coiro et Dobler, 2007;Mayer, 2017;Rouet et Britt, 2011) et dans la construction de nouveaux savoirs, que ces derniers soient développés à l'école ou hors de celle-ci. ...
... Faire l'étude de la compréhension d'informations consultées en ligne par des lecteur·rices internautes du primaire nous amène à nous pencher sur la théorie de la charge cognitive (Clark et al., 2006;Debue et van Leemput, 2014;Puma, 2016). Nous comprenons qu'une interaction entre la mémoire à long terme et la mémoire de travail est essentielle pour intégrer des informations consultées en ligne et qu'une maitrise non automatisée de processus comme la saisie au clavier pourrait occasionner une surcharge cognitive qui limiterait la compréhension (Clark et al., 2006;Pleau et Lavoie, 2016); ce qui fut observé par l'analyse des données du cas de Thomas. ...
Résumé
Le présent article décrit une étude de cas multiples qui s'est penchée sur l'interaction des compé-tences de navigation, d'évaluation et d'intégration au sein d'un processus menant à la compréhension d'informations consultées en ligne, et ce, lors de la réalisation d'une tâche de littératie informationnelle par des lecteur·rices internautes de 6 e année. L'étude combine l'entretien direct, la verbalisation de la pensée, l'entretien libre de verbalisation de la compréhension et l'entretien rétrospectif semi-dirigé. Elle permet l'induction d'une mobilisation autorégulée des compétences, en plus de permettre, au départ des convergences et des divergences observées entre les cas, la formulation d'une hypothèse de profils de lecteur·rices internautes.
Abstract
This article describes a multiple case study that investigated the interaction of navigation, evaluation and integration competencies within a process leading to the comprehension of online informations during the realization of an information literacy task by 6 th grade readers. In combining direct interviews, think-aloud protocol, free interviews of comprehension verbalization and semi-directed retrospective interviews, this study allows the induction of an autoregulated mobilization of the competencies while learning from multimodal and non-linear informations consulted online. It also leads to the hypothesis of five online reader's profiles.
Mots-clés : littératie informationnelle en ligne, multimodalité, compréhension, étude de cas multiples, lecteur·rices internautes de 6 e année.
Keywords : online information literacy, multimodality, comprehension, multiple case study, 6th grade online readers
... Certain principles can help design those elements in harmony, as suggested by Mayer (2009). Based on the multimedia learning theory, Clark et al. (2006) listed a group of guidelines for instructional designers to diminish the cognitive load that can occur as learners engage in multimedia content. ...
... As an evolving instructional design theory, cognitive load theory (CLT) assumptions have been strengthened with the recent developments in evolutionary psychology, instructional design, cognitive load measurement techniques, and the discovery of new cognitive load effects (Sweller et al., 2019). In its earlier forms, intrinsic, extraneous, and germane loads were the main categories of cognitive load (Clark et al., 2006). Intrinsic load is related to the content and the previous knowledge of the learners, i.e., the level of expertise is closely related to this type of cognitive load. ...
... In this way, the novice learner can focus on relevant information by eliminating irrelevant ones (Darici et al., 2023). However, there is still a risk because as knowledge and skills develop, certain elements might become redundant for learners (Clark et al., 2006). To prevent this expertise reversal effect, this study recruited the backward fading approach of CLT; thus, the signaling elements were reduced gradually. ...
Based on the assumptions of cognitive load theory, this study aims to utilize the eye movement data collected from multiple experts to scaffold novice graphic designers. The study has two main stages. In the first stage, eye tracking was used to record the eye movements of 7 experts, who covered eight topics explaining how to use Photoshop. The areas of interest and fixation durations were analyzed for each topic to extract the common patterns. Instructional videos were produced with the guidance of both eye movement patterns and multimedia design principles. In the second stage of this study, those videos were delivered to 30 university students. The experiment group watched the guided videos, whereas the control group watched straight videos, i.e., content without guidance. The guidance elements were reduced (faded) as students got familiar with the interface. All participants were assigned to perform tasks as soon as they completed the videos. The findings showed that the knowledge scores did not significantly differ between groups. Still, the average performance scores of the experiment group were considerably higher than that of the control group. Considering the transition process, the experiment group outperformed the others. The topics in which experts’ eye movements highly matched each other resulted in high-performance gaps among groups.
... Worked-out examples is a method that shows the learner step by step the steps by which the application is carried out and how the solution is reached (Clark et al., 2005). This method is an effective and permanent method in terms of gaining experience in individuals who have not fully developed the skills for application processes about the subject to be taught and whose relational schemas are not fully established. ...
... This method is an effective and permanent method in terms of gaining experience in individuals who have not fully developed the skills for application processes about the subject to be taught and whose relational schemas are not fully established. Thanks to this method, a series of solutions to the problem are presented just before problem solving and the principles to be followed in problem solving and their use are focused on (Clark et al., 2005). By fading the solutions, it is ensured that the student understands the problem structurally. ...
This research aims to examine the effects of worked-out examples, grounded in Cognitive Load Theory, involving different solution methods through the Nearpod application, a Web 2.0 tool, on fifth-grade students' achievement in fractions, attitudes, and motivation towards mathematics. The study group consists of seventy-seven fifth-grade students studying in two separate classes at a public secondary school in Istanbul during the 2021–2022 academic year. These two classes were randomly assigned, with one forming the control group and the other the experimental group. The intervention lasted for six weeks. The research was conducted using an explanatory sequential mixed design, which includes both qualitative and quantitative research. During the data collection phase, quantitative data were collected using fraction achievement tests, mathematics motivation scale, and mathematics attitude scale. Qualitative data were collected from students' responses to interview questions to determine the effectiveness of the intervention. The findings revealed a statistically significant improvement in the post-test scores for fractions achievement, mathematics motivation, and attitudes towards mathematics in favor of the experimental group, even after controlling for pre-test scores. The results of the interviews also support these findings, with all interviewed students stating that they found the intervention useful and entertaining. This study contributes to the growing body of literature on the integration of technology in mathematics education and underscores the need for further research on the application of different solution strategies in digital learning environments.
... All nine steps of the InSpiRe protocol were explained as running text in the module (see Table 1). As four of the steps are to be performed during actual encounters, they were additionally exemplified with audio-video demonstrations, built as worked examples following Clark, Nguyen, and Sweller [28] 3 . According to Lorch [29], the examples were accompanied by text hints that denoted critical actions related to the steps of the InSpire protocol (see Fig. 3). ...
... This approach reduces cognitive load and promotes the acquisition of cognitive schemas, enabling providers to readily act upon the requested communication principles (cf. [28]). ...
Background
Integrating spiritual aspects into treatment plans can release essential resources for coping with chronic pain. However, some spiritual aspects may also induce distress and hinder the coping process. There is a lack of evidence regarding how to perform the clinical tasks of exploring spiritual aspects and of instruments assessing related competencies. Therefore, we developed a web-based learning module to provide education on the subject alongside corresponding assessment instruments. The module presents the InSpiRe (Integration of Spirituality and/or Religion in patient encounters) protocol. The instruments encompass cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions.
Methods
This paper aims to determine (i) the learning effects associated with completing the web-based spiritual-care learning module and (ii) the reliability and validity of the instruments employed. To address these aims, we conducted a pre-test/post-test trial with N = 32 randomly selected fourth-year medical students. During the pre-test, we assessed the students’ knowledge, attitudes, and self-efficacy regarding exploring spiritual aspects. For this purpose, we developed a short-answer knowledge test, an attitude questionnaire, and a self-efficacy scale. Additionally, the students explored spiritual aspects with a simulated patient portraying a person with chronic pain. Three trained raters evaluated the students’ performances using a self-developed scale. In the intervention phase, the students completed the 45-minute learning module on a personal computer. The module presented InSpiRe-related content as text and step-by-step video demonstrations, including hints that denote critical actions. The subsequent post-test was identical to the pre-test.
Results
The internal consistency was suitable for all respective instruments, and there was an indication of solid validity of the performance test. After completing the spiritual care learning module, the students showed statistically significant increases in knowledge scores and significant positive shifts in their attitudes and levels of self-efficacy regarding exploring spiritual aspects. They also attained significantly higher performance scores in the same regard.
Conclusions
Completing the spiritual-care module is associated with meaningful learning effects on cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions related to exploring spiritual aspects, as demonstrated in the post-test conducted shortly after the intervention. Due to good reliability and validity scores, the self-developed instruments can be applied appropriately.
... Since the total mental capacity is limited, learners need to balance the three forms of cognitive load to maximize learning efficiency. In particular, an effective instruction should consider minimizing the unproductive intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load while stimulating the desirable germane cognitive load (Clark et al, 2005). ...
... According to Clark et al. (2005), germane cognitive load (GCL) is work imposed on working memory that uses mental capacity in ways that contribute to learning. Germane cognitive load GCL is load that directly contributes to learning, that is, to the learner's construction of cognitive structures and processes that improve the performance. ...
Cognitive load refers to the volume of cognitive resources, including perception, attention and memory, necessary to perform a task. These resources must be devoted not only to organizing and understanding the task, but also to analyzing the solution and ignoring irrelevant stimuli. If cognitive load is high, it can decrease or even inhibit one's ability to perform a task. Therefore, it leads to a stressful situation in which emotional coping may be of crucial importance The extent of cognitive load in a given situation depends on many things, including what the person already knows about the task and what supports are available Learning of speaking and writing enjoys a paramount status in any language education classroom. So long as communication in a foreign language is the ultimate goal for learning, the productive skills will continue to be an important component of syllabus content and learning outcomes. The study aims at finding out at: firstly, Iraqi EFL university students' level of cognitive load and performance in productive skills. Secondly: The correlation between cognitive loads with performance in productive skills The current study is a descriptive correlational one. For the academic year 2021-2022, a sample consists 360 third-year college students who are selected randomly from the colleges of education in three universities (Tikrit University, Baghdad University, Wasit University). Two instruments are used to achieve the aims of this study: the cognitive load scale and productive skills test. The findings reveal that Iraqi EFL college students experience an average level of intrinsic cognitive load, a medium level of extraneous cognitive load and have a good level of germane cognitive load. Furthermore, the findings also reveal that Iraqi EFL university students have an average level of productive skills performance.
... Schemas are structures that organize information and represent the concepts and procedures used in cognition (Kalyuga, 2015). Knowledge in long-term memory is organized in the form of countless schemas; learning requires a large number of these, which are the result of the interaction of knowledge stored in long-term memory in the form of schemas and when required, are transferred to working memory (Colvin et al., 2006). ...
... Another important approach considered in Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) is the cognitive load imposed on an individual in working memory by information, which is categorized into three types (Alves et al., 2017;Colvin et al., 2006;Sweller, , 2022: ...
Introduction: Information overload (IO) has become a prominent phenomenon in the digital age, when an excess of information leads to cognitive overload. Objective: This study aimed to examine how Information Science research addresses IO in relation to Cognitive Load Theory (CLT). Methodology: A survey of scientific articles and conference papers was conducted using the Web of Science and Scopus databases. Twenty-six papers were selected. Using thematic analysis, three thematic categories were identified in the analyzed corpus: Effects of digital information and communication technologies; Impact on learning; and Misinformation and sharing during the COVID-19 period. Results: CLT has been used as a theoretical foundation for the development of conceptual models and hypothesis testing to explain how information systems, through their designs and search options, can induce IO. It was also employed in the design of learning resources to improve knowledge acquisition, and in understanding the misinformation caused by information excess during the COVID-19 pandemic. Conclusion: The study concluded that integrating CLT and IO provides a deeper understanding of the challenges faced by human cognitive capacity by identifying factors contributing to IO and implementing CLT-based strategies.
KEYWORD Information overload. Cognitive Load Theory. Cognitive loads. Cognitive overload. Literature review.
... Os esquemas são estruturas que organizam as informações e representam os conceitos e procedimentos usados na cognição (Kalyuga, 2015). O conhecimento na memória de longo prazo é organizado na forma de incontáveis esquemas, o aprendizado exige um grande número deles que são frutos da interação de conhecimentos armazenados na memória de longo prazo em forma de esquemas e quando exigidos são transferidos para a memória de trabalho (Colvin et al., 2006). Já a memória de curto prazo é limitada para informações novas, tanto em capacidade, quanto em duração (Miller, 1956). ...
... Outra importante abordagem considerada na TCC é a carga cognitiva imposta ao indivíduo na memória de trabalho pela informação, a qual é categorizada em três tipos (Alves et al., 2017;Colvin et al., 2006;Sweller, , 2022: ...
RESUMO Introdução: A sobrecarga informacional (SI) tem se tornado um fenômeno destacado na era digital, onde o excesso de informações provoca sobrecarga cognitiva. Objetivo: Este estudo objetivou verificar como os estudos da Ciência da Informação abordam a SI relacionada à Teoria da carga cognitiva (TCC). Metodologia: Para coleta de dados, foi realizado um levantamento de artigos científicos e trabalhos apresentados em eventos nas bases de dados Web of Science e Scopus. Vinte e seis trabalhos foram selecionados. Utilizando-se a análise temática, foram identificadas três categorias temáticas no conjunto de trabalhos analisados: Efeitos das tecnologias digitais de informação e comunicação; Impacto no aprendizado; e Desinformação e compartilhamento durante o período de covid-19. Resultados: Verificou-se que a TCC foi empregada como fundamentação teórica para o desenvolvimento de modelos conceituais e testes de hipóteses para explicar como sistemas de informação, por meio de seus designs e opções de busca, podem provocar a SI. Também foi utilizada no design dos recursos de aprendizagem visando melhorar a aquisição do conhecimento, e ainda na compreensão da desinformação causada pelo excesso de informações durante a pandemia de covid-19. Conclusão: Concluiu-se que a integração entre TCC e SI proporciona uma compreensão mais profunda dos desafios enfrentados pela capacidade cognitiva humana, ao identificar os fatores que contribuem para a SI e a implementação de estratégias baseadas na TCC. PALAVRAS-CHAVE Sobrecarga informacional. Teoria da carga cognitiva. Cargas cognitivas. Sobrecarga cognitiva. Revisão de literatura. Contributions of cognitive load theory to understanding information overload: a literature review ABSTRACT Introduction: Information overload (IS) has become a prominent phenomenon in the digital age, where excess information causes cognitive overload. Objective: This study aimed to verify how
... elajaran akan terjadi jika beban kognitif yang di working memory lebih besar dari kapasitasnya dan pengetahuan tidak berkembang jika tidak memadainya pengetahuan awal di long term memory. Berdasarkan Cognitive Load Theory terdapat dua jenis beban kognitif yang mempengaruhi working memory yaitu intrinsic cognitive load dan extraneous cognitive load (Sweller, et. al, 2011). Intrinsic cognitive load dalam pembelajaran merupakan beban pikiran yang muncul karena tingkat kempleksitas materi pada bahan ajar, sedangkan extraneous cognitive load adalah beban pikiran yang muncul dalam akibat teknik penyajian dari bahan ajar (Blegur, et. al., 2017). Tingkat kompleksitas materi pada intrinsic cognitive load bergant ...
... Strategi faded example akan memfasilitasi siswa dengan latihan dimana sebagian cara menyelesaikan soal diberikan dan sebagian lagi siswa yang melengkapi secara bertahap. Melalui Strategi ini, Clark, Nguyen, & Sweller (2011) menyatakan siswa akan diberikan latihan yang sebagian besar penyelesaiannya sudah ada. Seteleah itu dilanjutkan dengan mengisi langkah penyelesaian pada latihan yang belum terjawab sepenuhnya secara bertahap sampai siswa paham dan lancer. ...
Pembelajaran harus dirancang dengan siswa sebagai pusatnya, yaitu siswalah yang secara aktif membangun pengetahuan. Sedangkan peran guru sebagai fasilitator yaitu seseorang yang memfasilitasi siswa untuk membangun pengetahuan secara efektif dan efisien. Salah satu tindakan yang dapat mewujudkan peran guru ini adalah melalui pemilihan strategi pembelajaran yang tepat. Menurut Cognitive Load Theory, pemilihan strategi pembelajaran sebaiknya mempertimbangkan pengetahuan awal siswa. Siswa dengan pengetahuan awal rendah memerlukan tuntunan secara eksplisit (explicitly guided instruction), sebaliknya siswa dengan pengetahuan awal yang tinggi dapat belajar dengan tuntunan yang implisit (implicitly guided instruction). Karena itu pemilihan strategi yang mengkombinasikan kedua prinsip ini pada pembelajaran matematika di kelas dengan pengetahuan awal siswa yang beragam nampaknya tepat untuk diterapkan. Salah satu strategi yang dimaksud adalah faded example. Strategi ini merupakan transisi dari belajar secara explicit guidance ke implicit guidance secara bertahap. Karena itu strategi ini tetap memfasilitiasi siswa baik yang berpengetahuan awal rendah maupun tinggi untuk membangun pengetahuan secara mandiri. Artikel ini merupakan study literature yang bertujuan untuk membahas tentang strategi faded example. Lebih lanjut contoh desain pembelajaran pada materi trigonometri dan bagaimana strategi ini memfasilitasi pembelajaran matematika siswa juga dibahas dalam artikel ini.
... A majority of students indicated that technology made reading tasks more enjoyable and facilitated their understanding of reading materials. This reinforces the findings of Clark et al. (2016), who highlighted that digital tools could enhance learning experiences by providing interactive, engaging, and personalized content. The use of technological tools such as Quizlet, Padlet, and Wordwall, as noted in the in-class activities, allowed for more dynamic and engaging learning experiences, which simplify the process for students to grasp complex reading materials and vocabulary. ...
This study investigates the impact of the flipped learning model on 8th-grade students' reading comprehension and independent learning abilities. The research employed a quasi-experimental design with a mixed-methods approach, involving 20 students from a state middle school in Türkiye. The intervention spanned two weeks, integrating home learning with technology-supported pre-class materials and classroom application. The study utilized various digital tools such as Google Docs, Padlet, Quizlet, and Wordwall to support the flipped learning process. Data were collected through a structured survey and classroom observations. The analysis revealed that students experienced significant improvements in reading skills, enjoyed the learning process more, and developed a greater sense of autonomy. Quantitative data were analyzed using Jamovi, with reliability and validity measures conducted through McDonald's Omega and KMO tests. The findings suggest that the flipped learning approach enhances students' engagement and reading comprehension, particularly when integrated with technological tools. The study highlights the importance of learner autonomy and self-regulation in improving academic outcomes. Implications for educators include the potential of blended learning methods to foster independent learning and the use of technology to increase engagement. Further research is needed to examine the long-term effects and applicability of this approach across different subjects and educational contexts.
... Arizona State University (ASU) has implemented AI-driven adaptive learning through the platform ALEKS (Assessment and Learning in Knowledge Spaces). A study analyzed the performance of 5,357 students in introductory mathematics courses over three academic years [7]. ...
This paper explores the psychological implications and educational outcomes of artificial intelligence (AI)-driven personalized learning systems. The study delves into how AI facilitates customized learning experiences, adapting to individual student needs and learning styles. The research highlights the impact of AI on student motivation, cognitive load, and academic performance, as well as potential ethical concerns such as data privacy and algorithmic bias. Empirical findings from various case studies demonstrate how AI-driven platforms enhance engagement and retention rates. The study concludes with recommendations for optimizing AI use in education while addressing associated challenges.
... In contrast to the extraneous load, germane load is caused by information which is related to learning materials. Clark et al. (2006) outline different strategies and instructions to reduce extraneous load, and increase the germane load. Examples reduce the cognitive load on the working memory; thereby, learners acquire more knowledge from examples than unsupported problem solving. ...
Prior research shows that novices learn more from examples than unsupported problem solving. Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS) support problem solving in many ways, adaptive feedback being one of them. However, when students repeatedly request hints from ITSs, problem solving is eventually replaced with worked examples when students request solutions to the current step or the whole problem. We conducted a study to observe the difference in learning outcomes when novices and advanced students learn from examples or with an ITS. The study had three conditions: Examples Only (EO), Problems Only (PO) and Alternating Examples and Problems (AEP). After each example/problem, students received Self-Explanation (SE) prompts. The result shows that no vices learnt significantly more conceptual knowledge in the AEP compared to the PO condition. Moreover, novices in the AEP and PO conditions performed significantly better on SE prompts than students in the EO condition. Advanced students who learnt from examples only did not significantly improve in the study. Overall, the study suggests using AEP for novices and either AEP or PO for advanced students. The results clearly reveal that using examples alone is not an effective approach for novices and advanced students in comparison with ITSs.
... The term, worked example, demonstrates a step-by-step instruction of how to perform a task or solve a problem (Clark, Nguyen, & Sweller, 2011). Learning from worked examples was found to be an effective instructional strategy in such fields as mathematics, physics, and computer programming (Atkinson, et al., 2000). ...
In this paper, we propose a programming learning system which incorporates a concept of small steps to nurture the computational thinking. While the project-based programming environment allows children to reach an unlimited goal of their achievements, most of learners often suffer from finding a meaningful project to work and coming up with a way of building programs for their project. In order to scaffold their programming experience, our system gives a step-by-step procedure to build a complete meaningful project, where the entire project is decomposed into small steps in advance. In addition, the system requires learners to ask their peer to check if an ongoing step is correctly completed before proceeding to the next step. In this way, our system allows them to experience the repeated cycle of the computational thinking process while encouraging them to interact each other. We also show our empirical findings obtained by applying this system to a programming workshop. In this workshop, 11 small steps to build a game project were provided to participants with our iPad application. As a result, we observed that they could complete the given project regardless of their programming experience and the system gave them an opportunity to interact with others while they were doing programming.
... It has been designed to not only provide solutions to basic functions required for the statistics subject, but also serve as a tool for teaching and learning the theoretical basis of these functions and how they operate. Consequently, the functions are implemented in a theoretical, step-by-step manner, as recommended by [18]. ...
This paper describes and evaluates the educational interest of LearningRlab, an educational R package developed for teaching statistics in computer science engineering. The package was developed by final degree project students to be used as an educational environment for statistics students who evaluated the package and provided feedback for future versions. Such a process increases the motivation of both groups of students. This paper presents how the use of the R packages conceived and developed for engineering education can improve the learning process in the computer science engineering bachelor’s degree. Two different evaluations, one performed by a group of statistics students, and the other performed by final degree project students, were used to evaluate the impact on the learning process of the first version of the package to develop the second version of the package, which corrects and enhances the first version. The evaluation results show a positive effect on the learning process in both subjects. The analysis of the learning outcomes reflected in the grades of the experimental and control groups demonstrates that LearningRlab can be used as a teaching aid for statistics and final degree project subjects of the computer science engineering degree. The average laboratory grade of the students who used the package (5.76) was noticeably higher than the average laboratory grade of students who did not use it (1.84).
... Setiap siswa memiliki sumber daya kognitif yang berbeda, namun perbedaan tersebut lebih disebabkan oleh seberapa efisien sumber daya digunakan daripada oleh jumlah sumber daya yang dimiliki. Penggunaan memori kerja secara efisien dapat meningkatkan efisiensi sumber daya kognitif (Clark, Nguyen, & Sweller, 2006). Oleh karena itu guru perlu mendesain pembelajaran dengan mengoptimalisasikan penggunaan kapasitas memori kerja. ...
Penting untuk memfasilitasi belajar matematika siswa agar mereka dapat mengkonstruk pengetahuan matematika yang bermakna. Tanpa pemahaman yang bermakna, siswa akan mudah melupakan materi matematika. Padahal hampir setiap konsep matematika berkaitan dengan konsep-konsep matematika yang lain. Apabila siswa tidak mampu memahami setiap konsep matematika dengan baik, tentu hal tersebut akan menghambat kesuksesan belajar matematikanya. Sebaliknya, dengan pengetahuan yang bermakna siswa tidak hanya mampu menguasai materi matematika, tetapi dapat mentransfer pengetahuannya ke dalam materi baru atau situasi lain yang lebih kompleks. Pada akhirnya, melalui pembelajaran yang bermakna siswa dapat menggunakan pola pikir matematika untuk menyelesaikan
masalah di dalam kehidupannya. Berdasarkan sudut pandang kognitif, pembelajaran bermakna akan tercipta apabila pembelajaran didesain dengan memperhatikan proses kognitif yang terjadi di dalam diri siswa ketika belajar. Proses kognitif merupakan proses pemerolehan pengetahuan melalui serangkaian sistem memori. Terdapat beberapa faktor yang mempengaruhi kerja sistem tersebut sehingga akan
memberikan dampak pula pada hasil belajar siswa. Kinerja sistem memori dan faktor-faktor tersebut memberikan implikasi dalam menciptakan pembelajaran matematika yang bermakna. Oleh karena itu, artikel ini akan menguraikan tentang proses kognitif yang terjadi selama belajar, faktor yang mempengaruhi dan implikasinya dalam pembelajaran matematika sehingga dapat memberikan kontribusi
dalam mengkonstruk pengetahuan matematika bermakna.
... However, these systems may contribute to cognitive offloading, where students rely on the system to guide their learning rather than engaging actively with the material. While ITSs can provide immediate feedback and support, they may also reduce opportunities for students to engage in self-regulated learning and critical thinking [27]. AI tools are also used for automated grading and assessment, providing quick and consistent feedback to students. ...
The proliferation of artificial intelligence (AI) tools has transformed numerous aspects of daily life, yet its impact on critical thinking remains underexplored. This study investigates the relationship between AI tool usage and critical thinking skills, focusing on cognitive offloading as a mediating factor. Utilising a mixed-method approach, we conducted surveys and in-depth interviews with 666 participants across diverse age groups and educational backgrounds. Quantitative data were analysed using ANOVA and correlation analysis, while qualitative insights were obtained through thematic analysis of interview transcripts. The findings revealed a significant negative correlation between frequent AI tool usage and critical thinking abilities, mediated by increased cognitive offloading. Younger participants exhibited higher dependence on AI tools and lower critical thinking scores compared to older participants. Furthermore, higher educational attainment was associated with better critical thinking skills, regardless of AI usage. These results highlight the potential cognitive costs of AI tool reliance, emphasising the need for educational strategies that promote critical engagement with AI technologies. This study contributes to the growing discourse on AI’s cognitive implications, offering practical recommendations for mitigating its adverse effects on critical thinking. The findings underscore the importance of fostering critical thinking in an AI-driven world, making this research essential reading for educators, policymakers, and technologists.
... Second, to enhance information synthesis, more advanced presentation formats, such as visual aids, plots, and textual descriptions, can be utilized. From a theoretical perspective, presenting classroom assessment information in textual format has been shown to reduce cognitive load, particularly when the information is dense and interrelated (Clark et al., 2011;DeStefano and LeFevre, 2007). Despite these advantages, few AutoRs currently adopt text-based formats. ...
This paper provides a comprehensive review of the design and implementation of automatically generated assessment reports (AutoRs) for formative use in K-12 Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) classrooms. With the increasing adoption of technology-enhanced assessments, there is a critical need for human-computer interactive tools that efficiently support the interpretation and application of assessment data by teachers. AutoRs are designed to provide synthesized, interpretable, and actionable insights into students' performance, learning progress, and areas for improvement. Guided by cognitive load theory, this study emphasizes the importance of reducing teachers' cognitive demands through user-centered and intuitive designs. It highlights the potential of diverse information presentation formats such as text, visual aids, and plots and advanced functionalities such as live and interactive features to enhance usability. However, the findings also reveal that many existing AutoRs fail to fully utilize these approaches, leading to high initial cognitive demands and limited engagement. This paper proposes a conceptual framework to inform the design, implementation, and evaluation of AutoRs, balancing the trade-offs between usability and functionality. The framework aims to address challenges in engaging teachers with technology-enhanced assessment results, facilitating data-driven decision-making, and providing personalized feedback to improve the teaching and learning process.
... Cognitive Load Theory posits that working memory has limited capacity, meaning excessive information can hinder effective learning (Clark et al., 2005). Balancing cognitive loads is essential for optimal outcomes. ...
This study aims to assess the effectiveness of electronic learning (e-learning) as perceived by Elementary Teachers in Tubod, Lanao Del Norte. The research addresses the growing role of e-learning in education and its impact on teaching practices and student outcomes. A descriptive research design was utilized, with data collected through surveys administered to a sample of Elementary Teachers. The analysis focused on the teachers' perceptions of how e-learning influenced their teaching methods, classroom engagement, and resource access. The results indicate that e-learning significantly enhances instructional quality, allowing for greater flexibility in lesson delivery and fostering improved engagement with students/pupils. Teachers also reported that e-learning promotes a more personalized learning experience, adapting to various student needs and learning styles. Additionally, the study found e-learning to be cost-effective, reducing reliance on physical resources and travel. These findings suggest that e-learning is a valuable tool in modern education, contributing to more innovative and efficient teaching practices. The implications of this study highlight the importance of continued investment in e-learning technologies to support educators in adapting to evolving educational demands. The study underscores the growing need for technology integration in education to optimize teaching effectiveness and improve learning outcomes.
... De acuerdo con esta teoría, un buen diseño instruccional debe dosificar, secuenciar y modularizar la carga intrínseca de una actividad de aprendizaje, buscando reducir los elementos distractores y las cargas cognitivas irrelevantes, liberando así más memoria de trabajo para proporcionar elementos que promuevan el desarrollo de nuevas habilidades y esquemas mentales (carga relevante). Además, (Clark, Nguyen & Sweller, 2006) sugieren un diseño de actividades dinámicas, flexibles, fluidas, autoreguladas, retadoras y motivadoras acordes al expertise del aprendiz. ...
A didactic proposal based on the integration of active learning strategies, inductive learning, supervised learning, and faded worked challenges is reported to assist in the development of problem-solving computational thinking skills. This methodological integration, called the "surgeon method," is organized in stages of increasing difficulty climbing Bloom's taxonomy levels. The application of this method to develop a serious game for modeling physical phenomena is also reported, establishing a sequence of faded worked challenges solved autonomously by learners through live programming under the supervision of a mentor. The proposal was implemented in a Physics course with first-semester industrial engineering students and advanced computer systems students, who developed a serious game to apply kinematics concepts. When evaluating the projects, comparable performance was found between both groups, and the qualitative results obtained via surveys indicated a high degree of acceptance of the method, favorable attitude changes towards Physics, thus partially proving the effectiveness of the surgeon method focused on supervised problem-solving by applying computational thinking skills through live programming with faded worded examples.
... Studies have confirmed the effectiveness of supportive information, such as captions and subtitles, provided through educational tools in reducing cognitive load during CALL learning (Hwang et al., 2019;Mayer & Johnson, 2008;Mayer & Moreno, 2003). Tailoring instructional design for students with different levels of learning capacity can facilitate their cognitive load management (Clark et al., 2011). Encouraging self-regulated learning among learners can significantly reduce cognitive load during CALL (Kostons et al., 2012). ...
The emergence of digital game types has opened up significant opportunities to facilitate language acquisition through feedback provision, attracting diverse research strands to explore their potential as arenas for technology-assisted language learning. This study investigates the effects of learner-, peer-, and collaborative-regulated feedback on writing task completion and cognitive load management among Chinese EFL learners. The sample consisted of 44 female and 38 male students, aged 21 to 36 years (mean age = 24.28 ± 3.8 years). A mixed methods research design was employed to concurrently triangulate different strands of data on the effects of feedback regulation types on EFL learners. Methodological triangulation of quantitative and qualitative data was utilized to interpret the intervention results. Quantitative results indicate that learners who rely on collaborative-regulated feedback, combining both learner- and peer-regulated feedback, outperform those using a single feedback type in isolation. This is evidenced by a 15% improvement in writing performance, illustrating a direct correlation with a 20% reduction in cognitive load, thereby suggesting practical strategies for educators in digital learning environments. Qualitative data further support these findings, highlighting the benefits of combining feedback types to enhance self- and peer-regulated learning. The findings endorse the interchangeable use of learner- and peer-regulated feedback to consolidate the coordination between self-regulated and other-regulated feedback exchanges, thereby enhancing writing performance and lowering extraneous cognitive load during CALL courses.
... CBI focusses on teaching authen c subject content (Brown, 2007;Spada & Lightbown, 2008) while simultaneously promo ng language acquisi on (Richards & Rogers, 2001). However, students and faculty o en report concerns about su cient me being dedicated to both elements (Pavanelli, 2018), instructors observe student disengagement due to teacher-centred classes (Walsh, 2002), me for student-centred ac vi es and language instruc on is limited (Pessoa et al., 2007), and mixed-ability language students feel overwhelmed with the content, experiencing cogni ve overload and reduced engagement with materials (Clark et al., 2005). ...
This study investigates the use of H5P interactive digital materials for flipped learning, measuring student engagement and effectiveness. Language learners on an intercultural communication course at a Chinese university were provided with flipped H5P materials in the form of an interactive workbook and video. Quantitative data from the virtual learning environment was then analysed alongside both quantitative and qualitative data from an anonymous survey. The objective was to measure student engagement through behavioural and emotional dimensions, and explore the instructional effectiveness of the materials. Findings reveal high levels of student engagement, the majority finding H5P materials more engaging than traditional pre-class assignments. The study also highlights the effectiveness of these materials in enhancing students' comprehension of concepts, as evidenced by positive survey responses and high scores on activities. Challenges identified length of reading texts and issues of usability, with students suggesting increased gamification and multimedia elements to further improve design and engagement. This research contributes to the understanding of flipped learning's potential in ELT, offering insights for optimising H5P material design and implementation.
... Sixth, according to CBT, a teacher's effectiveness in teaching is inseparable from their expertise in the area of knowledge, because it allows them to clearly organize and explain the contents of the discipline (Moradiellos, 2003;Rosenshine, 2012;Strelan et al., 2020;Sweller, 2021;Sweller et al., 1990). Precisely, the problems of transferring learning to other contexts require the teacher to augment or make explicit, through direct instruction, the useful information needed to recognize previously learned content in a new situation (Boshuizen et al., 2020;Clark et al., 2006). However, PBL underestimates the problem of knowledge transfer (Aksayli et al., 2019;Boshuizen et al., 2020;Garnett, 2020). ...
This study examines the teaching innovations resulting from the Bologna Process, focusing on problem-based learning and gamification, both of which emphasize the importance of autonomous learning. It reviews meta-analyses and prominent articles in the field of educational research from the last 5 years. Using a biomedical analogy, it identifies the active principles of discovery-based learning innovations, highlighting the subordination of theoretical content to practical skills and the disruption of the teacher-student dichotomy. Adverse effects are noted, such as the devaluation of lectures, the discrediting of teacher authority, and the infantilization of students. The effectiveness of discovery-based learning in higher education is considered weak and inconsistent, and caution is advised in its implementation, together with the preservation of the university's social function of transmitting knowledge at advanced levels.
... Complementing this, the Cognitive Load Theory highlights the necessity of instructional designs that optimize cognitive resources by effectively managing intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive loads. Educational technologies, such as intelligent tutoring systems and adaptive learning environments, are particularly adept at customizing content to match the learner's cognitive needs, thereby reducing unnecessary cognitive load and enhancing learning efficiency (Sweller, 1988;Clark et al., 2006). These theoretical foundations collectively emphasize the critical role of cognitive and metacognitive strategies in effective learning. ...
Self-regulated learning (SRL) involves processes by which learners purposefully direct their cognitions, emotions, and behaviors towards the achievement of personal learning goals. Research has shown that young learners often struggle with SRL. Educational technology could be useful to support their SRL. However, it remains unclear how support mechanisms can be best adapted to the needs of children. Adopting a participatory design (PD) approach involving an intergenerational design team of six children (ages 10–12) and three adult facilitators, we explored children’s perspectives on factors that facilitate or hinder their SRL, and what kinds of support they desire. The study consisted of three in-person co-design sessions (one per week) lasting about 90 min each over three weeks. The sessions centered on brainstorming needs, evaluating existing technology, ideating and designing paper prototypes of study-planner apps. Our findings indicate that children primarily voice the need for support to better organize their study and to keep focused on the learning task at hand. They also make it clear that SRL support systems must be designed to be attractive and fun. Children’s subsequent evaluation of app features and the prototypes which they designed were consistent with these needs. Taken together, our study indicates that children can voice clear and consistent preferences for SRL support with educational technology. By including children in the design process, we can ensure that educational technologies effectively meet their needs, enhance their learning experiences, and promote self-regulation and academic success.
... Slideshows are the most common tool for presenting the course of a lecture given by faculty (Brill, 2016). Students' attitudes to slideshows are very diverse: some tend to see slideshows utilized by lecturers as a type of summary of the study material, others see them as a summary of main points raised in class, and yet others as a means of illustrating the topics taught in classall according to the nature of the slideshow, its use by the lecturer, and how expectations are coordinated between the lecturer and the students (Clark et al., 2006). ...
In academic studies, some course assignments involve slideshows. The current study examines how students perceive the benefits and shortcomings of slideshows as a course evaluation tool. The study combines qualitative and quantitative tools. Predicated on 66 fully completed questionnaires, we perform qualitative analysis, followed by a complementary quantitative model. The research findings indicate that students perceive the benefits of preparing a slideshow and its presentation in their effect on one’s study abilities and in enhancing learning, as well as contributing to the student’s personal development. Findings show that students see slideshows as a means not only for demonstrating their knowledge to the lecturer but rather also for conveying messages and sharing with their classmates. Slideshows have benefits on the collaborative dimension in addition to the scholastic dimension. Findings indicate that, as perceived by the students, preparing and presenting slideshows is extremely significant. Therefore, we must include in the study programs practical guidance on preparing slideshows and their presentation and use them in the different classes also as a relevant evaluation tool. In the last decade, growing efforts have been made to significantly integrate diverse manners of evaluation in teaching. Lecturers who use the technique of evaluation via slideshows see this tool as an acquired skill that improves with practice, part of the developing cooperative evaluation.
Breaking bad news (BBN) is among the most distressing communication tasks in the medical field, wherein physicians disclose serious diagnoses to their patients. Under stress, physicians may resort to maladaptive communication behaviors, potentially affecting patients health in the long-term. Therefore, it is essential to support medical professionals in effectively managing their stress responses early in their careers. Using the biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat as theoretical framework, we employed a 2 x 2 study design to examine the effects of stress arousal reappraisal (SAR; i.e., reinterpretation of bodily changes as functional coping resources) and worked example (WE; i.e., step-by-step demonstration of how to BBN) interventions on demand and resource appraisals and cardiovascular responses of 229 medical students engaged in simulated BBN encounters. Participants who prepared with WE reported more coping resources relative to demands after the BBN encounter than participants not preparing with WE. Participants receiving SAR instructions exhibited improved cardiovascular responses during the BBN task, indicated by increased cardiac output and decreased total peripheral resistance, than participants not receiving SAR instructions. These findings align with the notion that both interventions facilitate a shift from a threat to a challenge state, supporting their potential for integration into BBN training.
Kitap bölümü, kullanıcıların farklı ihtiyaçlarını karşılamak üzere bir Sistem Düşüncesi Araç Seçim Tablosu da sunmaktadır. Bu araçlar, bireysel ya da birlikte kullanılarak, iklim değişikliği girişimlerinde ve politika tasarımlarında etkileşimli ve uyarlanabilir yaklaşımlar geliştirilmesine olanak sağlamaktadır. Sunulan yöntem ve araçlar, iklim değişikliğiyle mücadelede sürdürülebilir ve uzun vadeli çözümler geliştirilmesine katkı sunmayı amaçlamaktadır.
Despite their strengths, MCQs have notable limitations that educators must consider:
Time-Intensive Design Writing effective MCQs that align with pedagogical goals is a labor-intensive process. Developing questions that assess higher-order thinking requires expertise in both content and instructional design principles.
Limited Assessment Scope MCQs are less effective in evaluating skills such as: Open-ended problem-solving, For decades, Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) have been integral to medical education, playing a significant role in assessing knowledge in undergraduate, postgraduate, and specialist training programs. The advent of Learning Management Systems (LMS) in the 1990s facilitated the transition from traditional paper-based MCQs to digital platforms, enabling automated features like instant marking, question shuffling, branching pathways, and feedback. By the early 2000s, e-learning authoring tools further transformed MCQ design, introducing interactive elements such as images, videos, animations, and complex question types like drag-and-drop tasks and hotspot identification. These innovations allowed educators to better engage learners and address diverse cognitive challenges. Developing effective MCQs involves integrating foundational educational theories such as Bloom's taxonomy, constructive alignment, and cognitive load theory. These frameworks inform the creation of questions that transcend rote memorization, promoting higher-order thinking and the practical application of knowledge. Well-designed MCQs, particularly those based on hypothetical or clinical scenarios, can assess analytical reasoning, decision-making, and problem-solving skills, thus fostering deep learning. However, effective implementation requires careful preparation of students, ensuring alignment between learning activities, assessment methods, and desired educational outcomes. This article explores the theoretical underpinnings and practical strategies for crafting MCQs in medical education, emphasizing their potential to enhance learning experiences. The discussion focuses on overcoming common challenges, such as ambiguity in question design and misconceptions about the limitations of MCQs. By adopting evidence-based practices, medical educators can use MCQs not just for assessment but as tools to stimulate critical thinking and engagement, creating a dynamic and supportive learning environment.
The original taxonomy identified six hierarchical categories, intended to represent the progression of cognitive complexity in learning. These categories were:
Knowledge: Involves the recall of facts, concepts, methods, and patterns. Example: Recalling historical dates or scientific terms.
Comprehension: Entails understanding and interpreting information to make it usable. Example: Explaining the significance of a historical event.
For decades, Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) have been integral to medical education, playing a significant role in assessing knowledge in undergraduate, postgraduate, and specialist training programs. The advent of Learning Management Systems (LMS) in the 1990s facilitated the transition from traditional paper-based MCQs to digital platforms, enabling automated features like instant marking, question shuffling, branching pathways, and feedback. By the early 2000s, e-learning authoring tools further transformed MCQ design, introducing interactive elements such as images, videos, animations, and complex question types like drag-and-drop tasks and hotspot identification. These innovations allowed educators to better engage learners and address diverse cognitive challenges. Developing effective MCQs involves integrating foundational educational theories such as Bloom's taxonomy, constructive alignment, and cognitive load theory. These frameworks inform the creation of questions that transcend rote memorization, promoting higher-order thinking and the practical application of knowledge. Well-designed MCQs, particularly those based on hypothetical or clinical scenarios, can assess analytical reasoning, decision-making, and problem-solving skills, thus fostering deep learning. However, effective implementation requires careful preparation of students, ensuring alignment between learning activities, assessment methods, and desired educational outcomes. This article explores the theoretical underpinnings and practical strategies for crafting MCQs in medical education, emphasizing their potential to enhance learning experiences. The discussion focuses on overcoming common challenges, such as ambiguity in question design and misconceptions about the limitations of MCQs. By adopting evidence-based practices, medical educators can use MCQs not just for assessment but as tools to stimulate critical thinking and engagement, creating a dynamic and supportive learning environment.
Efficiency: MCQs can cover a wide range of material in a short period. Straightforward questions typically take one minute or less to complete, making them ideal for comprehensive assessments.
Incorporation of Multimedia and Interactivity Modern MCQs can integrate visual aids such as images, diagrams, videos, and interactive elements like drag-and-drop or hotspot identification. These features enrich learning and allow assessment of skills that go beyond textual comprehension.
For decades, Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) have been integral to medical education, playing a significant role in assessing knowledge in undergraduate, postgraduate, and specialist training programs. The advent of Learning Management Systems (LMS) in the 1990s facilitated the transition from traditional paper-based MCQs to digital platforms, enabling automated features like instant marking, question shuffling, branching pathways, and feedback. By the early 2000s, e-learning authoring tools further transformed MCQ design, introducing interactive elements such as images, videos, animations, and complex question types like drag-and-drop tasks and hotspot identification. These innovations allowed educators to better engage learners and address diverse cognitive challenges. Developing effective MCQs involves integrating foundational educational theories such as Bloom's taxonomy, constructive alignment, and cognitive load theory. These frameworks inform the creation of questions that transcend rote memorization, promoting higher-order thinking and the practical application of knowledge. Well-designed MCQs, particularly those based on hypothetical or clinical scenarios, can assess analytical reasoning, decision-making, and problem-solving skills, thus fostering deep learning. However, effective implementation requires careful preparation of students, ensuring alignment between learning activities, assessment methods, and desired educational outcomes. This article explores the theoretical underpinnings and practical strategies for crafting MCQs in medical education, emphasizing their potential to enhance learning experiences. The discussion focuses on overcoming common challenges, such as ambiguity in question design and misconceptions about the limitations of MCQs. By adopting evidence-based practices, medical educators can use MCQs not just for assessment but as tools to stimulate critical thinking and engagement, creating a dynamic and supportive learning environment.
Application: Involves using learned material in new and specific situations. Example: Solving a math problem using a known formula.
Analysis: The process of breaking down material into components to understand its structure. Example: Identifying arguments and counterarguments in a debate.
Synthesis: Combining elements to form a coherent whole or generate novel ideas. Example: Writing an original story using learned narrative techniques.
For decades, Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) have been integral to medical education, playing a significant role in assessing knowledge in undergraduate, postgraduate, and specialist training programs. The advent of Learning Management Systems (LMS) in the 1990s facilitated the transition from traditional paper-based MCQs to digital platforms, enabling automated features like instant marking, question shuffling, branching pathways, and feedback. By the early 2000s, e-learning authoring tools further transformed MCQ design, introducing interactive elements such as images, videos, animations, and complex question types like drag-and-drop tasks and hotspot identification. These innovations allowed educators to better engage learners and address diverse cognitive challenges. Developing effective MCQs involves integrating foundational educational theories such as Bloom's taxonomy, constructive alignment, and cognitive load theory. These frameworks inform the creation of questions that transcend rote memorization, promoting higher-order thinking and the practical application of knowledge. Well-designed MCQs, particularly those based on hypothetical or clinical scenarios, can assess analytical reasoning, decision-making, and problem-solving skills, thus fostering deep learning. However, effective implementation requires careful preparation of students, ensuring alignment between learning activities, assessment methods, and desired educational outcomes. This article explores the theoretical underpinnings and practical strategies for crafting MCQs in medical education, emphasizing their potential to enhance learning experiences. The discussion focuses on overcoming common challenges, such as ambiguity in question design and misconceptions about the limitations of MCQs. By adopting evidence-based practices, medical educators can use MCQs not just for assessment but as tools to stimulate critical thinking and engagement, creating a dynamic and supportive learning environment.
In 1956, Benjamin Bloom, along with Max Englehart, Edward Furst, Walter Hill, and David Krathwohl, introduced a comprehensive framework known as the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, commonly referred to as Bloom’s Taxonomy. This framework, designed to classify educational goals, has profoundly influenced teaching practices across K-12 and higher education settings. It aimed to outline a hierarchical model for categorizing learning objectives, encouraging For decades, Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) have been integral to medical education, playing a significant role in assessing knowledge in undergraduate, postgraduate, and specialist training programs. The advent of Learning Management Systems (LMS) in the 1990s facilitated the transition from traditional paper-based MCQs to digital platforms, enabling automated features like instant marking, question shuffling, branching pathways, and feedback. By the early 2000s, e-learning authoring tools further transformed MCQ design, introducing interactive elements such as images, videos, animations, and complex question types like drag-and-drop tasks and hotspot identification. These innovations allowed educators to better engage learners and address diverse cognitive challenges. Developing effective MCQs involves integrating foundational educational theories such as Bloom's taxonomy, constructive alignment, and cognitive load theory. These frameworks inform the creation of questions that transcend rote memorization, promoting higher-order thinking and the practical application of knowledge. Well-designed MCQs, particularly those based on hypothetical or clinical scenarios, can assess analytical reasoning, decision-making, and problem-solving skills, thus fostering deep learning. However, effective implementation requires careful preparation of students, ensuring alignment between learning activities, assessment methods, and desired educational outcomes. This article explores the theoretical underpinnings and practical strategies for crafting MCQs in medical education, emphasizing their potential to enhance learning experiences. The discussion focuses on overcoming common challenges, such as ambiguity in question design and misconceptions about the limitations of MCQs. By adopting evidence-based practices, medical educators can use MCQs not just for assessment but as tools to stimulate critical thinking and engagement, creating a dynamic and supportive learning environment.
Making judgments about the value or effectiveness of ideas or methods. Example: Assessing the validity of a research study.
These categories emphasized a continuum from simple recall (Knowledge) to more abstract, complex skills (Evaluation).
For decades, Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) have been integral to medical education, playing a significant role in assessing knowledge in undergraduate, postgraduate, and specialist training programs. The advent of Learning Management Systems (LMS) in the 1990s facilitated the transition from traditional paper-based MCQs to digital platforms, enabling automated features like instant marking, question shuffling, branching pathways, and feedback. By the early 2000s, e-learning authoring tools further transformed MCQ design, introducing interactive elements such as images, videos, animations, and complex question types like drag-and-drop tasks and hotspot identification. These innovations allowed educators to better engage learners and address diverse cognitive challenges. Developing effective MCQs involves integrating foundational educational theories such as Bloom's taxonomy, constructive alignment, and cognitive load theory. These frameworks inform the creation of questions that transcend rote memorization, promoting higher-order thinking and the practical application of knowledge. Well-designed MCQs, particularly those based on hypothetical or clinical scenarios, can assess analytical reasoning, decision-making, and problem-solving skills, thus fostering deep learning. However, effective implementation requires careful preparation of students, ensuring alignment between learning activities, assessment methods, and desired educational outcomes. This article explores the theoretical underpinnings and practical strategies for crafting MCQs in medical education, emphasizing their potential to enhance learning experiences. The discussion focuses on overcoming common challenges, such as ambiguity in question design and misconceptions about the limitations of MCQs. By adopting evidence-based practices, medical educators can use MCQs not just for assessment but as tools to stimulate critical thinking and engagement, creating a dynamic and supportive learning environment.
The strengths of MCQs, such as efficiency, scalability, and diagnostic value, make them an essential component of modern educational assessments. However, educators must address their limitations by aligning MCQs with higher-order thinking frameworks, integrating real-world scenarios, and balancing them with complementary assessment methods like essays or oral exams. By leveraging MCQs thoughtfully, educators can create robust assessments that support deep learning and meaningful knowledge application. For decades, Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) have been integral to medical education, playing a significant role in assessing knowledge in undergraduate, postgraduate, and specialist training programs. The advent of Learning Management Systems (LMS) in the 1990s facilitated the transition from traditional paper-based MCQs to digital platforms, enabling automated features like instant marking, question shuffling, branching pathways, and feedback. By the early 2000s, e-learning authoring tools further transformed MCQ design, introducing interactive elements such as images, videos, animations, and complex question types like drag-and-drop tasks and hotspot identification. These innovations allowed educators to better engage learners and address diverse cognitive challenges. Developing effective MCQs involves integrating foundational educational theories such as Bloom's taxonomy, constructive alignment, and cognitive load theory. These frameworks inform the creation of questions that transcend rote memorization, promoting higher-order thinking and the practical application of knowledge. Well-designed MCQs, particularly those based on hypothetical or clinical scenarios, can assess analytical reasoning, decision-making, and problem-solving skills, thus fostering deep learning. However, effective implementation requires careful preparation of students, ensuring alignment between learning activities, assessment methods, and desired educational outcomes. This article explores the theoretical underpinnings and practical strategies for crafting MCQs in medical education, emphasizing their potential to enhance learning experiences. The discussion focuses on overcoming common challenges, such as ambiguity in question design and misconceptions about the limitations of MCQs. By adopting evidence-based practices, medical educators can use MCQs not just for assessment but as tools to stimulate critical thinking and engagement, creating a dynamic and supportive learning environment.
Inability to Test Practical Application Directly MCQs assess knowledge indirectly through predefined answer options. They may not reflect the complex, real-world decision-making required in professional practice.
Exclusion of Writing Skills Unlike essays, MCQs do not provide opportunities to evaluate students' ability to articulate their thoughts, argue a position, or construct coherent explanations.
For decades, Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) have been integral to medical education, playing a significant role in assessing knowledge in undergraduate, postgraduate, and specialist training programs. The advent of Learning Management Systems (LMS) in the 1990s facilitated the transition from traditional paper-based MCQs to digital platforms, enabling automated features like instant marking, question shuffling, branching pathways, and feedback. By the early 2000s, e-learning authoring tools further transformed MCQ design, introducing interactive elements such as images, videos, animations, and complex question types like drag-and-drop tasks and hotspot identification. These innovations allowed educators to better engage learners and address diverse cognitive challenges. Developing effective MCQs involves integrating foundational educational theories such as Bloom's taxonomy, constructive alignment, and cognitive load theory. These frameworks inform the creation of questions that transcend rote memorization, promoting higher-order thinking and the practical application of knowledge. Well-designed MCQs, particularly those based on hypothetical or clinical scenarios, can assess analytical reasoning, decision-making, and problem-solving skills, thus fostering deep learning. However, effective implementation requires careful preparation of students, ensuring alignment between learning activities, assessment methods, and desired educational outcomes. This article explores the theoretical underpinnings and practical strategies for crafting MCQs in medical education, emphasizing their potential to enhance learning experiences. The discussion focuses on overcoming common challenges, such as ambiguity in question design and misconceptions about the limitations of MCQs. By adopting evidence-based practices, medical educators can use MCQs not just for assessment but as tools to stimulate critical thinking and engagement, creating a dynamic and supportive learning environment.
Diagnostic Potential The analysis of students' responses provides valuable insights into areas of confusion or difficulty. By identifying patterns in incorrect answers, educators can pinpoint problem topics, adjust teaching strategies, and provide targeted support.
Objectivity and Reliability Compared to essay-based or True/False assessments, MCQs offer greater objectivity. They minimize the risk of scoring bias, providing consistent and reproducible results across cohorts and years.
For decades, Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) have been integral to medical education, playing a significant role in assessing knowledge in undergraduate, postgraduate, and specialist training programs. The advent of Learning Management Systems (LMS) in the 1990s facilitated the transition from traditional paper-based MCQs to digital platforms, enabling automated features like instant marking, question shuffling, branching pathways, and feedback. By the early 2000s, e-learning authoring tools further transformed MCQ design, introducing interactive elements such as images, videos, animations, and complex question types like drag-and-drop tasks and hotspot identification. These innovations allowed educators to better engage learners and address diverse cognitive challenges. Developing effective MCQs involves integrating foundational educational theories such as Bloom's taxonomy, constructive alignment, and cognitive load theory. These frameworks inform the creation of questions that transcend rote memorization, promoting higher-order thinking and the practical application of knowledge. Well-designed MCQs, particularly those based on hypothetical or clinical scenarios, can assess analytical reasoning, decision-making, and problem-solving skills, thus fostering deep learning. However, effective implementation requires careful preparation of students, ensuring alignment between learning activities, assessment methods, and desired educational outcomes. This article explores the theoretical underpinnings and practical strategies for crafting MCQs in medical education, emphasizing their potential to enhance learning experiences. The discussion focuses on overcoming common challenges, such as ambiguity in question design and misconceptions about the limitations of MCQs. By adopting evidence-based practices, medical educators can use MCQs not just for assessment but as tools to stimulate critical thinking and engagement, creating a dynamic and supportive learning environment.
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) are among the most versatile and widely used assessment tools in higher education, offering distinct advantages for both formative and summative assessments:
Ease of Administration and Scalability MCQs can be efficiently administered through Learning Management Systems (LMS), allowing for seamless integration into online and hybrid courses. LMS platforms enable automated scoring, detailed item analysis, and immediate feedback, which reduces administrative burden. For decades, Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) have been integral to medical education, playing a significant role in assessing knowledge in undergraduate, postgraduate, and specialist training programs. The advent of Learning Management Systems (LMS) in the 1990s facilitated the transition from traditional paper-based MCQs to digital platforms, enabling automated features like instant marking, question shuffling, branching pathways, and feedback. By the early 2000s, e-learning authoring tools further transformed MCQ design, introducing interactive elements such as images, videos, animations, and complex question types like drag-and-drop tasks and hotspot identification. These innovations allowed educators to better engage learners and address diverse cognitive challenges. Developing effective MCQs involves integrating foundational educational theories such as Bloom's taxonomy, constructive alignment, and cognitive load theory. These frameworks inform the creation of questions that transcend rote memorization, promoting higher-order thinking and the practical application of knowledge. Well-designed MCQs, particularly those based on hypothetical or clinical scenarios, can assess analytical reasoning, decision-making, and problem-solving skills, thus fostering deep learning. However, effective implementation requires careful preparation of students, ensuring alignment between learning activities, assessment methods, and desired educational outcomes. This article explores the theoretical underpinnings and practical strategies for crafting MCQs in medical education, emphasizing their potential to enhance learning experiences. The discussion focuses on overcoming common challenges, such as ambiguity in question design and misconceptions about the limitations of MCQs. By adopting evidence-based practices, medical educators can use MCQs not just for assessment but as tools to stimulate critical thinking and engagement, creating a dynamic and supportive learning environment.
This paper provides a comprehensive review of effective MCQ writing, offering insights into its theoretical foundations and practical applications. While its primary focus is on undergraduate medical education, the principles discussed are equally relevant to postgraduate and specialist training contexts. By mastering MCQ design, educators can transform assessments into powerful learning tools that foster deep engagement and improve educational outcomes across disciplines. For decades, Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) have been integral to medical education, playing a significant role in assessing knowledge in undergraduate, postgraduate, and specialist training programs. The advent of Learning Management Systems (LMS) in the 1990s facilitated the transition from traditional paper-based MCQs to digital platforms, enabling automated features like instant marking, question shuffling, branching pathways, and feedback. By the early 2000s, e-learning authoring tools further transformed MCQ design, introducing interactive elements such as images, videos, animations, and complex question types like drag-and-drop tasks and hotspot identification. These innovations allowed educators to better engage learners and address diverse cognitive challenges. Developing effective MCQs involves integrating foundational educational theories such as Bloom's taxonomy, constructive alignment, and cognitive load theory. These frameworks inform the creation of questions that transcend rote memorization, promoting higher-order thinking and the practical application of knowledge. Well-designed MCQs, particularly those based on hypothetical or clinical scenarios, can assess analytical reasoning, decision-making, and problem-solving skills, thus fostering deep learning. However, effective implementation requires careful preparation of students, ensuring alignment between learning activities, assessment methods, and desired educational outcomes. This article explores the theoretical underpinnings and practical strategies for crafting MCQs in medical education, emphasizing their potential to enhance learning experiences. The discussion focuses on overcoming common challenges, such as ambiguity in question design and misconceptions about the limitations of MCQs. By adopting evidence-based practices, medical educators can use MCQs not just for assessment but as tools to stimulate critical thinking and engagement, creating a dynamic and supportive learning environment.
Detailed Item Analysis Educators can assess the difficulty and discrimination index of each item, ensuring that questions differentiate effectively between high-performing and low-performing students. This helps refine assessment quality over time.
Feedback and Personalization MCQs used as formative assessments can include branching logic, guiding students to supplementary content or remediation based on their responses. Automated, customized feedback enhances learning experiences and promotes self-directed study.
For decades, Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) have been integral to medical education, playing a significant role in assessing knowledge in undergraduate, postgraduate, and specialist training programs. The advent of Learning Management Systems (LMS) in the 1990s facilitated the transition from traditional paper-based MCQs to digital platforms, enabling automated features like instant marking, question shuffling, branching pathways, and feedback. By the early 2000s, e-learning authoring tools further transformed MCQ design, introducing interactive elements such as images, videos, animations, and complex question types like drag-and-drop tasks and hotspot identification. These innovations allowed educators to better engage learners and address diverse cognitive challenges. Developing effective MCQs involves integrating foundational educational theories such as Bloom's taxonomy, constructive alignment, and cognitive load theory. These frameworks inform the creation of questions that transcend rote memorization, promoting higher-order thinking and the practical application of knowledge. Well-designed MCQs, particularly those based on hypothetical or clinical scenarios, can assess analytical reasoning, decision-making, and problem-solving skills, thus fostering deep learning. However, effective implementation requires careful preparation of students, ensuring alignment between learning activities, assessment methods, and desired educational outcomes. This article explores the theoretical underpinnings and practical strategies for crafting MCQs in medical education, emphasizing their potential to enhance learning experiences. The discussion focuses on overcoming common challenges, such as ambiguity in question design and misconceptions about the limitations of MCQs. By adopting evidence-based practices, medical educators can use MCQs not just for assessment but as tools to stimulate critical thinking and engagement, creating a dynamic and supportive learning environment.
Trends in Examination Practices: Movement towards open-book exams in Australian universities, especially for science courses. Need for reformulating exam questions to emphasize application rather than recall.
Significance of MCQs: Widely used in medical education for formative and summative assessments. Misconception that MCQs are easier or less effective compared to other assessment methods. Research supports their effectiveness when designed using evidence-based principles.
For decades, Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) have been integral to medical education, playing a significant role in assessing knowledge in undergraduate, postgraduate, and specialist training programs. The advent of Learning Management Systems (LMS) in the 1990s facilitated the transition from traditional paper-based MCQs to digital platforms, enabling automated features like instant marking, question shuffling, branching pathways, and feedback. By the early 2000s, e-learning authoring tools further transformed MCQ design, introducing interactive elements such as images, videos, animations, and complex question types like drag-and-drop tasks and hotspot identification. These innovations allowed educators to better engage learners and address diverse cognitive challenges. Developing effective MCQs involves integrating foundational educational theories such as Bloom's taxonomy, constructive alignment, and cognitive load theory. These frameworks inform the creation of questions that transcend rote memorization, promoting higher-order thinking and the practical application of knowledge. Well-designed MCQs, particularly those based on hypothetical or clinical scenarios, can assess analytical reasoning, decision-making, and problem-solving skills, thus fostering deep learning. However, effective implementation requires careful preparation of students, ensuring alignment between learning activities, assessment methods, and desired educational outcomes. This article explores the theoretical underpinnings and practical strategies for crafting MCQs in medical education, emphasizing their potential to enhance learning experiences. The discussion focuses on overcoming common challenges, such as ambiguity in question design and misconceptions about the limitations of MCQs. By adopting evidence-based practices, medical educators can use MCQs not just for assessment but as tools to stimulate critical thinking and engagement, creating a dynamic and supportive learning environment.
MCQs, despite their reputation as simplistic or "lazy" tools, remain one of the most versatile and widely used formats for both formative and summative assessments. When designed using evidence-based principles, MCQs can effectively challenge students to apply, analyze, and synthesize knowledge. To achieve this, educators must go beyond surface-level question design, incorporating psychological and educational constructs such as constructive alignment and cognitive load theory, as well as practical principles like distractor writing, test blueprints, and validity testing. These steps are crucial in medical education, where accurate assessment of clinical reasoning and decision-making is paramount. For decades, Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) have been integral to medical education, playing a significant role in assessing knowledge in undergraduate, postgraduate, and specialist training programs. The advent of Learning Management Systems (LMS) in the 1990s facilitated the transition from traditional paper-based MCQs to digital platforms, enabling automated features like instant marking, question shuffling, branching pathways, and feedback. By the early 2000s, e-learning authoring tools further transformed MCQ design, introducing interactive elements such as images, videos, animations, and complex question types like drag-and-drop tasks and hotspot identification. These innovations allowed educators to better engage learners and address diverse cognitive challenges. Developing effective MCQs involves integrating foundational educational theories such as Bloom's taxonomy, constructive alignment, and cognitive load theory. These frameworks inform the creation of questions that transcend rote memorization, promoting higher-order thinking and the practical application of knowledge. Well-designed MCQs, particularly those based on hypothetical or clinical scenarios, can assess analytical reasoning, decision-making, and problem-solving skills, thus fostering deep learning. However, effective implementation requires careful preparation of students, ensuring alignment between learning activities, assessment methods, and desired educational outcomes. This article explores the theoretical underpinnings and practical strategies for crafting MCQs in medical education, emphasizing their potential to enhance learning experiences. The discussion focuses on overcoming common challenges, such as ambiguity in question design and misconceptions about the limitations of MCQs. By adopting evidence-based practices, medical educators can use MCQs not just for assessment but as tools to stimulate critical thinking and engagement, creating a dynamic and supportive learning environment.
Pedagogical Concepts in MCQ Design: Importance of understanding learning theories such as Bloom's taxonomy, cognitive load theory, and constructive alignment. Proper MCQ design includes effective use of distractors, alignment with learning outcomes, and adherence to item-writing rules.
MCQs in Specialist Training: Validation of MCQs is essential for accreditation in postgraduate and specialist programs.
For decades, Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) have been integral to medical education, playing a significant role in assessing knowledge in undergraduate, postgraduate, and specialist training programs. The advent of Learning Management Systems (LMS) in the 1990s facilitated the transition from traditional paper-based MCQs to digital platforms, enabling automated features like instant marking, question shuffling, branching pathways, and feedback. By the early 2000s, e-learning authoring tools further transformed MCQ design, introducing interactive elements such as images, videos, animations, and complex question types like drag-and-drop tasks and hotspot identification. These innovations allowed educators to better engage learners and address diverse cognitive challenges. Developing effective MCQs involves integrating foundational educational theories such as Bloom's taxonomy, constructive alignment, and cognitive load theory. These frameworks inform the creation of questions that transcend rote memorization, promoting higher-order thinking and the practical application of knowledge. Well-designed MCQs, particularly those based on hypothetical or clinical scenarios, can assess analytical reasoning, decision-making, and problem-solving skills, thus fostering deep learning. However, effective implementation requires careful preparation of students, ensuring alignment between learning activities, assessment methods, and desired educational outcomes. This article explores the theoretical underpinnings and practical strategies for crafting MCQs in medical education, emphasizing their potential to enhance learning experiences. The discussion focuses on overcoming common challenges, such as ambiguity in question design and misconceptions about the limitations of MCQs. By adopting evidence-based practices, medical educators can use MCQs not just for assessment but as tools to stimulate critical thinking and engagement, creating a dynamic and supportive learning environment.
In recent years, a shift toward open-book exams has begun in Australian universities, challenging conventional exam paradigms. Despite resistance, particularly from science faculties, these assessments aim to test knowledge application rather than simple recall. However, this transition demands careful rethinking of exam design. If questions can be easily answered through a quick online search, they fail as reliable tools for assessing critical thinking or professional competence. Consequently, collaboration between learning designers and subject matter experts has become essential to ensure meaningful, application-focused assessments. For decades, Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) have been integral to medical education, playing a significant role in assessing knowledge in undergraduate, postgraduate, and specialist training programs. The advent of Learning Management Systems (LMS) in the 1990s facilitated the transition from traditional paper-based MCQs to digital platforms, enabling automated features like instant marking, question shuffling, branching pathways, and feedback. By the early 2000s, e-learning authoring tools further transformed MCQ design, introducing interactive elements such as images, videos, animations, and complex question types like drag-and-drop tasks and hotspot identification. These innovations allowed educators to better engage learners and address diverse cognitive challenges. Developing effective MCQs involves integrating foundational educational theories such as Bloom's taxonomy, constructive alignment, and cognitive load theory. These frameworks inform the creation of questions that transcend rote memorization, promoting higher-order thinking and the practical application of knowledge. Well-designed MCQs, particularly those based on hypothetical or clinical scenarios, can assess analytical reasoning, decision-making, and problem-solving skills, thus fostering deep learning. However, effective implementation requires careful preparation of students, ensuring alignment between learning activities, assessment methods, and desired educational outcomes. This article explores the theoretical underpinnings and practical strategies for crafting MCQs in medical education, emphasizing their potential to enhance learning experiences. The discussion focuses on overcoming common challenges, such as ambiguity in question design and misconceptions about the limitations of MCQs. By adopting evidence-based practices, medical educators can use MCQs not just for assessment but as tools to stimulate critical thinking and engagement, creating a dynamic and supportive learning environment.
Evolution of Medical Education: Shift from traditional exams to more authentic assessment methods like Project-Based Learning in education disciplines. Challenges in medical education due to the necessity of retaining extensive foundational knowledge.
Trends in Examination Practices: Movement towards open-book exams in Australian universities, especially for science courses. Need for reformulating exam questions to emphasize application rather than recall.
For decades, Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) have been integral to medical education, playing a significant role in assessing knowledge in undergraduate, postgraduate, and specialist training programs. The advent of Learning Management Systems (LMS) in the 1990s facilitated the transition from traditional paper-based MCQs to digital platforms, enabling automated features like instant marking, question shuffling, branching pathways, and feedback. By the early 2000s, e-learning authoring tools further transformed MCQ design, introducing interactive elements such as images, videos, animations, and complex question types like drag-and-drop tasks and hotspot identification. These innovations allowed educators to better engage learners and address diverse cognitive challenges. Developing effective MCQs involves integrating foundational educational theories such as Bloom's taxonomy, constructive alignment, and cognitive load theory. These frameworks inform the creation of questions that transcend rote memorization, promoting higher-order thinking and the practical application of knowledge. Well-designed MCQs, particularly those based on hypothetical or clinical scenarios, can assess analytical reasoning, decision-making, and problem-solving skills, thus fostering deep learning. However, effective implementation requires careful preparation of students, ensuring alignment between learning activities, assessment methods, and desired educational outcomes. This article explores the theoretical underpinnings and practical strategies for crafting MCQs in medical education, emphasizing their potential to enhance learning experiences. The discussion focuses on overcoming common challenges, such as ambiguity in question design and misconceptions about the limitations of MCQs. By adopting evidence-based practices, medical educators can use MCQs not just for assessment but as tools to stimulate critical thinking and engagement, creating a dynamic and supportive learning environment.
The general aim of the research was to conduct a rare test of the efficacy of hypothetical learning
progressions (HLPs) and a basic assumption of basing instruction on HLPs, namely teaching each
successive level is more efficacious than skipping lower levels and teaching the target level
directly. The specific aim was evaluating whether counting-based cardinality concepts unfold in a
stepwise manner. The research involved a pretest—delayed-posttest design with random
assignment of 14 preschoolers to two conditions. The experimental intervention was based on an
HLP for cardinality development (first promoting levels that presumably support and are
necessary for the target level and then the target knowledge). The active-control treatment
entailed a Teach-to-Target approach (first promoting irrelevant cardinality knowledge about
recognizing written numbers and then directly teaching the same target-level goals with the same
explicit instruction and similar games). A mix of quantitative and qualitative analyses indicated
HLP participants performed significantly and substantially better than Teach-to-Target participants
on target-level concept and skill measures. Moreover, the former tended to make sensible
errors, whereas the latter generally responded cluelessly.
A lack of unified instructional design strategies to mitigate cognitive overload in higher education necessitated this study to explore how instructional design could mitigate cognitive overload in first-year commerce students. Grounded in the Cognitive Load Theory (CLT), which posits that excessive information impedes conducive student learning experiences and metacognition. The research is situated within a South African private higher education institution (PHEI) and explores a qualitative analysis using a three-pronged approach. Firstly, a literature review on CLT and its application in instructional design impacting students' learning experiences was conducted. Secondly, the researchers evaluated the institution’s 2023 instructional design of modules and their presentation through the learning management system (LMS) using multimedia learning. The purposive sample consisted of eight first-year modules within the Bachelor of Commerce degree program to assess the learning design elements against the principles of CLT. The researchers, being three instructional designers used secondary data and peer-reviewed the module evaluations to validate the findings and verify the impact of CLT on students' learning based on the institution's existing instructional design strategy. By evaluating the PHEI’s current instructional design practices against CLT principles, this study aimed to identify effective strategies to manage cognitive load and enhance the student learning experience within the higher education context. The research findings of this study indicated that the integration of CLT into instructional design could mitigate cognitive overload, thereby improving the student learning experience, and metacognition and providing guidelines for the refinement of instructional design strategies. The value of the research outcomes was anticipated to contribute to the development of improved instructional design strategies using multi-media learning to address cognitive load. The value of the research outcomes was anticipated to contribute to the development of improved instructional design frameworks and strategies that addressed cognitive load, enabling effective and conducive learning environments in higher education. These insights aimed to guide future research in curriculum design and teaching and learning practices in higher education and to recommend instructional design strategies to manage cognitive load thus mitigating the challenges of cognitive overload experienced by students and enhancing the student learning experience.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, the Moroccan educational system adapted to the circumstances by implementing a pedagogical contingency plan. This plan relied on digital content and audiovisual resources, such as recorded video lessons, delivered to students through television and the Internet. However, reports indicate that only less than half of the students were actively engaged in these lessons, attributing this observation to various external factors, including limited technological resources, and social disparities. Moreover, a content analysis of a sample of these lessons (29 lessons in philosophy) based on the principles of Multimedia Learning Theory revealed their poor design. This deficiency could undermine the effectiveness of visual lessons and reduce students’ motivation to follow them.ضَمِن المغرب الاستمرارية البيداغوجية لنظامه التعليمي إبّان جائحة كورونا بفضل إنشاء محتوى رقمي وموارد سمعية بصرية تمثلت في دروس فيديو مسجلة، قُدمت بواسطة التلفزيون والإنترنت. لكن التقارير كشفت أن أقل من نصف التلامذة تابعوا بالفعل هذه الدروس، وعُزي هذا الانخفاض إلى أسباب خارجية مختلفة، مدارها على محدودية الموارد التقنية والتفاوتات الاجتماعية. لكن تحليل محتوى عينة من هذه الدروس (29 درسا في مادة الفلسفة)، بناء على مبادئ التعلم الوسائطي، بيَّن أنها كانت فقيرة التصميم، وهي خاصية يمكن أن تقلل دافعية المتعلمين إلى متابعتها.
This chapter first discusses the key construct of cognitive load theory: cognitive load and its major categories. Then it compares the two-factor model with the three-factor model. It provides an extensive review of how to measure cognitive load. A confirmatory factor analysis on the two-factor model is reported. Then chapter ends with a discussion of how to calculate instructional efficiency.
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