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CCPE: Methodology for a Combined Evaluation of Cognitive and Physical Ergonomics in the Interaction between Human and Machine
Abstract
Evaluation methods of today often focus on cognitive ergonomics (such as mental workload or usability) or physical ergonomics (such as physical workload or body posture). This article describes an analytical methodology of a joint systematic search for potential deficiencies in the human–machine interaction; such as high physical and mental workload, use errors, usability problems, and physical ergonomic errors. The purpose with the joint search is to achieve a more holistic evaluation approach and make the evaluation cost more effective than when using separate evaluation methods for cognitive and physical ergonomic aspects. The methodology is task-based, which makes it possible to use both with focus on the device design, as in development projects; as well as with focus on the procedure, in the operative organization. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
... The overall goal of a task can be achieved through subtasks and structured plans. In hierarchical task analysis, a task is broken down into subtasks until a stop criterion is reached, often when the subtask consists of only a single operation [53]. A single operation, such as gene prediction, can be accomplished by an individual AI, while other single operations may be performed by humans. ...
... In some use cases, tasks are allocated dynamically, and responsibilities shift based on real-time needs [52]. Plans organize a sequence of tasks either sequentially or hierarchically and help allocate individual humans or AI to specific tasks [53]. ...
... The environment encompasses the physical, organizational, and psychosocial spaces where humans and AI agents work together [53]. It involves multiple participants and complex scenarios, categorized into the digital, task, and team environments. ...
Genome annotation is essential for understanding the functional elements within genomes. While automated methods are indispensable for processing large-scale genomic data, they often face challenges in accurately predicting gene structures and functions. Consequently, manual curation by domain experts remains crucial for validating and refining these predictions. These combined outcomes from automated tools and manual curation highlight the importance of integrating human expertise with AI capabilities to improve both the accuracy and efficiency of genome annotation. However, the manual curation process is inherently labor-intensive and time-consuming, making it difficult to scale for large datasets. To address these challenges, we propose a conceptual framework, Human-AI Collaborative Genome Annotation (HAICoGA), which leverages the synergistic partnership between humans and artificial intelligence to enhance human capabilities and accelerate the genome annotation process. Additionally, we explore the potential of integrating Large Language Models (LLMs) into this framework to support and augment specific tasks. Finally, we discuss emerging challenges and outline open research questions to guide further exploration in this area.
... Moray, Groeger, and Stanton (2017) studied the cognitive ergonomics concept that can reduce worthless mental workload to support operators do their job and duties with better efficiency and less faults and misinterpretations only by having basic awareness of the principles of righteous cognitive design. Also, the author considers that illustrating what kind of human capacities and restrictions of data analysis is considered as a practical aim of this concept in a way such that the work environment and operator's safety and behaviors are developed to make sure that workloads and stress are set aside (Bligård & Osvalder, 2014). ...
... Based on the research database, it seems that in I4.0 concept designers have done great job on the development of hardware and software technologies. However, according to Bligård and Osvalder (2014), human role is still not defined clearly in the context of I4.0 ...
Industry 4.0 requires a paradigm shift from the traditional manufacturing practices and work environment to a dynamic workplace where humans and machines must work together as a human cyber-physical system for increased productivity and flexibility. It necessitates novel interactions between operators and machines, consequently leading to the transformation of a traditional operator to Operator 4.0 or Smart Operator. Improvement in operators and engineers’ cognitive skills is imminent to adapt to Industry 4.0 working environment. Wearable technology, sensors, or virtual reality equipment enhances cognitive capabilities of the Operator 4.0. Thus cognitive skills of the smart operators are required more rather than the physical strength. This paper presents a review of the recent developments in cognitive ergonomics of Smart Operator or Operator 4.0 in the context of Industry 4.0.
... Furthermore, the tool design and the work technique have closely interacting effects. A number of ergonomic measurement methods are available for evaluating the performance of work tasks and the influence on work load and working postures when using different work tools (Bazrgari et al., 2007; Bligård and Osvalder, 2012; Garg et al., 1991; Mitchell, 2007; Nevala-Puranen, 1995; Southard et al., 2007). Examples include heuristic, anthropometric and usability checklists, posture analysis such as OWAS, RULA and REBA, prediction of ergonomic errors (PEEA), direct measurements such as EMG and goniometry, and computer simulations with manikins [e.g., Jack human simulation system (JACK)]. ...
... This has also been seen in studies by Huang and Paquet (2002) and McGorry et al. (2003), who showed that a tool with an angled shaft contributed to a less bent back when shovelling snow, but exposed the upper extremities to higher loads. Shaft length of the tool is one of the parameters that users subjectively consider to be the most important parameter when mucking out (Bligård and Osvalder, 2012). This is one of the main reasons why shaft length was investigated in the present study. ...
This study examined the physical demands involved in manual manure handling in horse stables when using two different long-shafted work tools, a shavings fork and a manure fork, and investigated how variations in shaft length affected the physical workloads of the user. The methods used were generic task specification (GTS) and the Jack human simulation system (JACK). In general, adding 10 cm to the 125 cm length of the existing manure fork shaft gave the highest reduction in load on the back, especially regarding compression forces, irrespective of body height, sub-task and work technique. Simulations with the shavings fork (length 150 cm) showed that correcting user work technique considerably reduced the load on the back. Thus, it is important to consider both the shaft length of a tool and the work technique when attempting to reduce the physical work load for users.
... In industrial settings, NASA-TLX was shown to be more sensitive to experience, while MLW showed greater sensitivity to task differentiation. While both techniques had a similar degree of intrusiveness, NASA-TLX gained greater acceptance [8,9]. NASA-TLX was also used to investigate differences in the mental workload of local and remote operators [10], but also for work in a multitasking environment [11]. ...
... La carga de trabajo en forma combinada existe cuando una persona realiza una tarea que implique esfuerzo físico durante un tiempo determinado y, luego, continúa otra tarea que precise esfuerzo mental para llevarla a cabo. Por ejemplo, estudiar y hacer luego ejercicio, trabajar en la computadora escribiendo un documento y hacer luego tareas domésticas, etc. [10][11][12]. ...
Objetivo: Evaluar la fuerza de agarre de la mano como un indicador de la carga de trabajo física y mental en diferentes condiciones, con el fin de desarrollar estrategias para la promoción de la salud pública.
Metodología: Utilizando un dinamómetro de fuerza de agarre de la mano, se registró la fuerza máxima de los participantes (30 personas). Durante la evaluación de esta fuerza, se ejecutó la tarea de demanda física, ejerciendo la fuerza en niveles bajo, medio y alto. Asimismo, se efectuaron tareas de demandas mentales, mediante la resolución de operaciones aritméticas en niveles bajo, medio y alto. Se definieron dos condiciones del experimento: 1) tarea llevada a cabo al evaluar la carga de trabajo física y la tarea mental combinada (primero se efectúa la demanda física y después la mental), y 2) tareas ejecutadas y evaluadas de forma simultánea (ambas demandas, física y mental, al mismo tiempo). Se utilizaron herramientas de carga mental (índice de carga de tareas de la nasa) para evaluar la carga de trabajo.
Resultados: El tiempo para finalizar las tareas fue significativamente mayor de manera combinada que simultánea y el rendimiento fue significativamente mayor en las tareas combinadas que las simultáneas. Además, se observa que existen efectos considerables de la salud en la forma simultánea.
Conclusiones: La forma combinada obtuvo mejores resultados que la simultánea y el índice de carga de tareas de la nasa Tradicional presentó un nivel de índice de carga de trabajo global significativamente mayor que el índice de carga de tareas de la nasa raw.
... In the search period (2011-2023), researchers mainly related cognitive ergonomics to lean management, whose principles are recognized as a stressor in the work environment [14] and could worsen workers' Quality of Work Life (QWL) [15]. With the use of cognitive ergonomics task-based approach, problem detection before its occurrence in the production system is enabled [16]. In Industry 4.0, the tasks of the Operator 4.0 range from learning new tasks to solving complex problems and initiating changes [17], which is why it is crucial to have a strategy for cognitive automation that can also identify the needed competencies of humans so that the initial learning curve can be reduced [18]. ...
Industry 5.0 is a concept that represents a human-centered, resilient, and sustainable manufacturing system. With the increase in the importance of the human role within the system, there is a need to adapt standard ergonomic methods to ensure safety within the work environment. The human-centered approach extends the limits of work safety to well-being principles while the new digital technologies which seek human interaction demand enhanced cognitive functions. In this paper, the principles of cognitive ergonomics will be presented as their current use in manufacturing. Due to digitalization, the human operators' role demands changes to the principles of Industry 5.0 ergonomics. The novel framework of cognitive ergonomics implementation in Industry 5.0 will be presented based on a literature review. Results will be used in a future work to implement the novel and innovative digital production and process planning system in the local stove manufacturing company.KeywordsIndustry 5.0Ergonomicscognitive ergonomicshuman factorsproduction optimization
... Control strategies are crucial to achieve maximum performance and confidence and improving ergonomics [18], flexibility [19], accuracy, and repeatability [20]. pHMI-based technologies often focus on force control methods such as admittance control [21][22][23], impedance control [9,24,25], and direct force control [26]. ...
With increasing attention to physical human-machine interaction (pHMI), new control methods involving contact force regulation in collaborative and coexistence scenarios have spread in recent years. Thanks to its internal robustness, high dynamic performance, and capabilities to avoid constraint violations, a Model Predictive Control (MPC) action can pose a viable solution to manage the uncertainties involved in those applications. This paper uses an MPC-driven control method that aims to apply a well-defined and tunable force impulse on a human subject. After describing a general control design suitable to achieve this goal, a practical implementation of such a logic, based on an MPC controller, is shown. In particular, the physical interaction considered is the one occurring between the body of a patient and an external perturbation device in a dynamic posturography trial. The device prototype is presented in both its hardware architecture and software design. The MPC-based main control parameters are thus tuned inside hardware-in-the-loop and human-in-the-loop environments to get optimal behaviors. Finally, the device performance is analyzed to assess the MPC algorithm’s accuracy, repeatability, flexibility, and robustness concerning the several uncertainties due to the specific pHMI environment considered.
... As a result of the fundamental understanding of the principles of just cognitive design, it also reduces errors and misinterpretations. In order to assure proper development of the workplace, operator safety, and behaviors while avoiding workloads and stress, the types of human capabilities and constraints that are judged feasible were evaluation with an aid of illustration [44,45]. ...
The fourth industrial revolution (Industry 4.0) has accelerated technology advancement across the manufacturing sector. The technologies of Industry 4.0 make it possible for manufacturing processes to be more efficient while also bringing about changes in human work that may pose new risks to employee wellbeing and test their current abilities. Technologies, such as virtual reality and augmented reality have a significant impact to revise the position and responsibilities of human in the manufacturing environment. Thus, ergonomic perspectives have evolved from focusing solely on adjusting the human to the other components of the work system physically and psychosocially into upgrading cognitive skills to process more information. There are very few ergonomics-related studies in the literature with reference to Industry 4.0 emerging technologies. Especially, research on emphasizing the importance of the concurrent development of technical and ergonomic skills in the industrial setting is a necessity in this modern era. This research aims to explain the modified manufacturing environment, define the role of the human in this new production settings and describe the cognitive modifications required to fit into the Industry 4.0 habitat.
... To conclude, this thesis has resulted in a methodology to predict, identify and present presumed differences in the interaction between the human being and the artifact. However, more work is needed to evaluate the reliability of the methodology and to develop computer aids to simplify its use (Bligárd & Osvalder, 2014). ...
This chapter presents information about the methods that combine physical and mental workload/fatigue during ergonomic evaluation. The methods were identified through a systematic literature review. The search criteria were done through a literature search in databases like SciFinder, SciELO, ScienceDirect, etc. As result, the following methods are described: Global Load Scale, Multivariate Workload Assessment, Subjective Fatigue Symptoms Test, Fatigue Assessment Scale, Scale of Recovery for Exhaustion of Occupational Fatigue, Scale of Estimated Fatigue-Energy Points, Swedish Occupational Fatigue Inventory, NASA-TLX, Combined Cognitive and Physical Assessment, Laboratory Method of Economics and Sociology of Work, OWL Method, Ergonomic Checklist Method, RENAULT Method, Joyce Method, NERPA Method, ARBAN Method, and MAPFRE Method. As a conclusion, it is possible to affirm that there are some evaluation methods that provide better elements for an accurate evaluation, and others lack basic elements, which causes an incomplete/not accurate evaluation.
... To conclude, this thesis has resulted in a methodology to predict, identify and present presumed differences in the interaction between the human being and the artifact. However, more work is needed to evaluate the reliability of the methodology and to develop computer aids to simplify its use (Bligárd & Osvalder, 2014). ...
1. This chapter presents information about the methods that combine physical and mental workload/fatigue during ergonomic evaluation. The methods were identified through a systematic literature review. The search criteria were done through a literature search in databases like SciFinder, SciELO, ScienceDirect, etc. As result, the following methods are described: Global Load Scale, Multivariate Workload Assessment, Subjective Fatigue Symptoms Test, Fatigue Assessment Scale, Scale of Recovery for Exhaustion of Occupational Fatigue, Scale of Estimated Fatigue-Energy Points, Swedish Occupational Fatigue Inventory, NASA-TLX, Combined Cognitive and Physical Assessment, Laboratory Method of Economics and Sociology of Work, OWL Method, Ergonomic Checklist Method, RENAULT Method, Joyce Method, NERPA Method, ARBAN Method, and MAPFRE Method. As a conclusion, it is possible to affirm that there are some evaluation methods that provide better elements for an accurate evaluation, and others lack basic elements, which causes an incomplete/not accurate evaluation.
... The CCPE framework CCPE is a methodology for systematic review of shortcomings in machine design which is based on the assumption that the design of the equipment affects human behaviour and how actions are performed (Bligård 2012;Bligård & Osvalder 2014). It builds upon the traditional ergonomics and safety methods Cognitive Walkthrough (Lewis & Wharton 1997) and Predictive Human Error Analysis (Embrey 2004), previously widely used with medical devices. ...
Many of the hazards in forestry are due to the handling of large trees and large machinery in rough terrain and remote areas. Activities such as maintenance and repair work have been identified as especially hazardous in the highly mechanised cut-to-length method. Accidents are underreported, which emphasises the need for a systematic approach for accident prevention. A possible procedure is the use of an analytical evaluation method to identify presumptive hazardous situations and ergonomic issues before accidents can occur. Safety-critical sectors such as nuclear power and health care have invested many resources in these types of methods. The aim of this paper is to put one of those methods to test in a forestry context in a study evaluating maintenance of forest machinery. A framework for evaluation, Combined Cognitive and Physical Evaluation, known as CCPE, was selected and adapted for the study. The evaluation was successful in systematically predicting what could happen in hazardous situations with regard to use error and ergonomic issues.
... Diese Entwicklung führt zu einer starken Beanspruchung von Maschinenführern, da heutige MMS keinen intuitiven Zugang zur Funktionsfülle der Maschinen eröffnen (Abele & Reinhart 2011). Durch Studien konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine Ausrichtung der Gestaltung von MMS an menschliche Bedürfnisse und Eigenschaften zu einer Reduktion von Fehlerraten und Beanspruchung sowie zu einer Steigerung von Effektivität und Effizienz bei der Interaktion führen kann (Bligard & Osvalder 2014, Mertens 2014, Schneider et al. 2008. Dies macht die Berücksichtigung des Menschen sowie die Identifizierung des Nutzungskontexts bereits im Entwicklungsprozess von MMS unentbehrlich. ...
... The methodology for physical task analysis proposed by Gómez-Bull, Hernández-Arellano & Ibarra-Mejía (2015) focuses on the identification of physical tasks to be evaluated by postural methods. Physical and mental evaluation Bligard & Osvalder (2014) In general, the methods mentioned so far focus on identifying the risk level or the level of demands (physical and/or mental) during the performance of a specific task, or group of tasks. However, physical, cognitive, diagnostic, and combined methods are not clear in the identification and classification of the cognitive tasks. ...
Traditional methods for ergonomic evaluation do not consider the identification and assessment of mental tasks. This chapter proposes a method for the Identification and Assessment of Mental Tasks (IAMT) through the development of task flowcharts. Using a semi structured interview and a task flowchart, the mental tasks are identified and described. Applying the Cognitive Task Load Model (CTLM), a cognitive effect is assigned to every mental task identified. A theoretical/common example and a study case were developed to exemplify the proposed method. IAMT method was developed to be useful mainly in industrial environments; however, IAMT should be applied in different work contexts and environments
Several factors contribute to the use, non-use, or inadequate use of personal protective equipment (PPE) in construction work. This study aimed to analyse correct usage of various PPE, such as helmet, ear protectors, goggles, respiratory mask, gloves, protective clothing, and a safety harness. Correct usage was assessed as guessability, which refers to human perceptions of how to don, adjust, use, and doff the equipment as intended. First an analytical evaluation was conducted using ECW (enhanced cognitive walkthrough) and PUEA (predictive use error analysis) to identify usability problems and use errors during handling. Then usability tests were performed with 13 persons of different heights and body constitutions. Observations, the think-aloud method, short interviews, and subjective estimations were employed. The analytical evaluation revealed most minor usability problems and use errors resulting in physical discomfort. Some safety harness-related errors emerged, particularly for novices, potentially leading to severe incidents. The usability tests demonstrated physical as well as functional discomfort when using a combination of PPE, intensifying over time. The combination of goggles and face mask caused pressure, chafing, heat rash and limited vision. The helmet, combined with goggles and ear protectors, did not fit well, and caused pressure. The guessability for donning and wearing the combination of PPE was moderate, requiring time for proper adjustment. The guessability of the safety harness was poor, lacking design cues for donning, adjusting, and positioning on skeletal bones. Physical discomfort arose when straps were overly tightened. Not all straps could be adjusted for some body constitutions, compromising safety. In conclusion, using several types of PPE together may lead to physical and functional discomfort and pain over time, potentially resulting in misuse, non-use, or reduced performance. The findings of this study can serve as a basis for redesigning PPE, particularly for scenarios involving combined usage.
Purpose
This paper aims to provide insight into the evolving relationship between humans and machines, understanding its multifaceted impact on our lifestyle and landscape in the past as well as in the present, with implications for the near future. It uses bibliometric analysis combined with a systematic literature review to identify themes, trace historical developments and offer a direction for future human–machine interactions (HMIs).
Design/methodology/approach
To provide thorough coverage of publications from the previous four decades, the first section presents a text-based cluster bibliometric analysis based on 305 articles from 2,293 initial papers in the Scopus and Web of Science databases produced between 1984 and 2022. The authors used VOS viewer software to identify the most prominent themes through cluster identification. This paper presents a systematic literature review of 63 qualified papers using the PRISMA framework.
Findings
Next, the systematic literature review and bibliometric analysis revealed four major historical themes and future directions. The results highlight four major research themes for the future: from Taylorism to advanced technologies; machine learning and innovation; Industry 4.0, Society 5.0 and cyber–physical system; and psychology and emotions.
Research limitations/implications
There is growing anxiety among humankind that in the future, machines will overtake humans to replace them in various roles. The current study investigates the evolution of HMIs from their historical roots to Society 5.0, which is understood to be a human-centred society. It balances economic advancement with the resolution of social problems through a system that radically integrates cyberspace and physical space. This paper contributes to research and current limited knowledge by identifying relevant themes and offering scope for future research directions. A close look at the analysis posits that humans and machines complement each other in various roles. Machines reduce the mechanical work of human beings, bringing the elements of humanism and compassion to mechanical tasks. However, in the future, smart innovations may yield machines with unmatched dexterity and capability unthinkable today.
Originality/value
This paper attempts to explore the ambiguous and dynamic relationships between humans and machines. The present study combines systematic review and bibliometric analysis to identify prominent trends and themes. This provides a more robust and systematic encapsulation of this evolution and interaction, from Taylorism to Society 5.0. The principles of Taylorism are extended and redefined in the context of HMIs, especially advanced technologies.
Background:
The effects of performing occupational tasks that demand physical and mental efforts in combined and simultaneous approaches are unknown, especially when pushing force is analyzed as a physical effort and solving arithmetic problems as a mental effort.
Objective:
In this study, physical and mental demands were simulated in a lab environment to assess the workload.
Methods:
Using a push force dynamometer, the maximum push force strength of each participant was recorded, and the physical demand was simulated exerting the push force in low, medium, and high levels. Mental demands were simulated solving arithmetic tasks in low, medium, and high levels. Two experimental conditions were defined: (1) task with combined physical and mental workload (performing physical demands first and mental demands after) and (2) task in a simultaneous way (performing both demands at the same time. NASA-TLX Traditional and RAW were applied to assess the workload.
Results:
The time to complete the tasks was significantly longer in the combined than the simultaneous approach, and performance was significantly higher in the combined than the simultaneous tasks.
Conclusion:
The combined approach obtained better results than simultaneous and Traditional NASA-TLX presented a significantly higher level of global workload index than RAW.
As a consequence of robotics integration in industrial production processes, physical and mental stress levels due to human-machine interaction increased, potentially increasing production errors and worker injuries. A systematic scoping review of the literature published in the last 20 years was carried out via PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Embase to answer this question: 'What is known from the current literature about the effects of human-machine interaction in the workplace?'. The analysis highlighted that the main problems were due to the lack of ergonomy in the work organisation, especially regarding cognitive aspects, and the reduced attention threshold associated with the monotony and repetitiveness of the work tasks. Training and information were the essential aspects in managing the reduction of accidents, also using new technologies such as cross-reality.
The aim of the study is to investigate the characteristics of millennials on the usage of media (music, photo/video) and media-related devices. An online survey was conducted on 360 millennials. Based on the results, we developed representative use cases to be used in experience design projects based on the actual media usage data collected. We also classified the millennials into four specific groups by applying statistical cluster analysis techniques. The characteristics of each group were further identified. The results of this study will help designers to develop products and services that meets the needs of their target consumers.
Controlling machine tools causes high mental strain levels for the operator due to tremendous machine functionality and process complexity. As a consequence, innovative human-machine interaction concepts are required. This paper discusses a morphological box as a method for selecting different technologies as a task suitable interaction concept for machine tool controls regarding ergonomic requirements, based on a comprehensive technology catalogue. As a result, we designed an interaction concept to optimize the operator's strain level, appropriate to the context of use of controlling and monitoring multiple machine tools.
In health care, the use of technical equipment plays an integral part. To achieve a high level of patient safety, it is important to avoid use errors when handling equipment. Use errors can be mitigated by performing analyses of potential use errors during the design process. One proactive analytical method for use error analysis is Predictive Use Error Analysis (PUEA), which is a further development of the methods Action Error Analysis (AEA), Systematic Human Error Reduction and Prediction Approach (SHERPA) and Predictive Human Error Analysis (PHEA). PUEA employs a detailed process for breaking down the user's tasks into steps and then identifying and investigating potential errors of use for each step. Compared with other methods, it is significant in its use of two question levels, greater inclusion of human cognition theory and that the results of the analysis are presented in matrixes.
Relevance to industry
The PUEA method is useful to the industry for evaluating existing products or serving as an evaluation tool during the design process. For instance, the PUEA method has been used to evaluate user interface designs of home-care ventilators and dialysis machines. In addition, PUEA can be applied as a final risk assessment method assessment method in the product development process.
To avoid use errors when handling medical equipment, it is important to develop products with a high degree of usability. This can be achieved by performing usability evaluations in the product development process to detect and mitigate potential usability problems. A commonly used method is cognitive walkthrough (CW), but this method shows three weaknesses: poor high-level perspective, insufficient categorisation of detected usability problems, and difficulties in overviewing the analytical results. This paper presents a further development of CW with the aim of overcoming its weaknesses. The new method is called enhanced cognitive walkthrough (ECW). ECW is a proactive analytical method for analysis of potential usability problems. The ECW method has been employed to evaluate user interface designs of medical equipment such as home-care ventilators, infusion pumps, dialysis machines, and insulin pumps. The method has proved capable of identifying several potential use problems in designs.
This thesis concerns centred product development and more specifically how methodological choices in user requirements elicitation can enable the users to communicate their requirements to the product developers. During the development process choices have to be made concerning what methodology to use for eliciting user requirements. These choices include the choice of data collection method, the choice of participants, the choice of mediating object, and the choice of context. In order to explore how different methodological choices can work as enabler in user requirements elicitation two case studies, three comparative studies, and a survey have been carried out. The results show that all four methodological choices influence user requirements elicitation in terms of their enabling effect. Product use experience and to what extent the method could provide the users with product use experience seem to be the most important factor to enable the users. An important finding was that enabling the user also includes enabling the designer to understand the user and the use situation in order for the designer to interpret the users' requirements. A conscious choice of methods can be used as a common tool enabling the user as well as the designer.
The "New Look" at Error The usual judgment after an accident is that human error was the cause. In other words, human error is the stopping point for an investigation and ends the learning process. However, just as recent celebrated accidents in medicine have directed attention to patient safety, previous highly visible accidents in other industries, such as power generation and transportation drew attention to issues surrounding the label "human error" (e.g., Three Mile Island in 1979; the capsizing of the Herald of Free Enterprise in 1982; various aircraft accidents). The intense interest in these accidents led to sustained, cross-disciplinary studies of the human contribution to safety and accidents. To make sense of these accidents, as well as other less celebrated cases, researchers found a second, multi-faceted story hidden behind the label of human error that revealed patterns about how systems fail. Going behind the label human error points the way to effective learning and system improvements. In other words, the label human error should be seen as starting point for investigation. The result of research that pursues the "second" story has been a "new look" at the human contribution to safety and to failure.
The evaluation and assessment of appropriate design approaches for usable human-machine interfaces is at the heart of ergonomics. A Guide to Methodology in Ergonomics arises from work, carried out by Neville Stanton for the EPSRC/Department of Transport, to compile and review a pool of methodologies currently used throughout the human factors world. The book describes this range of methodologies, and provides evidence of "real-world" validity and reliability. The costs and benefits for each are assessed, as are the usability and applicability.
Equipment used for high-risk sports, such as kitesurfing, needs to be efficient for the intended use and the user, and thus meet the mechanical demands and provide sufficient safety. Accidents related to kitesurfing occur, and the consequences are sometimes catastrophic. One important factor is the equipment design, which can influence the type and number of injuries due to insufficient safety systems. The aim of this study was to investigate how the design of kitesurfing equipment can affect safety issues from a usability perspective in relation to the task of preparation. A focus group of 6 subjects analyzed the task of preparing kitesurfing equipment for riding, using the evaluation methods Enhanced Cognitive Walkthrough (ECW) and Predictive Use Error Analysis (PUEA). From the evaluation, a list of plausible usability problems was identified together with proposed design guidelines. The results showed that usability problems occur during preparation. In total 35 usability problems were found, of which 11 (4 from ECW and 7 from PUEA) have a great impact on safety. These 11 problems were hard to detect for the user and could result in serious consequences for the kitesurfers during riding. The analysis resulted in some general guidelines that are possible to implement on different types of kites. To conclude, education and improved design of the equipment are essential to increase the safety of the sport.
the question of mental workload (MWL) assessment is relatively new and important; new in comparison to companion techniques for the assessment of physical load, whose origins are the contemporary of the Industrial Revolution, and important in that an increasing proportion of work taxes the information processing capabilities of operators, rather than their physical capacity / it is the load placed upon such cognitive capabilities that mental workload assessment is designed to measure / the techniques used to measure this load are the primary focus of this chapter / 4 contemporary groups of methods, each comprising several techniques, are evaluated . . . from the view point of their practicality and utility for the working ergonomist: [primary task measures, secondary task measures, subjective rating measures, and physiological (or psychophysiological) measures] (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Risk Analysis for Process Plants, Pipelines and Transport gives a detailed description of practical risk and safety analysis methods, tried and tested in over 100 process industry projects. The aim is to provide the methods and data needed by practising safety engineers, as well as practical advice on how to use them.
Ergonomics provides a group of powerful tools for the analysis of work, the design of usable products and the improvements of peoples' working environment. This handbook sets out in practical detail the main ergonomics, or human factors, methods along with practical examples. It presents approximately 100 methods, covering the assessment and measurement of physical, environmental, physiological, psychological, social and organizational phenomena. Each of the methods is set out in a very structured form to allow ready comparison covering: background, applications, procedure, a worked example, related methods, standards, approximate training and application times (based on the example), reliability and validity, costs, tools needed, related methods, and a short biography. A distinguished team of editors have drawn on international experts to cover each method.
Systems theorists see common principles in the structure and operation of systems of all kinds and sizes. They promote an interdisciplinary science adapted for a universal application with a common language and area of concepts. In order to solve problems, make recommendations and predict the future, they use theories, models and concepts from the vast area of general systems theory. This approach is chosen as a means to overcome the fragmentation of knowledge and the isolation of the specialist but also to find new approaches to problems created by earlier ‘solution of problems.’ This revised and updated second edition of General Systems Theory - Ideas and Applications includes new systems theories and a new chapter on self-organization and evolution. The book summarizes most of the fields of systems theory and its application systems science in one volume. It provides a quick and readable reference guide for future learning containing both general theories and practical applications without the use of complicated mathematics. © 2005 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. All rights reserved.
The product development industry faces increased product complexity with demands on cost, lead-time and quality, resulting in a need to integrate multiple disciplines in the product development work. This thesis focuses on the integration of engineering design and industrial design. A continuing dilemma of this integration is how to make the disciplines interact and collaborate so that successful, integrated product solutions can be achieved. The purpose of this research is to understand what interdisciplinary interaction between engineering and industrial designers implies for product development work, the factors that influence interaction and how they can be described in practice. To fulfil this purpose, three questions have been formulated: 1) What is meant by interaction between engineering and industrial design in today's product development work?, 2) How is collaborative interaction supported in integrated product development work?, and 3) How can interaction be transformed into collaboration? Empirical studies, in the form of interviews and observations, have provided an understanding of the implications of situational interaction as well as actors' perceptions of product development work. Data has been collected from industrial designers, engineering designers and project leaders in the automotive, telecom and radio communication industries. Using a conceptual lenstriangulation consisting of communication theory, sense-making and activity theory, and working iteratively with empirical findings, this research problematises the complexity of interdisciplinary product development work. The empirical studies revealed that interaction in product development work is characterised by mere information exchange rather than dialogue and socialisation; that actions are optimised within disciplines, but do not consider interdisciplinary dependencies; and that there is an institutionalised understanding of industrial design and engineering design as two separate and competitive camps. Hence, interaction between engineering designers and industrial designers lacks a collaborative work environment and coherence between organisational and operative intentions. Compromises rather than synergy effects were often the outcome of the product development work. Collaborative interaction is little supported in product development projects since the activity does not encourage the merging of different mindsets. Instead, product development work reinforces disciplinary differences through use of contradictory technical tools, organisational structures and processes, which prevents the evolving of a common language and shared knowledge. The research advocates a shift in perspective, arguing that socio-cultural and technical factors need to be aligned in order to achieve successful interaction and optimal product development work. Also, the local activities in product development work need to be aligned with organisational activities. Moreover, dialogues, socialisation and learning need to be legitimised so that a collaborative culture may be created among product development actors. To develop such a collaborative culture requires legitimised time and space, in this work referred to as a collaborative workspace. The thesis concludes by suggesting some practical ways in which a collaborative workspace may be created and maintained in an organisation. These methods need further development and testing in real product development environments.
A co-education programme, experimental learning in hand ergonomics and a combination of focus groups and usability tests were evaluated for their ability to strengthen end-user participation and dialogue between end-users and in-house engineers in three different organizations. Studies were carried out in a car assembly plant with a production system based on group organization and assembly plant with a traditional assembly line and in a traditional hospital organization. Results from the studies showed that all three methods succeeded in increasing awareness and critical thinking and created a common frame of reference.
Product development in the automotive industry is typically characterised by cross-functional teamwork. At the same time, the organisation and development culture are in many ways component-oriented and indeed, highly advanced from the point of view of component development. As a result, most components themselves are relatively mature. However, there is more room for change and thus improvement when it comes to product integration. There is also potential in moving the central point of the development process towards early phases, to focus on concept and system design. Furthermore, it is essential for a car manufacturer, among others, to have the ability to develop products in which a large number of features and properties have to be incorporated. Besides, competition will continually force companies to reduce costs while the product value as seen by the customer has to increase. In addition, in a market which is flooded with similar products, innovation and renewal are vital importance for securing the long-term survival of the operations. Considering these opportunities, which can be seen as strategic, there is an increased need for knowledge on structured work procedures for concept development and requirements management, including potential effects in use. It is also desirable to develop approaches that are more considerate of industrial needs. In line with the scope presented and a problem-oriented, multidisciplinary research approach used, the knowledge that emerged from this research extends from descriptive to prescriptive: Experiences about product development and requirements management in current industrial practice, as well as recommendations reflecting insights. A product modelling concept supporting systematic design in general and requirements traceability in particular. A systematic method for balancing properties while synthesising a product concept. The balancing philosophy adopted is to meet the overall product's desired performance profile as efficiently as possible, by selecting and integrating sub-solutions that harmonise; meaning synergies. A reason-based approach for an innovation-oriented requirements and/or design review. This approach reflects the intention to facilitate further requirement and solution reflection and development, rather than just assessing the status in relation to a predefined criteria set-up. Experiences about method and tool applicability in cross-functional teams. The conclusions drawn indicate that the research matter is not just black or white: Structured approaches, including systematic design methodology and related computer-based tools, essentially support concept development and requirements management, but they always have to be applied in a flexible way and be adapted to the situation at hand. Specifically, the risk of formalistic influences has to be attended to, for the benefit of fruitful co-operative development work. Moreover, a requirements-driven process has evident benefits in communicating a common target in a complex context, keeping the main theme throughout the project, and inherently to highlight purpose in design. However, this puts demands on the requirements management itself: To formulate requirements truly driving value, and to allow that requirements are active and evolving objects that continuously capture knowledge gained. This is particularly important with innovation in mind.
The development of a system for ambulatory monitoring and analysis of surface electromyographic (sEMG) signals are discussed. The developed system records the myoelectric activity by means of bipolar surface electrodes and stores the average rectified value (ARV) and mean power frequency (MPF) per second on the memory card for off-line analysis. The possibility of the biofeedback based on the changes in ARV and MPF of EMG signal is considered during the design phase. It is concluded that ambulatory monitoring of sEMG-signals is valuable tool in ergonomic field studies, and the developed system provides reliable information which makes practical evaluation of muscle activation pattern possible.
It is notoriously difficult to separate the function of interactive software from its form, to draw a line between software functionality and its human-computer interface. Nevertheless, two research communities exist in the USA, one focused on information system functionality and organizational impact, the other on human-computer dialogues or ‘user interfaces’ to systems and applications. These communities largely draw from different systems development contexts: in-house or internal development and off-the-shelf product development, respectively. Each has its own core set of issues, theoretical constructs and terminologies. The histories of these research and development communities are summarized, points of contact are identified and their possible evolution is suggested.
The introduction of information technology based on digital computers for the design of man-machine interface systems has led to a requirement for consistent models of human performance in routine task environments and during unfamiliar task conditions. A discussion is presented of the requirement for different types of models for representing performance at the skill-, rule-, and knowledge-based levels, together with a review of the different levels in terms of signals, signs, and symbols. Particular attention is paid to the different possible ways of representing system properties which underlie knowledge-based performance and which can be characterised at several levels of abstraction-from the representation of physical form, through functional representation, to representation in terms of intention or purpose. Furthermore, the role of qualitative and quantitative models in the design and evaluation of interface systems is mentioned, and the need to consider such distinctions carefully is discussed.
This book is about best practices for the design of mechanical products. It is available from Amazon and other sources at a reasonable price.
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While recent literature underlines the importance of collaborations in product development, and many studies analyse its applications, this subject is constantly developing and has the potential to expand into new dimensions. Collaborative product development (CPD) has emerged as a new way of business, increasing efficiency and effectiveness in product development. Although joint ventures and strategic alliances may be considered as a relatively older subject, CPD has recently become a strategic issue for businesses and gained meticulous consideration. However, there is no comprehensive review of CPD studies. This survey aims to fill this void by providing a review of key studies concerning CPD and its applications. The existing literature is analysed in three groups (CPD dynamics, partnership formation in CPD and CPD infrastructure) since CPD studies typically follow three characteristic paths. This study also aims to investigate the shortcomings of the existing literature and to provide future directions for research in the CPD domain. A conceptual framework derived from the literature review is presented, and it reveals the main issues on a strategic level to guide practitioners through their collaborative efforts.