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Possible Use of Essential Oils in Dentistry

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Namrata Dagli at Saveetha Institute of Medicval and Technical Sciences
Namrata Dagli
  • Saveetha Institute of Medicval and Technical Sciences
Rushabh Dagli at Rajasthan University of Health Sciences
Rushabh Dagli
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How to cite the article: Dagli N, Dagli R. Possible use of essential oils in dentistry. J Int Oral Health 2014;6(3):i-ii.
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Essential oils, their therapeutic properties,
and implication in dentistry: A review
Namrata Dagli, Rushabh Dagli,1 Rasha Said Mahmoud,2 and Kusai Baroudi2
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This article has been cited by other articles in PMC.
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Abstract
Background:
Antibacterial treatments currently used for treatment cause several side effects, and bacterial
resistance to the antibiotics is also increasing. Therefore, there is need to find better alternatives.
Essential oils (EOs) have been used for treatment of various ailments since ancient times and
have gained popularity over the years. Safety and efficacy of EOs have been proved by several
clinical trials. This review gives an overview on the EOs, their uses, and adverse effects.
Materials and Methods:
A literature search was performed in the PubMed for clinical trial studies and review articles on
EOs published up to February 2015. The search was performed during March 2015. The
following keywords were used: “Lavender essential oil,” “cinnamon oil,” “clove oil,”
“eucalyptus oil,” “peppermint oil,” “lemon EOs,” and “tea tree oil.”
Results:
Total 70 relevant articles were found in PubMed database. After screening of abstracts, 52
articles were selected to be included in the present review.
Conclusion:
On the basis of the available information, it can be concluded that EOs have the potential to be
developed as preventive or therapeutic agents for various oral diseases, but further clinical trials
are required to establish their safety and efficacy.
Keywords: Alternative medicine, essential oils, oral pathogens
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INTRODUCTION
According to the World Oral Health Report, despite great improvements in oral health in several
countries, oral health problems still persist, particularly among underprivileged groups in both
developing and developed countries.[1] Dental caries and periodontal diseases are identified as
the most important among oral health problems globally. Oral diseases adversely affect the
general health too. Quality of life and the working capacity of an individual are also affected.[2]
The antibacterial agents that are currently used for treatment of oral health problems are reported
to cause several side effects such as diarrhea, vomiting, etc., Increasing bacterial resistance to the
drugs is also a major concern. Because of the adverse effects, increasing bacterial resistance, and
high cost associated with the standard therapeutic procedure, there is a need to explore new
therapeutic agents and conduct further clinical research on traditional medicines obtained from
various plant sources.
Many traditionally used medicines for treating infections have been studied again, and clinical
trials are being done to establish their efficacy and possible side effects. One of these natural
medicines is essential oils (EOs).[3,4] In the recent years, there has been an increased interest
toward EOs.
Approximately 3000 Eos are known till now.[5] EOs are one of the plant extracts that have been
used for treatment of various medical and dental problems since ancient times. These are
secondary metabolites produced by various medicinal plants and possess antibacterial,
antifungal, and antioxidant properties.[6,7,8]
The purpose of this systematic review is to analyze the published data related to the EOs. A
number of studies have been conducted to prove the therapeutic properties of various EOs, but
very few reviews have been published on their implication in dental treatment. The review gives
an overview on the EOs, their therapeutic properties, and adverse effects.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS
To identify relevant literature, an electronic search was performed on PubMed database.
Titles and abstracts were screened. Only articles related to lavender oil, eucalyptus oil, clove oil,
cinnamon oil, and lemon EOs have been included in this review. Studies related to several other
EOs were excluded. Total 52 articles found relevant were selected for this review.
EOs and their composition
EOs are secondary metabolites of plants whose constituents are basically a complex mixture of
terpenic hydrocarbons, especially monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, and oxygenated derivatives
such as aldehydes, ketones, epoxides, alcohols, and esters.[9] EOs greatly differ in their
compositions. Even the composition of EOs extracted from the plants of same species differ in
different geographic locations.[10] Composition also depends on the maturity of the plant from
which the EOs are extracted.[10,11]
Mechanism of action
The mechanisms of action of EOs are dependent on their chemical composition and the location
of one or more functional groups on the molecules present in them.[12]
Membrane damage is proposed to be the main mechanism of action.[13] Solubility of EOs in the
phospholipid bilayer of cell membranes seems to have an important role in their antimicrobial
activity. Clove oil has reported to reduce the quantity of ergosterol which is found specifically in
fungal cell membrane.[14] Terpenoids in EOs have been found to interfere with the enzymatic
reactions of energy metabolism.[15]
Essential oils that have potential to be used in oral disease prevention and treatment are
discussed subsequently.
Lavender oil
Composition
Major components found are linalool, linalyl acetate, 1,8-cineole, B-ocimene, terpinen-4-ol, l-
fenchone, camphor, and viridiflorol.[10,16] However, the relative level of each of these
constituents varies in different species. Lavender oil, obtained from the flowers of Lavandula
angustifolia (Family: Lamiaceae) by steam distillation, is chiefly composed of linalyl acetate
(3,7-dimethyl-1,6-octadien-3yl acetate), linalool (3,7-dimethylocta-1,6-dien-3-ol), lavandulol,
1,8-cineole, lavandulyl acetate, and camphor.
The activity of linalool reflects that of the whole oil, indicating that linalool may be the active
component of lavender oil.[13]
Therapeutic properties
Antimicrobial activity: EOs extracted from Lavandula stoechas L. exhibit good
antimicrobial activities against most of the bacteria, filamentous fungi, and yeasts. In the
study of Benabdelkader et al., minimum inhibitory concentrations were found to be
ranging from 0.16 to 11.90 mg/ml.[10] It also shows antipseudomonal activity[16]
In vitro study on the antibacterial activity of the EO of Lavandula coronopifolia against
antibiotic-resistant bacteria suggested its bactericidal effect[17]
Anxiolytic: Lavender EO is reported to reduce stress, anxiety, and improve mood when
inhaled or orally administered.[18,19] It is not very effective in cases of high anxiety[20]
Antifungal: EOs of Lavandula luisieri show an inhibitory effect on yeast, dermatophyte,
and Aspergillus strains.[21] Lavandula viridis is reported to have fungicidal effect.
Cryptococcus neoformans is the most sensitive fungus, followed by Candida species.
Eucalyptus oil
Composition
The main component is 1,8-cineole followed by cryptone, α-pinene, p-cymene, α-terpineol,
trans-pinocarveol, phellandral, cuminal, globulol, limonene, aromadendrene, spathulenol, and
terpinene-4-ol.[22]
Therapeutic properties
Antimicrobial effect: Antimicrobial activity was found to be related to the synergic
effects between major and minor components rather than the concentration of a single
component.[22] EO of the leaves of Eucalyptus globulus has antimicrobial activity
against Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli) as well as Gram-positive bacteria
(Staphylococcus aureus).[23] Studies done on eight eucalyptus species show that
Eucalyptus odorata oil possesses strong cytotoxic effect and also antibacterial effect
against S. aureus, Haemophilus influenzae, Staphylococcus pyogenes, and
Staphylococcus pneumonia. Eucalyptus bicostata and Eucalyptus astringens showed
antibacterial effects[22]
Anti-inflammatory effect: Immunoregulatory agent: The study of Serafino et al.
demonstrates that eucalyptus EO can stimulate the innate cell-mediated immune response
suggesting its use as adjuvant in immunosuppression, in infectious disease, as well as in
tumor chemotherapy.[24]
Peppermint oil
Peppermint (Mentha piperita) oil is one of the most popular and widely used EOs. In the EO
from M. piperita, menthol is identified as the major compound, followed by menthyl acetate and
menthofuran.[25]
Therapeutic properties
Antibacterial: Peppermint oil shows an inhibitory effect on the proliferation of
staphylococci[26]
Antifungal: Studies show that EOs exhibit fungistatic and fungicidal activities against
both the standard and clinical strains of Candida species at concentrations ranging from
0.5 to 8 μL/mL. EOs exhibit similar antifungal effect against the azole-resistant and
azole-susceptible strains[25]
Antibiofilm: Biofilm inhibition in fungal strains helps to decrease pathogenesis and drug
resistance. Studies show that EO inhibits the biofilm formation of Candida albicans
completely up to 2 μl/ml in a dose-dependent manner.[25]
Melaleuca alternifolia (Myrtaceae)
It is also known as Tea Tree Oil (TTO). Its composition shows terpinen-4-ol, γ-terpinene, p-
cymene, α-terpinene, 1,8-cineole, α-terpineol, and α-pinene.[27]
Effects
Antibacterial: In a clinical trial, the melaleuca gel was found to possess an inhibitory
effect on various bacterial colonies and dental biofilm.[28] It shows strong antibacterial
action against oral pathogens[29]
Antifungal activity: Melaleuca alternifolia possesses antimycotic activity, terpinen-4-ol
being its most effective component.[30]
Lemon EO
Composition
Mostly, it contains almost exclusively terpenes and oxygenated terpenes.[31]
Therapeutic activity shows antifungal potential against three Candida species (C. albicans,
Candida tropicalis, and Candida glabrata). Lemon EO is suggested to be used as an effective
remedy against candidiasis caused by C. albicans.[31,32]
Clove oil
Main constituents found in the clove bud oil are the phenylpropanoids eugenol, eugenyl acetate,
carvacrol, thymol, cinnamaldehyde, β-caryophyllene, and 2-heptanone, when analyzed by gas
chromatography.[33,34]
Medicinal properties
Eugenol is well-known for its therapeutic properties and is widely used in dentistry.
Antioxidant: When tested against tert-butylated hydroxytoluene, EO exhibited a very
strong radical scavenging activity[33]
Antifungal: It possesses antifungal activity.[33] Clove oil and its main content eugenol
also reduce the quantity of ergosterol, which is a specific component of fungal cell
membrane. Germ tube formation by C. albicans is also inhibited[14]
• Antibacterial: It was found to possess inhibitory effect on multi-resistant
Staphylococcus spp.[34]
Cinnamon oil
Composition
The volatile oils obtained from the bark, leaf, and root barks vary significantly in chemical
composition. Three of the main components of the EOs obtained from the bark of Cinnamomum
zeylanicum are trans-cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, and linalool, which represent 82.5% of the total
composition. Cinnamaldehyde is the major constituent of cinnamon EO, and studies show that it
is the most active component too.[35]
Medicinal properties
Antimicrobial effect: Inhibitory effect on the growth of various isolates of bacteria including
Gram-positive, Gram-negative, and fungi.[36]
Antimutagenic: It has antimutagenic potential against spontaneous mutations in human cells.[37]
Furthermore, the study of Cabello et al. performed in animals shows that oral administration of
cinnamaldehyde (CA) exerts significant anti-melanoma activity.[38]
Besides these activities, studies suggest that cinnamomum zeylanicum (CZ) has antiparasitic,
antioxidant, and free radical scavenging properties.[39]
Implications in dental practice
Potential implications of EOs have been described below and the information is consolidated in
Table 1.
Table 1
Essential oils and their potential implications in dentistry
Lavender oil
It can be used in dental clinics to reduce patients’ anxiety. It is found to be useful as an anxiolytic
agent when used in waiting area.[18,20] The study performed by Zabirunnisa showed
statistically significant reduction in anxiety scores when the fragrance of lavender oil was used at
the reception area. It is also helpful during surgical procedures, as it has been shown to reduce
the pain of needle insertion.[19]
Eucalyptus oil
It shows an inhibitory effect on oral pathogens like Lactobacillus acidophilus, which makes this
suitable to be used as an anticariogenic agent.[44]
Peppermint oil
Eugenol oil is used widely in dentistry. It is active against oral pathogens associated with dental
caries and periodontal disease.[45] Studies done on five EOs (TTO, lavender oil, thyme oil,
peppermint oil, and eugenol oil) against four common oral pathogens (S. aureus, Enterococcus
faecalis, E. coli, and C. albicans) showed significant inhibitory effect of eugenol oil, peppermint
oil, and TTO. Among them, eugenol oil showed antimicrobial activity at the lowest concentration
level.[41]
TTO and some of its individual components, specifically terpinen-4-ol, exhibit strong
antimicrobial efficacy against fungal biofilms. TTO can be a solution for the increasing
resistance of C. albicans to established antifungal drugs. It can be used to treat oral
candidiasis[42] and is suitable for use in prophylactic oral hygiene products. The study
performed by Ramage et al. shows that it is more appropriate and safe to use terpinen-4-ol, the
major component of TTO, than TTO itself.[46]
Cinnamon oil
A Phase I clinical trial conducted on cinnamon EO concluded that it is safe to be used in healthy
patients with dentures for the treatment of oral candidiasis.[40]
Lemon EO
Lemon EO is suggested to be used as an effective remedy against candidiasis caused by C.
albicans.[32]
Combination of EOs
Combining EOs and antibiotics can reduce antibiotic resistance in multidrug-resistant bacteria.
Peppermint, cinnamon bark, and lavender EOs were found to be antibiotic resistance-modifying
agents, when used in combination with piperacillin.[43]
Studies not supporting the use of EOs
Several studies support the benefits of EOs, but some studies raise questions about their efficacy.
A study in which 0.2% chlorhexidine rinse and an EO mouth rinse were compared for their
efficacy showed that EOs are effective only for very short duration, i.e., 2–3 h, and concluded
that use of chlorhexidine is preferable over EOs.[47]
A study done on EOs to measure their efficacy when used as a coolant concluded that there was
no benefit over water during ultrasonic root debridement for the treatment of chronic
periodontitis.[48]
Adverse effects caused by EOs
Natural medicines are not always free of side effects. Adverse effects are also reported with EOs.
In the study of Millet et al., commercial preparations of essences of sage, hyssop, thuja, and
cedar have been reported to cause neurotoxicity and human intoxication, of which tonic–clonic
convulsions formed the major symptom.[49]
According to a review by Posadzki et al., mild to severe adverse effects including fatality can be
caused by EOs like lavender, peppermint, TTO, and ylang-ylang when used in aromatherapy.
Most common adverse effect among them was dermatitis.[22]
Toxicological tests are often lacking for traditional medicines. Therefore, further clinical trials
are required to exclude the possibility of side effect and poisoning.
Limitations
Only seven EOs that are found to be used commonly are included in this review. The review is
subjected to publication bias as it is written on the basis of published literature. Only English
language articles were referred. Article search was performed only in one database, PubMed.
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CONCLUSIONS
As described in this review, there is considerable evidence that EOs have potential to be
developed as preventive or therapeutic agents for various oral diseases. Although several other
potential uses of EOs have been described[50] and many claims of therapeutic efficacy have
been validated adequately by either in vitro testing or in vivo clinical trials, still there is need for
conducting further research to establish the safety and efficacy of these EOs before including
them in clinical practice. If used properly, they may prove very useful in dental therapy and may
contribute in improving the quality of dental treatments.
In particular, clinical trials that confirm the therapeutic potential of EOs in vivo and address
issues such as adverse effects, toxicity, and their interaction with other drug molecules would be
of great value.
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Footnotes
Source of Support: Nil
Conflict of Interest: None declared.
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... The final product is an essential oil with a high therapeutic degree. By contrast, lower grade essential oils are often extracted by chemical processes or using solvents to increase profit [5][6][7]. ...
... To maintain general health, essential oils are included as supportive supplements in internal administration. They also can be used as initial-local or complete treatment, in our case -diabetic periodontal manifestations [6,7,13]. ...
Use of dōTERRA essential oils for periodontal manifestations in mature adult type I diabetes mellitus – case report
Article
  • Dec 2022
Case presentation: Diabetes is similar to periodontal diseases, with a common, multifactorial disease process involving genetic, environmental, and behavioural risk factors. The aim of current periodontal therapy is to remove the bacterial deposits from tooth surface and to shift the pathogenic microbiota to one compatible with periodontal health. Materials and method: Traditionally, various species of herbs are used to control and cure some of dental problems or systemic diseases. The literature documents that many plants themselves have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial, astringent and other useful properties. We presented a 59 years old female with type I diabetes mellitus case. The patient presented a mild diabetic periodontitis. We introduced in the oral therapy, besides periodontal manoeuvres, a specific recipe with essential oils from dōTERRA. In parallel with clinical surveillance there were performed microbiological tests with samples from oral biofilm. Discussions/Conclusions: In this case report we successfully used topical extracts from plants, such as essential oils, manufactured by dōTERRA. The microbiologic lab tests showed no pathological flora.
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... The unique chemical blend of volatile components enriched the EOs with a surge of therapeutic values, especially in the field of dentistry and oral hygiene. For instance, several studies have documented the beneficial effect of supplementing mouthwashes with EOs in inhibiting plaque formation, diminishing anxiety, and reducing toothache [5]. Also, dressings treated with EOs enhanced the healing of wounds after oral surgery. ...
... Also, dressings treated with EOs enhanced the healing of wounds after oral surgery. Meanwhile, treating the surface of dental implants with EOs prevented biofilm formation and showed more potent inhibitory activity against microbiomes than methylparaben [5]. The antimicrobial potential is urgently essential because, recently, many synthetic antimicrobial drugs have been facing treatment limitations due to the development of antimicrobial drug resistance and acute toxicity [6]. ...
Phytochemical profile and antimicrobial activity of essential oils from two Syzygium species against selected oral pathogens
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 2023
Background The genus Syzygium (Myrtaceae) comprises several essential oil-rich species that are utilized traditionally for treating tooth infections and toothache. The current study aimed to extract essential oils (EOs) from the leaves of Syzygium samarangense and Syzygium malaccense cultivated in Egypt for the first time and screen their antimicrobial potential against oral-related pathogens. Methods The intended EOs were extracted using hydrodistillation (HD) by boiling fresh leaves with distilled water; supercritical fluid (SF) by extracting the dried leaves using supercritical CO2 at 40 °C and 150 bar; and the headspace (HS) in which the fresh leaves were heated in a glass vial and the vaporized aroma were analyzed. The volatile constituents were analyzed using GC/MS and identified by comparing the experimental Kovats' retention indices with the literature. The antimicrobial activity was assessed against Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, and Candida albicans using agar diffusion, microwell dilution, and biofilm formation assays. Statistical significance (p < 0.05) was determined by applying one-way ANOVA and Duncan's post hoc test. Results The yield of the extracted EOs differs between the applied methods, and the SF approach harvested the maximum (0.52–0.46%). The GC–MS analysis of SF EOs revealed a discrepancy between the two species. Since S. malaccense showed an abundance of hydrocarbons represented mainly by squalene (60.60%), S. samarangense was deemed to have oxygenated sesquiterpenes exemplified in globulol (52.09%). On the other side, the HD and HS EOs were sequentially comparable, while differed in the percentage of their majors. γ-terpinene (33.06%) pioneered the HS-derived aroma of S. malaccense, while S. samarangense was abundant with α-pinene (30.18%). Concurrently, the HD EOs of S. malaccense and S. samarangense were commonly denoted by caryophyllene oxide (8.19%-18.48%), p-cymene (16.02%- 19.50%), and γ-terpinene (12.20%-17.84). Ultimately, both species EOs exhibited broad-spectrum antimicrobial potential, although the HD EO was more potent than the SF EO. The HD EOs of both species potently inhibited the growth of E. coli (MIC 3.75 µL/mL) and suppressed C. albicans biofilm formation by 83.43 and 87.27%, respectively. The SF-EOs efficiently suppressed the biofilm formation of Gram-positive bacteria by 76.45%-82.95%. Conclusion EOs extracted from both species by different methods possessed a unique blend of volatile components with broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity. They were promoted as bioactive hits for controlling oral infections, however further investigations concerning their safety in clinical settings are needed.
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... The results of a clinical study showed that regular use of an EO-based mouthrinse significantly reduced plaque, gingivitis, and periodontitis compared to a 0.05% cetylpyridinium chloride mouthrinse (Dagli and Dagli, 2014). Essential oils have the potential to inhibit plaque, providing additional protection to soft tissues from bacterial damage. ...
Oral microbiota and metabolites: key players in oral health and disorder, and microbiota-based therapies
Article
Full-text available
  • Aug 2024
The review aimed to investigate the diversity of oral microbiota and its influencing factors, as well as the association of oral microbiota with oral health and the possible effects of dysbiosis and oral disorder. The oral cavity harbors a substantial microbial burden, which is particularly notable compared to other organs within the human body. In usual situations, the microbiota exists in a state of equilibrium; however, when this balance is disturbed, a multitude of complications arise. Dental caries, a prevalent issue in the oral cavity, is primarily caused by the colonization and activity of bacteria, particularly streptococci. Furthermore, this environment also houses other pathogenic bacteria that are associated with the onset of gingival, periapical, and periodontal diseases, as well as oral cancer. Various strategies have been employed to prevent, control, and treat these disorders. Recently, techniques utilizing microbiota, like probiotics, microbiota transplantation, and the replacement of oral pathogens, have caught the eye. This extensive examination seeks to offer a general view of the oral microbiota and their metabolites concerning oral health and disease, and also the resilience of the microbiota, and the techniques used for the prevention, control, and treatment of disorders in this specific area.
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... Cell-to-cell signaling by quorum sensing systems also plays an important role in virulent pathogens associated with biofilm formation (Kaur et al., 2021). The main challenge in the oral cavity is the development of bacterial biofilms that limit the permeability of drug moieties to the target site, thus leading to the development of antimicrobial resistance and treatment failure (Dagli and Dagli, 2014;Prestinaci et al., 2015). Thus, there is a great need to investigate new drug moieties to solve this major health concern. ...
Exploring essential oil-based bio-composites: molecular docking and in vitro analysis for oral bacterial biofilm inhibition
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2024
Oral bacterial biofilms are the main reason for the progression of resistance to antimicrobial agents that may lead to severe conditions, including periodontitis and gingivitis. Essential oil-based nanocomposites can be a promising treatment option. We investigated cardamom, cinnamon, and clove essential oils for their potential in the treatment of oral bacterial infections using in vitro and computational tools. A detailed analysis of the drug-likeness and physicochemical properties of all constituents was performed. Molecular docking studies revealed that the binding free energy of a Carbopol 940 and eugenol complex was −2.0 kcal/mol, of a Carbopol 940-anisaldehyde complex was −1.9 kcal/mol, and a Carbapol 940-eugenol-anisaldehyde complex was −3.4 kcal/mol. Molecular docking was performed against transcriptional regulator genes 2XCT, 1JIJ, 2Q0P, 4M81, and 3QPI. Eugenol cinnamaldehyde and cineol presented strong interaction with targets. The essential oils were analyzed against Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis isolated from the oral cavity of diabetic patients. The cinnamon and clove essential oil combination presented significant minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) (0.0625/0.0312 mg/mL) against S. epidermidis and S. aureus (0.0156/0.0078 mg/mL). In the anti-quorum sensing activity, the cinnamon and clove oil combination presented moderate inhibition (8 mm) against Chromobacterium voilaceum with substantial violacein inhibition (58% ± 1.2%). Likewise, a significant biofilm inhibition was recorded in the case of S. aureus (82.1% ± 0.21%) and S. epidermidis (84.2% ± 1.3%) in combination. It was concluded that a clove and cinnamon essential oil-based formulation could be employed to prepare a stable nanocomposite, and Carbapol 940 could be used as a compatible biopolymer.
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... have already found application in stomatology, in maintaining oral hygiene, as well as in the treatment of gingivitis and periodontal diseases [2]. The high content of volatile biologically active compounds makes them also useful in medicine for inhalation or for external use as warming agents in muscle and joint pain [3]. ...
Comparison of disc-diffusion and disc-volatilization assays for determining the antimicrobial activity of Thymus vulgaris L. essential oil
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 2023
Essential oils (EOs), being mixtures of various natural compounds, constitute an attractive source of novel antimicrobial agents. Along with multiple studies concerning their rich biological activity, there are different methods allowing to determine both antimicrobial activity in direct contact, as well as through the activity of vapours. Thyme constitutes one of the most common aromatic herbs used for pharmaceutical, cosmetic and culinary purposes. The aim of the study was to compare the antibacterial activity of liquid and vapour phases of Thymus vulgaris L. essential oil (TEO) against most common pathogenic Gram-positive ( Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25913, Enterococcus faecalis ATCC 29212, Bacillus cereus ATCC 10876) and Gram-negative ( Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Salmonella typhimurium ATCC 14028, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853) microorganisms. To determine TEO antibacterial properties, two methods were used: disc-diffusion assay so as to test activity in direct contact; disc-volatilization assay so as to determine activity in gaseous contact. Statistical analysis showed that Gram-positive bacteria were more sensitive to TEO vapours than Gram-negative (p=0.005), while in the case of disc-diffusion assay, no such differences were evident. Moreover, sensitivity towards TEO differed among Gram-positive bacteria in disc-diffusion (p=0.009) and disc-volatilization assay (p=0.001). Among Gram-negative rods, a statistically higher sensitivity regarding E. coli was noted when compared to S. typhimurium in both direct (p=0.011) and gaseous (p=0.006) TEO contact. No activity of TEO against P. aeruginosa was found. As thyme essential oil exhibited significant antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive bacteria in gaseous contact, this justifies its use as an addition to inhalation agents to prevent or support the treatment of upper respiratory tract infections. Further studies should therefore apply other methods for determining the antibacterial activity of TEO vapours to assess the exact minimal concentration inhibiting bacterial growth.
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... A randomized clinical trial found that the daily use of an EO-based mouthwash can significantly reduce plaque, gingivitis, and periodontitis more than 0.05% cetyl pyridinium chloride-containing mouth rinse [82]. A short daily application of EO mouthwash rinses is not harmful and has no irritation potential [83], but some clinical trials showed that they possess different degrees of cytotoxicity [84]. EOs seem to have a plaque-inhibitory effect, so the soft tissues would gain supplementary protection against bacterial attack [85]. ...
Revisiting the Therapeutic Effects of Essential Oils on the Oral Microbiome
Article
Full-text available
  • Feb 2023
The extensive use of antibiotics has resulted in the development of drug-resistant bacteria, leading to a decline in the efficacy of traditional antibiotic treatments. Essential oils (EOs) are phytopharmaceuticals, or plant-derived compounds, that possess beneficial properties such as anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antimicrobial, antiviral, bacteriostatic, and bactericidal effects. In this review, we present scientific findings on the activity of EOs as an alternative therapy for common oral diseases. This narrative review provides a deeper understanding of the medicinal properties of EOs and their application in dentistry. It not only evaluates the effectiveness of these oils as antibacterial agents against common oral bacteria but also covers general information such as composition, methods of extraction, and potential toxicity. Further nonclinical and clinical studies must be conducted to determine their potential use and safety for treating oral diseases.
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... Plants of the families Asteraceae, Apiaceae, Lamiaceae, etc. are richest in essential oils. Essential oils have proven to be a promising source of bioactive molecules with potential use in the treatment of dental caries [1][2][3][4] . In the oral cavity, the antimicrobial properties of essential oils have shown promising health benefits including reducing gum inflammation and bad breath and controlling biofilm formation 5 . ...
Influence of Essential Oils on the Formation of Streptococcus mutans Biofilms
Article
Full-text available
  • Nov 2022
The accumulation of biofilm by Streptococcus mutans bacteria on dental hard tissues leads to dental caries which remains one of the most common oral diseases. Therefore, the development of new antibacterial agents is critical. The aim of the study was to analyze the component composition of essential oils for 4 species of common Kazakh plants (Hyssopus ambiguus (Trautv.) Iljin., Nepeta cataria L., Origanum vulgare L., Ziziphora clinopodioides Lam) and study their effect on the formation of biofilms of Streptococcus mutans. After hydrodistillation, the chemical composition of essential oils was analyzed using gas chromatography in conjunction with mass spectrometry. The amount of biofilm formed by the bacteria Streptococcus mutans was assessed using the colorimetric method and optical profilometry. Results. Using GC-MS analysis, the chemical composition of 4 plant species of the Lamiaceae family was established. 1.8-cineole is the main ingredient for the essential oils of Hyssopus ambiguus and Nepeta cataria, carvacrol for Origanum vulgare, pullegon for Ziziphora clinopodioides, and nepetolactone for Nepeta cataria. As a result of the experiment Origanum vulgare and Nepeta cataria essential oils demonstrated the highest suppressive effect on S. mutans biofilm formation in the medium containing 1% sucrose. Conclusion. The results of the research can be used to develop new therapeutic and prophylactic dental products.
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... Treatment of dental implant surfaces with clove oil has shown to inhibit biofilm production 39 . It was found to possess inhibitory effect on multiresistant Staphylococcus spp 40 . ...
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Essential oils from Lamiaceae family (rosemary, thyme, mint, basil)
Chapter
  • Feb 2023
Essential oils are concentrated extracts of various plants that contain their original flavor and aroma. They can be extracted using a variety of methods, including mechanical or distillation processes. It is well established that the presence of diverse aromatic components imparts a distinct flavor to essential oil. This chapter discusses essential oils derived from the Lamiaceae family, such as rosemary, thyme, mint, and basil, in detail, including their chemical composition, the presence of various volatile and non-volatile components responsible for imparting characteristic flavor, and the various health benefits associated with essential oils. It discusses several efficient and effective techniques for extracting essential oils, including steam distillation, hydro-distillation, microwave-assisted hydro-distillation, and supercritical CO2 extraction. Finally, the chapters discuss the safety, toxicity, and regulation of essential oils, including appropriate dosage limits and an explanation of the various health issues associated with excessive essential oil consumption. The essential oil can be utilized in a variety of pharmaceutical, agro-food, and non-food applications, and it is claimed that maintaining proper storage conditions extends their shelf life.
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Microbiological Effect of Essential Oils in Combination with Subgingival Ultrasonic Instrumentation and Mouth Rinsing in Chronic Periodontitis Patients
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2013
Thirty chronic periodontitis patients were randomly assigned to 3 groups: control, saline, and essential oil-containing antiseptic (EO). Subgingival plaque was collected from a total of 90 pockets across all subjects. Subsequently, subgingival ultrasonic instrumentation (SUI) was performed by using EO or saline as the irrigation agent. After continuous mouth rinsing at home with EO or saline for 7 days, subgingival plaques were sampled again. Periodontopathic bacteria were quantified using the modified Invader PLUS assay. The total bacterial count in shallow pockets (probing pocket depth (PPD) = 4-5 mm) was significantly reduced in both saline (P < 0.05) and EO groups (P < 0.01). The total bacterial count (P < 0.05) and Porphyromonas gingivalis (P < 0.01) and Tannerella forsythia (P < 0.05) count in deep pockets (PPD ≥6 mm) were significantly reduced only in the EO group. In comparisons of the change ratio relative to baseline value of total bacteria counts across categories, both the saline and EO groups for PPD 4-5 mm and the EO group for PPD 6 mm showed a significantly low ratio (P < 0.05). The adjunctive use of EO may be effective in reducing subgingival bacterial counts in both shallow and deep pockets. This trial is registered with UMIN Clinical Trials Registry UMIN000007484.
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Effect of aromatherapy with orange essential oil on salivary cortisol and pulse rate in children during dental treatment: A randomized controlled clinical trial
Article
Full-text available
  • Mar 2013
Essential oils have been used as an alternative and complementary treatment in medicine. Citrus fragrance has been used by aromatherapists for the treatment of anxiety symptoms. Based on this claim, the aim of present study was to investigate the effect of aromatherapy with essential oil of orange on child anxiety during dental treatment. Thirty children (10 boys, 20 girls) aged 6-9 years participated in a crossover intervention study, according to the inclusion criteria, among patients who attended the pediatric department of Isfahan Dental School in 2011. Every child underwent two dental treatment appointments including dental prophylaxis and fissure-sealant therapy under orange aroma in one session (intervention) and without any aroma (control) in another one. Child anxiety level was measured using salivary cortisol and pulse rate before and after treatment in each visit. The data were analyzed using t-test by SPSS software version 18. The mean ± SD and mean difference of salivary cortisol levels and pulse rate were calculated in each group before and completion of treatment in each visit. The difference in means of salivary cortisol and pulse rate between treatment under orange odor and treatment without aroma was 1.047 ± 2.198 nmol/l and 6.73 ± 12.3 (in minutes), which was statistically significant using paired t-test (P = 0.014, P = 0.005, respectively). It seems that the use of aromatherapy with natural essential oil of orange could reduce salivary cortisol and pulse rate due to child anxiety state.
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Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Properties of the Essential Oil and Extracts of Zanthoxylum alatum Grown in North-Western Himalaya
Article
Full-text available
The essential oil obtained from the fresh leaves of Zanthoxylum alatum was analysed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Fourteen components were identified, and linalool (30.58%), 2-decanone (20.85%), β -fenchol (9.43%), 2-tridecanone (8.86%), β -phellandrene (5.99%), Sabinene (4.82%), and α -pinene (4.11%) were the main components. The EO and methanolic extract of Z. alatum exhibited potent antifungal activity against Alternaria alternata, Alternaria brassicae, and Curvularia lunata. The EO also showed significant antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis, Micrococcus luteus, Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli. Further, antimicrobial constituents of the EO were isolated by bioautography and preparative thin layer chromatography (PTLC) and identified as β -fenchol and linalool using GC/MS analysis. In addition to this, the free radical scavenging activity and antioxidant potential of EO and methanolic extract/fractions of Z. alatum were also investigated using in vitro assays including scavenging ability against DPPH(•), reducing power and chelating ability on Fe(2+) ions. Our results demonstrate that Z. alatum could be used as a resource of antioxidant and antimicrobial compounds which may find applications in food and pesticide industries.
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Essential Oils and Herbal Extracts as Antimicrobial Agents in Cosmetic Emulsion
Article
Full-text available
  • Nov 2012
The cosmetic industry adapts to the needs of consumers seeking to limit the use of preservatives and develop of preservative-free or self-preserving cosmetics, where preservatives are replaced by raw materials of plant origin. The aim of study was a comparison of the antimicrobial activity of extracts (Matricaria chamomilla, Aloe vera, Calendula officinalis) and essential oils (Lavandulla officinallis, Melaleuca alternifolia, Cinnamomum zeylanicum) with methylparaben. Extracts (2.5 %), essential oils (2.5 %) and methylparaben (0.4 %) were tested against Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853, Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213, Candida albicans ATCC 14053. Essentials oils showed higher inhibitory activity against tested microorganism strain than extracts and methylparaben. Depending on tested microorganism strain, all tested extracts and essential oils show antimicrobial activity 0.8–1.7 and 1–3.5 times stronger than methylparaben, respectively. This shows that tested extracts and essential oils could replace use of methylparaben, at the same time giving a guarantee of microbiological purity of the cosmetic under its use and storage.
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Essential Oils and Zirconia Dental Implant Materials
Article
  • Nov 2013
  • INT J ORAL MAX IMPL
Purpose: This study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of natural antimicrobial agents in reducing biofilm development on different titanium and zirconia dental implant materials in vitro using a constant depth film fermentor (CDFF). Materials and methods: Contact angles and surface free energy were determined for all surfaces. Biofilms were grown on disks of polished partially stabilized zirconia, titanium blasted with zirconia, titanium blasted with zirconia and acid-etched, and polished titanium using a CDFF to simulate oral cavity conditions. Antimicrobials (cinnamon oil, clove oil, chlorhexidine gluconate, or 0.5% Tween 80) were pulsed twice daily to the biofilm to mimic application in the oral cavity. Samples were taken after 6, 24, and 48 hours. Serial dilutions were made and plated onto agar. Bacterial colonies were counted to determine colony-forming units/mL. Results: Treatment of different implant material surfaces with the various antimicrobial agents led to significant increases in wettability and free energy on all surfaces. All surfaces showed a remarkable decrease in bacterial adhesion in the first 2 days in a relatively similar manner, with significant reduction in most of them, particularly after 48 hours. Conclusions: Functionalization of different dental implant material surfaces with essential oils resulted in immediate and ongoing antibacterial and antiplaque activities, and this antibacterial effect was enhanced with increased plaque age. Differences in the type of material seemed to have little effect on bacterial adhesion after treatment with antimicrobial agents. Expansion of this work with in vivo studies and clinical trials would be valuable.
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[In vitro efficacy analysis of absorbent dressing modified with essential oils, against Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans]
Article
  • Nov 2013
The widespread use of antiseptics for wound dressings, unfortunately, not always effective, prompted us to search for alternative solutions, tailored to individual patient's needs. The aim of the study was checking the validity of the idea to apply some selected essential oils in order to modify active dressings which are routinely used in the care of chronically infected wounds. Our choice is commercially available an absorptive wound dressing which does not contain antiseptics (Sorbact). The proposed is modification of dressing by its immersion in essential oil solution and then estimation of the biocide availability and stability during storage. Evaluation of inhibition of microbial surface growth (zone inhibition) and survival of absorbed microorganisms (retentivity by CFU counting) was performed directly after modification and repeated after 7 days of their storage at 4 degrees C. This study indicated that the dressings containing essential oils can keep absorbed bacteria/fungi inside and efficiently limit their growth. Depending on the properties (composition of volatile fraction) of the tested essential oil, saturated dressings were more active when stored at 4 degrees C for 7 days after their modification. The differences of antimicrobial strength, duration of the effect and retentivity between essential oils used for dressing modification have been shown. Modification of absorbent dressings with essential oils is a good option to achieve better therapeutic effect. Using a mixture of these four essential in several different quantitative ratios can be considered and is worthy of further research.
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Effects of two essential oil mouthrinses on 4-day supragingival plaque regrowth: A randomized cross-over study
Article
  • Jun 2013
  • AM J DENT
To investigate the plaque inhibiting effects of two commercially available mouthrinses containing essential oils (EO). Both products contained the same concentration of EO, but one of them did not contain ethanol. The study was an observer-masked, randomized, 4 x 4 Latin square cross-over design, balanced for carryover effects, involving 12 participants in a 4-day plaque regrowth model. A 0.12% chlorhexidine (CHX) rinse and a saline solution served as positive and negative controls, respectively. On Day 1, subjects received professional prophylaxis, suspended oral hygiene measures, and commenced rinsing with their allocated rinses. On Day 5, subjects were scored for disclosed plaque. Differences among treatments were highly significant (P < 0.0001), with greater plaque inhibition by CHX compared to EO rinse containing ethanol (P = 0.012), which, in turn, was significantly more effective than the rinse without ethanol and the saline (P < 0.001). The reduction in plaque regrowth seen with the EO rinse without ethanol was quite similar to that elicited by saline (P > 0.05).
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The Effect of Lavender Oil on Stress, Bispectral Index Values, and Needle Insertion Pain in Volunteers
Article
  • Aug 2011
  • J ALTERN COMPLEM MED
The purpose of this study was to investigate whether lavender oil aromatherapy can reduce the bispectral index (BIS) values and stress and decrease the pain of needle insertion in 30 volunteers. Thirty (30) healthy volunteers were randomly allocated to 2 groups: the experimental group received oxygen with a face mask coated with lavender oil for 5 minutes, and the control group received oxygen through a face mask with no lavender oil for 5 minutes. The stress level (0=no stress, 10=maximum stress), BIS value, and pain intensity of needle insertion (0=no pain, 10=worst pain imaginable) were measured. There were no significant differences in age, sex, height, and weight between the two groups. Stress level, BIS value, and pain intensity of needle insertion before aromatherapy were similar between the two groups. However, the stress values (p<0.001) and BIS value (p<0.001) after aromatherapy were significantly reduced compared with the control. In addition, the pain intensity of needle insertion was significantly decreased after aromatherapy compared with the control (p<0.001). Lavender aromatherapy in volunteers provided a significant decrease in the stress levels and in the BIS values. In addition, it significantly reduced the pain intensity of needle insertion.
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Effects of orally administered lavender essential oil on responses to anxiety-provoking film clips
Article
  • Jun 2009
  • HUM PSYCHOPHARM CLIN
Lavender odour is commonly used to alleviate mild anxiety. Double blind studies are difficult to conduct with odours, and there are few reliable investigations of lavender's efficacy. Orally administered lavender capsules (placebo, 100, 200 microl) were tested in a randomised between-subjects (n = 97) double-blind study. Film clips were used to elicit anxiety. Measures included anxiety, State Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), mood, positive and negative affect scale (PANAS), heart rate (HR), galvanic skin response (GSR), and heart rate variation (HRV). Following baseline measurements capsules were administered. Participants viewed a neutral film clip, then an anxiety-provoking and light-hearted recovery film clip. For the 200 microl lavender dose during the neutral film clip there was a trend towards reduced state anxiety, GSR and HR and increased HRV. In the anxiety-eliciting film, lavender was mildly beneficial in females but only on HRV measures. In males sympathetic arousal increased during the anxiety film (GSR). HRV significantly increased at 200 microl during all three film clips in females, suggesting decreased anxiety. These findings suggest that lavender has anxiolytic effects in humans under conditions of low anxiety, but these effects may not extend to conditions of high anxiety.
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Antimicrobial activity of essential oils and other plant extracts
Article
  • Jul 1999
FULL TEXT available free from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2672.1999.00780.x/pdf The antimicrobial activity of plant oils and extracts has been recognized for many years. However, few investigations have compared large numbers of oils and extracts using methods that are directly comparable. In the present study, 52 plant oils and extracts were investigated for activity against Acinetobacter baumanii, Aeromonas veronii biogroup sobria, Candida albicans, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia col, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serotype typhimurium, Serratia marcescens and Staphylococcus aureus, using an agar dilution method. Lemongrass, oregano and bay inhibited all organisms at concentrations of < or = 2.0% (v/v). Six oils did not inhibit any organisms at the highest concentration, which was 2.0% (v/v) oil for apricot kernel, evening primrose, macadamia, pumpkin, sage and sweet almond. Variable activity was recorded for the remaining oils. Twenty of the plant oils and extracts were investigated, using a broth microdilution method, for activity against C. albicans, Staph. aureus and E. coli. The lowest minimum inhibitory concentrations were 0.03% (v/v) thyme oil against C. albicans and E. coli and 0.008% (v/v) vetiver oil against Staph. aureus. These results support the notion that plant essential oils and extracts may have a role as pharmaceuticals and preservatives.
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