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American Journal of Research Communication www.usa-journals.com
Chelela, et al., 2014: Vol 2(8) 1 ajrc.journal@gmail.com
Wild edible mushroom value chain for improved livelihoods in Southern
Highlands of Tanzania
Baraka Luca Chelela, Musa Chacha and Athanasia Matemu*
The School of Life Science and Bio-Engineering,
The Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology (NM-AIST),
P. o. Box 447, Arusha Tanzania.
*The author to whom correspondence should be sent: athyone@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
A survey was conducted to assess mycological knowledge and socio-economic benefits along the wild
edible mushrooms value chain among Benna and Hehe ethnic groups in the Southern Highlands of
Tanzania. The mushroom hunters, collectors, processors and retailers from the local communities in
Njombe and Iringa regions were interviewed. The information on indigenous mycological knowledge,
collecting and retailing of wild edible mushrooms in Benna and Hehe communities were gathered. The
wild edible mushrooms were collected in the Miombo woodland surrounding six villages during rainy
season in January 2014. From the survey, mushroom collection and selling was gender oriented
dominated by women at 70% and 93.5% respectively. Moreover, it was found that 30% of men were
involved in collecting and only 6.5% in selling. About 45 species of wild edible mushrooms were
collected mainly from Lactarius, Russula, Cantharellus and Amanita species. Mushroom collectors
were able to collect 1000 to 1500 kilograms earning US $ 500 to 650 per season. Also, retailers were
able to sell 750 to 800 kilograms, earning US $ 750 to 1000 per season. Generally, wild mushrooms
collection and retailing can contribute to improved socioeconomic status, thus providing alternative
employment and food security to rural minority especially women and elderly in Benna and Hehe
communities in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania.
Key words: Wild edible mushrooms, value chain, Benna, Hehe and livelihoods
Running title: Wild edible mushrooms value chain for improved livelihoods of the Benna and Hehe
communities in Tanzania
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Chelela, et al., 2014: Vol 2(8) 2 ajrc.journal@gmail.com
{Citation: Baraka Luca Chelela, Musa Chacha and Athanasia Matemu. Wild edible mushroom value
chain for improved livelihoods in Southern Highlands of Tanzania. American Journal of Research
Communication, 2014, 2(8): 1-14} www.usa-journals.com, ISSN: 2325-4076.
INTRODUCTION
Tanzania with its vast areas of woodland is having the diversity of the natural miombo ecosystems
which provide high potential of producing indigenous mushrooms (Bloesch and Mbago, 2008) edible
and inedible. Wild edible fungi have been collected and consumed by people for thousands of years.
Wild edible fungi are important source of food, income and ecological role by maintaining health of
the forest (Boa, 2004). In Tanzania, over 60 edible mushroom species have been identified (Bloesch
and Mbago, 2008; Tibuhwa, 2001; Härkönen, 2003), most of these are usually collected from the
wild during rainy season. Globally, there are 2327 recorded useful species; 2166 are edible of which
1069 species are used as food, with at least other 100 known food species lacking published evidence
(Boa, 2004). According to Mizuno (1995), Wasser (1995), Wasser et al. (1999) and Ferreira et al.
(2010), approximately 700 species of higher Basidiomycetes have been found to possess significant
pharmacological activities. Wild edible mushrooms are collected, consumed and sold in over 80
countries worldwide and amount collected each year is several tonnes with a minimum value of US $
2.0 billion (Boa, 2004). Mushrooms have long been valued as a high quality food with a pleasant
flavour and tasty, appealing texture, delicacy and healthy nutritious by different societies throughout
the world (Muruke et al., 2002. Mushrooms have a wide array of medicinally important compounds
that have anticancer and antiviral activity; offering great hope for the production of new drugs for
ailments like HIV/AIDS, Avian influenza and the many cancers that afflict humanity today (Kidukuli
et al., 2010). Wild edible fungi are an important source of income for communities and national
economies, and are especially valuable to rural people in the developing countries (Boa, 2004). The
diversity of the natural Miombo ecosystems in Tanzania provides the rural population with varied and
nutritious diet and potentially high standard of living due to mushroom trade (EC-FAO, 2010).
However, awareness of wild mushrooms as a potential source of income is very low particularly in
developing countries. Mushroom sector in the Asian countries is highly developed and contributes to
the forex while in most of the African countries; mushrooms are still collected in the wild using
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ethno-mycology hence under exploitation of mushrooms as a potential source of nutrients, medicinal
and income.
The Benna and Hehe are two ethnic groups found in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania practicing
wild edible mushroom hunting, collection and selling as one of their socio-economic activity
contributing to their wellbeing. Since mushroom farming is not a common practice in the area,
distinction on its edibility is usually done by using indigenous knowledge. In many parts of the world
mushroom identification depends much on folk taxonomy whereby the knowledge is being inherited
and transferred from one generation to another (Tibuhwa, 2012). Previously, it was reported that folk
taxonomy and general indigenous knowledge is limited among Benna and Hehe ethnic groups
(Tibuhwa 2013), resulting to local people rejecting some species that are edible. Several studies on the
description, biology, cultivation and nutritional status of many edible mushrooms in Tanzania have
been reported by (Mshandete, 2007; Bloesch and Mbago, 2008; Tibuhwa, 2011; Tibuhwa, 2011;
Tibuhwa, 2011; De Crop, 2012; Tibuhwa, 2012; Tibuhwa, 2012; Tibuhwa, 2012 and Tibuhwa, 2013).
Despite all the efforts done by other researchers, mushroom sector in Tanzania is still underexploited
to tape the potential of mushrooms as a source of income and socioeconomic development.
Contribution of wild mushrooms to the livelihoods of the rural communities has been given less
priority regardless of plenty edible wild mushroom species. The significance of wild edible fungi lies
with their extensive subsistence uses in developing counties, although this is an area where there are
still significant gaps in information (Boa, 2004). Thus, further study on the socioeconomic
contribution of wild edible mushroom value chain in the rural communities is necessary to give an
insight on the potential of wild edible mushrooms as a source of food and income. The present study
aimed at documenting some wild edible mushrooms species growing naturally in Njombe and Mufindi
districts, and assessing its socioeconomic benefits along the value chain among the Benna and Hehe
ethnic groups.
METHODOLOGY
Study site description and data acquisition
This study was conducted in Njombe and Mufindi districts in Njombe and Iringa regions in the
Southern Highlands of Tanzania. A total of 150 individuals were interviewed in the two districts. In
each district, three villages were selected based on the availability and higher consumption of wild
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mushrooms. In Njombe district, Nyombo, Ikuna and Matiganjola villages were selected whereas
Kikombo, Matanana and Nyololo villages were selected from Mufindi district. Also, wild mushroom
retailers in Njombe and Mafinga townships were involved. The inhabitants of this area are mainly
Benna and Hehe tribes engaged in subsistence agriculture, livestock keeping, mushroom hunting and
gathering among other socioeconomic activities. The study area composed of mixed forest where the
miombo woodland with Brachystegia and Uapaca spp. are dominant. A semi structured questionnaire
was used in a field survey to collect information on wild edible mushrooms value chain (hunting,
collection, preservation and retailing). Information on edibility, medicinal, preservation methods and
other uses was also collected. All wild edible mushrooms were collected in January, 2014. A total of
120 people from the six villages (20 individuals from each village) comprised of local mushroom
pickers, and 30 mushroom retailers (15 each) from Njombe and Mufindi townships where involved.
Data analysis
Demographic features and cross-relationships of the participants were evaluated descriptively using a
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Program Version 20.0. Microsoft Excel (2010) was
used to calculate average income generated.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Wild edible mushrooms collection
Mushroom production is uneven throughout the year; their appearance in temperate forests is
restricted to the rain season where hunting and collection is mostly done. Collection of wild
mushrooms was done in January, 2014 to the nearby miombo woodland forests, fields, termite
mounts and forest plantations in Njombe and Mufindi districts depending on the type of mushroom.
Mushrooms are highly influenced by the type of vegetation that grows in Tanzania, and are collected
during rainy season (Mshandete and Cuff, 2007; 2008) with no specific harvesting methods (Boa,
2004). Mushroom gathering requires greater knowledge or understanding of the habitat, niche, and
morphology of useful mushrooms. Moreover, locating a particular species becomes more challenging
for gatherers usually forage in fixed paths or forest areas. World over, traditions on mushroom
collection do vary although generally now more people gather from the wild than before (Boa, 2004).
Mushroom gathering is associated with identification of the species to make sure that they forage a
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right one and not poisonous species. Folk taxonomy through traditional knowledge and experience is
usually used to identify edible mushrooms from poisonous. Tanzanians pick the traditional edible
mushrooms and reject all others and they pay no attention to the identification of inedible fungi
(Bloesch and Mbago, 2008). From the survey, it was found that knowledge on folk taxonomy was
being transmitted from parents, grandparents, neighbors and friends. Identification of species is
mostly done by looking on features such as color, texture, smell, substrate where it grows and
sometimes taste is used, naming of the species is done to keep memory and transfer the knowledge to
next generation. The same way of identifying edible mushrooms from poisonous was observed by
Adhikari (2004) in Nepal. It was observed that most of the species found in the same family were
named by a single traditional (vernacular) name, since morphologically they resemble to each other
hence unable to be differentiated by folk taxonomy. For example “Unyamikwe” was used to describe
mushrooms in family of Russulaceae like Russula roseovelata, Russula hiemisilvae and Russula
congoana (Table 1). Some difficulties in identifying and differentiating some species using folk
taxonomy were also reported by Ayodele et al. (2009; 2011) and Adhikari et al. (2006). The wild
edible mushrooms mostly hunted and collected by Benna and Hehe people are shown in Table 1
below.
Demographic characteristics and community involvement
Wild mushroom value chain is seen to be gender oriented dominated by women in collection (70%),
selling (93.5%), processing and preservation (98%) while men occupies only 30%, 6.5% and 2%
respectively (Table 2). Other researchers have reported that women are the key players in mushroom
market chain and ethno-mycology (Garibay-Orijel et al., 2012; Tibuhwa, 2013). Poor engagement of
men might be due to the belief that mushroom collection and selling is for the lowly and poor
minority especially women. In the rural areas of Njombe and Mufindi districts, women are usually
unemployed, dedicating themselves to household and subsistence activities. Mushroom collection and
selling is one of their sources of income and food, contributing to the food security in the
communities. Women are a central role on mushroom processing both for self-consumption and sale.
Also, the study showed that women own enormous traditional knowledge on mushroom folk
taxonomy and ecology. The study also revealed that, hunting and collection activities are dominated
by people of mid age especially those of 36 - 50 years (47%) as opposed to sellers 18 - 35 (50%), in
addition to few elders (collectors 13% and retailers 3.3%). It was also observed that, 79% of the
mushroom collectors and 83.3% of sellers had primary education respectively (Table 2). Similar
findings on age distribution were also reported by Tibuhwa (2013).
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Table 1: Edible wild mushroom species found in Njombe and Mufindi Districts
SN
Hehe local
name(s)
Benna local
name(s)
Scientific name
Habitat
1
Wikulwe
Not found
Termitomyces letustui
Cultivated fields, edges
of forests, miombo
woodlands
2
Witali
Not found
Termitomyces sigidensis
Termites mounts
3
Wigwingwi
Not found
Amanita tanzanica
Miombo woodlands
4
Wigwingwi(kahawi
a)
Not found
Amanita mafingensis
Miombo woodlands
5
Wigwingwi
Ugongoli or
Wigongoli
Amanita masasiensis
Miombo woodlands
6
Ulelema
Wilelemi
Amanita zambiana
Miombo woodlands
7
Wilelema
Wilelemi
Amanita loosi
Miombo woodlands
8
Unyasenga
Not found
Macrolepiota dolichaula
On dungs, cultivated
lands with cow dungs
9
Wigingili
Not found
Russula cellulata
Miombo woodlands
10
Unyamikwe
Unyambete
Russula roseovelata
Miombo woodlands
11
Unyamikwe
Not found
Russula congoana
Miombo woodlands
12
Unyamikwe
Not found
Russula hiemisilvae
Miombo woodlands
13
Wisikisa
Not found
Lactarius kabansus
Miombo woodlands
14
Wisimba
Not found
Lactarius edulis
Miombo woodlands
15
Wisogolo
Not found
Cantharellus congolensis
Miombo woodlands
16
Wisogolo
Not found
Cantharellus platyphllus
Miombo woodlands
17
Vidungwe
Widungu
Termitomyces
aurantiacus
Cultivated fields with
termites
18
Vidungwe
Widungu
Termitomyces striatus
Miombo woodlands
19
Not found
Widungu
Russula compressa
Miombo woodlands
20
Unyakigulu
Unyonso/twinyonso
Termitomyces
microcarpus
Termite mounts
21
Unyakuwemba
Wifimi
Lactarius densifolius
Miombo woodlands
22
Unyakuwemba
Wigulu
Lactarius luteolus
Miombo woodlands
23
Wisogolo
Unyamalagata
Cantharellus floridulus
Miombo woodlands
24
Wisogolo
Unyamalagata
Afrocantharellus
platyphyllus
Miombo woodlands
25
Not found
Wifindi
Cantharellus symoensis
Miombo woodlands
26
Wisogolo (Njano)
Wifindi (Njano)
Cantharellus
cyanoxanthus
Miombo woodlands
27
Chova
Not found
Termitomyces eurhizus
Miombo woodlands
28
Not found
Wimungulu or
umyamguhu
Lactarius volemoides
Miombo woodlands
29
Not found
Wipatwe
Cantharellus
tormentosus
Miombo woodlands
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Table 2: Demographic of mushroom collectors and retailers
Processing
(%)
Collectors/Hunters
(%)
Retailers/Sellers
(%)
Gender
Female
98
70
93.5
Male
2
30
6.5
Age
12-17
8
16.7
18-35
32
50
36-50
47
30
> 50
13
3.3
Education
Non-formal
8
0
Primary
79
83.3
Secondary
9
16.7
Higher education
4
0
Economic aspects of wild mushrooms
The economic contribution of different actors in the wild edible mushroom value chain is shown in
Table 3. The mushroom hunters collect 15 - 30 kgs per day and 1000 - 1500 kgs per season. The
average price for a kilogram of mushroom in villages is US $ 0.3 - 0.4. An average income of about
US $ 500 - 650 can be generated by a collector per season. In towns, the retailers could sell (bought
from collectors), an average of 20 to 45 kilograms per day and 750 to 800 kgs per season. The
average price of a kilogram of mushroom in town is US $ 0.5 - 0.6 and the total income generated
range from US $ 750 to 1000 per season (Table 3). It was also observed that not only fresh
mushrooms were sold in the market or along road sides but also dried mushrooms. A similar
observation was also reported by Mbago (2008). Mushroom retailing was also reported in Ruvuma
region where dealers were buying from rural areas or brokers and sell in Songea or Tunduru markets
at a much higher price (Mbago, 2008). According to Boa (2004), the global trade in wild edible fungi
has been estimated at US $ 2 billion. The true value, however, include the value of wild edible fungi
to the millions of the rural people around the world who gain benefits from consumption and selling.
However, these results on economic earnings from mushrooms are not far from what was reported by
Tibuhwa (2013).
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Table 3: Income earning by mushroom collectors and retailers
Mushroom
Quantity per
day (kgs)
Quantity per
season (kgs)
Average
price ($)
Average income
per season ($)
Collection/Hunting
15 - 30
1000 - 1500
0.3 - 0.4
500 - 650
Selling/Retailing
20 - 45
750 - 800
0.5 - 0.6
750 - 1000
Picture A: A mixture of Canthareceae mushroom species in Mafinga and Njombe markets.
Picture B: Russulaceae mushroom species collected in Nyombo village.
Mushroom edibility
The Southern Highlands of Tanzania have a rich diversity of wild mushrooms which might have been
contributed by the tropical forests, mostly Miombo woodlands, and higher rainfall. Mushrooms are
frequently collected by the local population, mainly for own consumption. A total of 29 species of
wild mushrooms were collected and identified. The commonly identified wild edible mushrooms
were in the genus of Cantharellus, Lactarius, Termitomyces, Amanita, Russula, Afrocantharellus and
Macrolepiota species. Most of the collected mushrooms were found to have vernacular names
commonly used in the area for easy identification. Despite having many edible wild mushroom
species (Table 1), wild inedible mushroom species were also abundant (Data not shown). Inedible
A
B
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mushrooms are considered to have no value and mostly regarded as poisonous. Additionally,
mushrooms with bad and chocking smell, sour or bitter taste, are also sometimes mistakenly
considered as inedible. Besides, about 5 species of mushrooms reported as inedible by the local
communities were identified as edible by a taxonomist, justifying that proper taxonomic identification
is very important. Local practices are typically based on the empirical evidence of edibility, though
local beliefs may falsely exclude edible species. Gaps in taxonomic knowledge are limiting further
utilization of wild edible fungi whereby local classification provide a useful guide to edible and ‘not
eaten’ species (these may be poisonous or not) (Boa, 2004). Combining both local and scientific
knowledge for mushroom identification may efficiently identify edible from poisonous mushrooms.
Otherwise, an intensive scientific study has to be done in order to verify their toxicity hence their
edibility, and maximize utilization of mushroom resources. Scientific identification provides a
powerful guide to properties of wild fungi and can help to clarify the edibility of species (Boa, 2004).
Mushroom preservation
Mushrooms are highly perishable and seasonal, available mostly during rainy season. Extension of
shelf life through different preservation methods is essential for value addition. Commonly used as
mushroom preservation methods are soaking (in fresh or cold water), salting, boiling and sun drying,
as well as smoking. In the study area, sun drying (65%) and boiling 35% were the commonly used
methods. Preservation is done mainly for home purposes only and little for selling nevertheless dried
mushrooms were also found being sold in the markets or along roadsides. Preservation may
substantially improve sensory and nutritional quality hence value addition to wild edible mushrooms.
Post-harvest processes of mushrooms are done for shelf life extension and enhanced marketability
(Boa, 2004). Mushroom preservation through boiling and drying was also reported by (Bloesch and
Mbago, 2008). Drying was used as mushroom preservation method along Selou-Niassa corridor
(Bloesch and Mbago, 2008). From the study, salting was found to be used is mostly for household use
only. Different mushrooms preservation methods were also reported by (Garibay-Orijel et al., 2012;
Tibuhwa, 2013).
Mushroom nutritional and medicinal information
From the study, it was found that about 96% of mushroom consumers were unaware of its nutritional
and medicinal values despite of its delicious taste as opposed to only 4% with partial understanding.
Mushrooms are regarded as alternative food to meat. Ayodele et al. (2009; 2011), reported a
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knowledge gap on the health benefits of mushrooms nevertheless of its potential as substitute for
meat, appealing taste, palatability, soup thickener and routine consumption were highly recognized.
According to Baraza et al. (2007), Barros (2008) and Ergonul et al. (2012), mushrooms are low in fat,
good source of fiber, rich in digestible protein, low in simple carbohydrates, and rich in high
molecular weight polysaccharides among other nutritional constituents. Also, they contain
unsaturated fatty acids, which constitute over 70% of the total content of fatty acids and low in
calories, essentials fatty acids, and high in vegetable proteins, minerals and vitamins. In addition,
mushrooms are also rich source of secondary metabolites which may be potential for nutraceuticals,
pharmacological and medicinal applications. Dembitsky et al. (2010) and Kidukuli et al. (2010)
reported that, some mushrooms have therapeutic activity which is useful in preventing diseases such
as hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, atherosclerosis and cancer. Therefore, raising awareness to the
communities on the potentials of mushrooms as source of nutrition and medicinal values is very
important. Mushrooms, if well addressed in the society, are potential source of food and nutrition
security specifically in developing countries.
Challenges of mushroom collection activity
The study also reports the challenges mushroom hunters and collectors are facing to make this
activity less effective. Amongst many, disappearance of once available mushroom species, human
activities such as farming, overgrazing has contributed to degradation of the ecosystem as well as
annual fire outbreak in the environment. Similar observations were report by Akpaja et al. (2003) and
Okhuoya et al. (2010) among the Igbo people in Nigeria. Wild animals have also been seen as a
threat to most of women and children during mushroom hunting and collection. This reduces the
output per day which has direct impact on the income generated. Mushroom poisoning is another
challenge since it is very difficult to differentiate between edible and poisonous mushrooms as some
of mushrooms in the same families are very similar. The same observation on mushroom poisoning
as a challenge to mushroom collectors was also reported by Tibuhwa (2013).
CONCLUSION
From the study, 29 species of edible wild mushrooms were collected and identified. Mushroom
hunting, collection and selling was mainly done by women. Mostly, folk taxonomy verbally
transferred from one generation to another was used to locally identify edible from poisonous
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mushrooms. Preservation of mushrooms was mainly through soaking, drying boiling and salting. The
wild edible mushroom value chain plays a vital role to improving livelihoods of local people involved
at every stage. The wild edible mushrooms positively contributed to income generation in Benna and
Hehe communities. Additionally, edible wild mushrooms can serves as a vital source of nutritious
food and if well exploited can contribute to food and nutritional security especially in rural areas.
Sustainable conservation of forests can also be achieved through proper harvesting methods to ensure
continuous supply of mushrooms. Awareness on proper harnessing, processing and preserving should
be provided to communities in rural areas where mushrooms are seasonally harvested as source of
income generation and food. Mushroom’s domestication and farming should be highly prioritized for
sustainable production.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are thankful to the Commission for Science and Technology (COSTECH) of Tanzania
through the Nelson Mandela Africa Institute of Science and Technology (NM-AIST) for financial
support. Also, the authors are thankful to Dr. Donatha Tibuhwa (Department of Molecular Biology
and Biotechnology, University of Dar-Es-Salaam) for taxonomical identification of the wild
mushroom species.
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