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P r o c e d i a E n g i n e e r i n g 7 0 ( 2 0 1 4 ) 1 1 0 2 – 1 1 1 1
1877-7058 © 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the CCWI2013 Committee
doi: 10.1016/j.proeng.2014.02.122
ScienceDirect
12th International Conference on Computing and Control for the Water Industry, CCWI2013
Coastal zone issues: a case study (Egypt)
A. Masriaa*, A. Negma, M. Iskanderb , O. Saavedraa
aEgypt–Japan Univ. of Sc. and Tech. (E–Just), En. Res. and Envir. Eng. Dept., P.O. Box 179, New Borg El Arab City 21934, Alexandria, Egypt
b Hydrodynamic Department, Coastal Research Institute, Alexandria, Egypt.
Abstract
Socio-economic and environmental issues for the coastal zone worldwide are identified and examined, as well as the
corresponding issues in Egypt. Coastal zones have been greatly exploited by man for establishment and growth of industry,
resource extraction, tourism and urbanization, which have led to a multitude of negative environmental impacts such as
accelerated erosion, deposition, eutrophication, destruction of marine life and overall decrease of bio-diversity. As coastal zone
resources share common characteristics, they have to be managed integrally not in isolated way.
This work surveyed the coastal zone issues and the proposed solutions in many countries. For this purpose, a classification for
these issues is discussed illustrating various solution executed for each case. Moreover, Integrated coastal zone management
and its extension around the world is surveyed.
It is clear from the study that the successful finger-print in the coastal zone associated with applying the integrated coastal zone
management strategies. Although many initiatives were adopted before to apply the integrated coastal zone management in
Egypt, unfortunately, these trials were disappointing in its outcomes due to using top-down approach, lack of capacity, lack of
stakeholder involvement, lack of integration, and lack of institutional arrangement for coastal management.
© 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the CCWI2013 Committee.
Keywords: coastal zone issues; management; strategies; Egypt.
1. Introduction
The coastlines of the world are over 440000 km in length, represent one of the most dynamic of natural
environment and are considered one of the most complicated contexts in which human activity, economy, ecology
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ali.ali@ejust.edu.eg
© 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the CCWI2013 Committee
Avai lable onl ine a t w ww.s cie nce direc t.c om
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A. Masria et al. / Procedia Engineering 70 ( 2014 ) 1102 – 1111
and geomorphology interact , Fabbri (1998). Coastal zone has many precious resources. Coastal resources include
land, forests, coastal waters and wetlands, sand minerals, hydrocarbons, and living marine organisms. Living
marine resources include finfish, shellfish, marine mammals, seabirds and other marine organisms (seaweed, coral
reefs). In addition, the coastal zone is a very important provider of food and habitat. All these resources share
common characteristics: they behave as systems and should be managed as such, they interact among each other,
they have multiple uses and generate many outputs, they supply private and public goods, and they can be supplied
by private and public sectors , OECD (1993). These resources are limited and must be conserved. Most countries
have conservation programs that address land resources or that address water resources, but too few countries treat
them together in a unified framework , Clark (1998).
For the sustainable development of coastal zones, coastal resources should not be viewed in isolation from the
rest of the ecosystem and from other resource demands, Fabbri (1998). The complexity of coastal zone
environments and their management brings together management and research specialists from many disciplines.
2. Main issues in Coastal zone
Coastal ecosystems are highly productive containing high biological diversity, rich fishery resources and
significant seabed minerals. Coasts also support a diverse array of related industries (e.g. fisheries and aquaculture,
tourism, shipping, oil and gas industries), which provide enormous economic productivity. However, the shared
demands placed by densely populated coastal regions impose stresses on finite coastal systems and resources,
OECD (1993). Some major coastal zone issues include the following:
2.1. Urban encroachment
Population movement to coastal areas is represented in the form of tourism, recreation, residential and industrial
development. There is a steady increase of population growth in the zone, whereas the land area is eroded rapidly.
This is expected to create a serious ecological imbalance in the otherwise fragile ecosystem unless some effective
coastal management measures are taken up , Lakshmi and Edward (2010).
The net result is more and more people and infrastructure being located in high hazard areas, and the
consequences would be drastic. The strategic plan is essential to save a sustainable development for our beaches for
example, in Turkey, beaches are not only considered as public domain, but also as income sources. They suggested
that an economic benefits should be derived from their recreational use by imposing fixed price per visit followed
by voluntary box to exploit it and enhancing beach management , Birdir et al.(2013).
2.2. Pollution of estuarine and coastal waters
Pollution is a major concern in most countries due to discharge of raw and partially treated sewage, non-point
discharges, industrial discharges, and discharges from shipping vessels. Marine debris and eutrophication are also a
problem as they lead to wildlife loss and an aesthetically degraded environment.
In addition, Coastal Agriculture is also considered a big source of pollution, as Irish rivers and lakes, which has
implications for coastal water quality, McGarrigle (1999). Intensive agriculture in Ireland has also led to a
reduction in semi-natural habitats and to a decrease in biological diversity, Lee(1999).
Also, the unplanned and haphazard shrimp farming, as in Bangladesh, is gathering considerable debate due to
its negative environmental and socio-economic consequences, Afroz and Alam (2013). Clearing mangroves for
shrimp farming, the effect by surface and subsurface saltwater intrusion generated by the new pond of shrimp and
ecological impacts of unregulated shrimp farming in the coastal region lead to general degradation. The
recommendation was to pursue a holistic approach together with the Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)
principles into national laws and policies for sustainable shrimp farming in Bangladesh.
Many researches were performed to highlight changes referable to pollution . Schaeffer et al. (2012)evaluated a
reference condition approach for developing numeric water quality criteria for coastal waters, using data from
Florida. In order to develop a restoration strategy for the degraded water quality, Raicevic et al. (2013) addressed
1104 A. Masria et al. / Procedia Engineering 70 ( 2014 ) 1102 – 1111
the disruption of ecological balance and degraded water quality in the lake Palic, Serbia, they attempted to
overcome this problem by modeling constructed wetland through the lake. This model used the plants that are
tolerant to high levels of nutrients and predominantly indigenous species whose grow in vicinity of lake.
2.3. Marine resource exploitation
Coastal resource exploitation includes land, forests, coastal waters and wetlands, sand, minerals, hydrocarbons,
and living marine organisms. These lead to overall decrease in biodiversity.
2.4. Coastal Erosion
Coastal zones are subjected to rapid erosion by natural processes and to a little extent by anthropogenic
activities over a long period of time. The continuous decline in the size of the zone might also be influenced by
steady rise in sea levels accompanied by subsistence of the lower delta plain. This is expected to create a serious
ecological imbalance in the otherwise fragile ecosystem unless some effective coastal management measures are
taken up , Lakshmi and Edward (2010).
2.4.1Causes of coastal erosion
The causes of erosion include natural processes and human activities are clarified in (Fig. 1-a). Both long-term
planning and updated protection measures are required to eliminate the adverse impacts of the hazard and
guarantee sustained and harmonious development of the coastal economy. An example of the prevention measures
against the coastal erosion generally is presented in (Fig.1-b).
2.4.2Impact of sea level rise on coastal erosion
The most widely discussed effect of climate change in the marine and coastal environment is the sea level rise
that arouse great challenge in the longer term. Accompanying sea level rise, are other more immediate climate
change impacts upon coastal and marine areas as, saltwater intrusion into freshwater aquifers, rising water
temperatures (affecting the productivity and distribution of fisheries, causing algal blooms, and damaging corals),
storms and storm surges (which are exacerbating erosion), and ocean acidification (the changing chemistry of the
oceans damaging many marine organisms), Stephens (2013). According to the CORI's team calculation for the
world as a whole: assuming no adaptation measures, a 2 m rise in sea level would cause the displacement of 187
million people over this century. But if ‘we assume protection with dikes and nourishment, the number of displaced
people falls dramatically down , Nicholls et al.( 2011).
To combat hazards result from SLR around the world, there are a lot of techniques such as hard engineering
measures, and soft engineering measures. German coastal states are following a strategy based on hard coastal
protection measures against flooding although the higher cost for maintaining it. Various erosion control
techniques have been tried in USA over the years to prevent or mitigate coastal erosion damage. Traditional
erosion structures, such as dykes, groins, and seawalls have fallen out of favor in recent years since they cause a
variety of adverse impacts, Plotkin (2013) . While not all studies proposed an exact recommendation for mitigating
sea level rise impacts, soft options were more frequently recommended.
2.5. Contamination of ground water by seawater intrusion
Contamination of groundwater caused by seawater intrusion is a major concern in many coastal aquifers, Llamas
and Custodio (2003). The intrusion of seawater into coastal aquifers has been studied for well over a century,
treating the problem in a variety of ways that range greatly in complexity.
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A. Masria et al. / Procedia Engineering 70 ( 2014 ) 1102 – 1111
Many analytical models are performed to address this problem. For example, Koussis et al.(2012) derived an
extended analytical solution that can be used to represent the problem of seawater intrusion in a wide range of
different regional aquifer, water demand, groundwater management and climatic conditions to assess vulnerability.
Fig. 1. (a) Sketch map of the main causes of coastal erosion; (b) Sketch map of the prevention measures against erosion.
2.6. Coastal Floods
Coastal flooding can result from a variety of different causes including storm surges created by storms like
hurricanes and tropical cyclones, rising sea levels due to climate change and by tsunamis. It can result in a wide
variety of socio-economic and environmental impacts on different spatial and temporal scales. Flooding can
destroy coastal habitats and can erode dune systems, Nicholls (2002). Many preventive measures have been used
like, engineered (hard engineering) and natural defenses (i.e. gravel bar, sand dune, mangrove systems) to protect
areas from flooding. To make a prediction and assessment for the effect of flooding a lot of studies were
performed, for example, Bates et al. (2005)applied simple two-dimensional hydraulic model for use in assessments
of coastal flood risk. Poulter and Halpin (2008) used digital elevation data to evaluate coastal vulnerability
to flooding at various horizontal and vertical resolutions.
2.7. Siltation problems in harbor and estuary iterance
The closure of the harbor and river mouth, caused by sediment accumulation, is a universal problem found
in various countries such as USA, Italy, Spain, Japan, China and Egypt , Ahmed (2004). It does not only affect
navigation process but also may have adverse impacts on salt marsh habitat and decreasing the hydraulic capacity
of the waterway. To overcome problems with siltation at the entrance to Bandy Creek Boat Harbor, Esperance. ,
Boreham (1991) selected a strategy involved the construction of an angled off-shore breakwater designed to act as
a one-way sand trap. In Egypt , Rosetta's estuary suffers from the siltation problem, Ahmed (2004) simulated the
situation at the inlet of Rosetta by Delft3D using some scenarios(different structures at the inlet in an attempt to
get the best solution for the problem.
3. The Integrated coastal zone management
Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) deals with the management of the coastal zone as a whole in
relation to local, regional, national and international goals. It implies interactions between various activities,
sectors, and resource demands.
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3.1. Coastal zone management for the new century; some cases around the world
Fortunately, the ICZM process has evolved to the point as it becomes ready to contribute to solve coastal zone
issues. The ICZM process is flexible. It can concentrate on the hazards of coastal erosion, as in Sri Lanka's ICZM
program; on fisheries, as in the emerging Philippines ICZM program; on coastal and marine protected areas, as in
the proposed Saudi Arabia ICZM strategy; on shrimp aquaculture, as in Ecuador; on a 'networking' approach, as in
Oman or on land use, as in the United States ICZM program , Clark (1998).
There are many countries around the world which face the coastal zone issues decided to follow the strategy of
integrated coastal zone management .Some cases are mentioned below:
In India, although Strength, Weakness, Opportunity and Threat (SWOT) analysis is carried out to identify
strategic directions of Coastal Regulation Zone practice/system. The analysis revealed that while considerable
progress was achieved through successive amendments such as resource conservation and pollution control,
implementation of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) program in various coastal states, Panigrahi and
Mohanty (2012).
In Bengal bay, Lakshmi and Edward (2010) examined the severe coastal issues of Sagar Island that include
coastal erosion, threat to biodiversity, natural hazards, tourism and livelihood insecurity of local communities.
They recommended adoption of a management strategy by implementing the Integrated Coastal Zone
Management (ICZM) in order to mitigate these coastal issues and to ensure sustainable development of the coastal
environment. Proper diagnosing of coastal issues at the grass root level, timely stakeholder participation for coastal
management and the use of soft technologies with the help of bio-shields to combat erosion and environmental
protection through capacity building and awareness programs for local communities.
Ko and Chang (2012) developed an integrated modeling framework called MOPSD (Multi-Objective
Programming and System Dynamic) that can be used for spatial land use planning in coastal areas. This method is
a combination of both traditional models (optimization and simulation) used for coastal zone planning .The case
study was Cijin Island, located next to the Kaohsiung harbor, Taiwan; this location demonstrates that the proposed
MOPSD modeling approach generates superior results when compared to each of the two traditional methods. as it
generates non-inferior solutions as spatial planning alternatives for decision makers to choose from. The dynamic
and causal relationship between land use and coastal development is also delineated in the MOPSD model to assess
the effect of spatial planning scenarios.
4. The coastal area of Egypt
The coasts of Egypt extend over more than 3500 km along the Eastern Mediterranean and the Red Sea Fig (2).
The Mediterranean coast of Egypt can be divided into four main sub regions, Frihy and El-Sayed(2012): the
northwest coastal sector extends from Sallum to Alexandria. The Alexandria coastal sector extends further
eastward from Hammam to Abu Qir. Then, the Nile Delta coastal sector extends all the way to Port Said in the
East. The easternmost sector of the Mediterranean coast of Egypt is the North Sinai coastal sector, which extends
from Port Said to Rafah. This sector consists of large dunes that can reach considerable heights, thus naturally
protecting the coastal area.
5. Egyptian coastal problems
The coastal zone of Egypt in particular, is most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, not only because of
the impact of sea-level rise, but also because of the impacts of water, agriculture human settlements, etc..
5.1The North West Coastal sector from Sallum to Alexandria:
Although the western-Mediterranean coast of Egypt between Sallum and Alexandria, ~520
km long, has
maintained a considerable equilibrium throughout history, developers have built traditional protective structures to
form sheltered recreational beaches without taking into consideration its geomorphologic characteristics ,
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Frihy(2009). These interventions resulted in major erosion and siltation problems along this zone, mainly resulted
from human interventions. Many investigators discussed these coastal problems and concluded that the insufficient
local data and the misunderstanding of marine processes prevailing at the project sites are the main reasons for the
poor design of coastal structures in this region , Iskander (2010).
Fig. 2. The coastal zone area of Egypt
5.2Alexandria coastal sector
Degradation of water quality due to land-based pollution is a major problem in the Mediterranean coastal areas.
One of the “hot spots” are located in Alexandria is Lake Mariout which considered a major source of pollution to
the Mediterranean Sea through El Mex Bay. The Lake Mariout receives polluted water from many
sources(industrial, domestic wastes, etc..), AICZMP (2009)
Based on vulnerability assessment to global climate change, El-Raey (1997), The findings showed a high
vulnerability and severe economic losses. About 30% of the Alexandria city will be lost due to inundation. Over
1.5 million people will have to be moved away, 195000 jobs will be lost and an economic loss of land and
properties of over $30 billions are expected over the next century if no action is taken.
5.3The Nile Delta Coastal sector
The Nile Delta coast is located in the middle part of the Mediterranean coast of Egypt between Abu-Quir head
land in the west and Port-Said in the east with total length of about 240.0 km. Within the last few years, the Nile
Delta has experienced considerable changes in environmental conditions. Some of them have been of natural, some
of anthropogenic origin, Syvitski et al.(2009). For instance, there is erosion along the Delta coast, El Banna and
Frihy, (2009); Frihy et al.(2008)and the drying up of wetlands, El-Asmar and Hereher (2010), which occurs during
expansions of agricultural production areas. These changes increase the vulnerability of the coastal zone regard to
sea level rise especially with removing the natural protection and increase the likelihood of land subsidence. The
main coastal problems within this zone are as following, Iskander (2010):
• Erosion problems due to dynamic factors and reduction in sediment supply from the Nile River after
construction of High Aswan Dam (Rosetta, Burullus and Damietta headland, Baltim beach resort, Ras El Bar
sea resort, and flooding of Damietta- Port Said road).
• Local erosion problems due to protective measures (revetment of Rosetta estuary, sea wall of Burg El Burullus
and recently the basalt flexible revetment, detached breakwaters of Baltim beach, vertical seawall east of
Damietta Nile estuary, and El Gamil breakwaters).
• Siltation problems in estuaries (Rosetta and Damietta); lake outlets (Idku, Burullus and Manzala) and drain
outlets in the sea (Gamasa and Kitchener).
1108 A. Masria et al. / Procedia Engineering 70 ( 2014 ) 1102 – 1111
• Pollution problems on parts of the Nile Delta coastline, especially in connection with the coastal lagoons like
Lake Edku, one of the northern Nile Delta lakes in Egypt, experience a great pollution , Abd-Alah (1999).
• The modern rates of subsidence of sections of the northeastern Nile Delta were evaluated by Becker and Sultan
(2009). Results indicated that there is highly threatened areas at the terminus of the Damietta and possibly the
Rosetta branches, where active deposition is occurring.
• Vulnerability to sea level rise (The coastal zone between Kitchener drain and Damietta spit in the northeastern
Nile Delta previously recognized as a vulnerable zone to the effects of any sea-level rise resulting from global
warming. It is expected that erosion will continue along the most exposed unprotected parts of this coastline.
This is due to the construction of the High Aswan Dam which prevents the sediments and the flood water from
reaching the sea, also due to the combined action of waves and currents and because of the side effects of the
protected areas, Fanos et al.( 1995).
5.1.3 The North Sinai Coastal sector
Sinai Coast of Mediterranean Sea extends from Port Said in the west to Rafah in the east with a total length of
about 250 km. The sandy section of the coastline from El-Arish eastward suffers from erosion caused by the
construction of the El-Arish power plant breakwaters in 1995 and El-Arish fishing harbor in 1982. The coastal
problems along this zone are mainly due to anthropogenic influences and the combined action of waves and
currents , Iskander (2010).
5.1.4 The Red Sea and Gulfs Coastal sector
This zone consists of the coastlines along the Gulf of Suez, the Gulf of Aqaba and the Red Sea with a total
length of 2000 km. The natural configuration of the coral reef profile shape in this region doesn’t provide a sloping
beach suitable for recreation activities. This nature has forced the developers of the village to carry out many
infringements in front of their villages on the near-shore coastal zone. Accordingly, the small corals and sea grass
in the reef flat and in the near-shore zone have suffered dramatic degradation, or even permanent destruction that
affected the developer’s income as the coastal environment is the main item in tourist attraction.
The main threat along this zone is the damage of the flora and fauna, whereas coastal erosion problems are only
local and not an important planning aspect along this sector Frihy et al.( 2006). Some of the negative effects
include the consequences of pollution, shoreline erosion and flooding, deterioration of the natural resources and
habitats and oil spills in this zone, EEAA (2005).
6. Proposed Coastal Protection for the Egyptian coasts
6.1 North West Coastal sector from Sallum to Alexandria
Erosion and sedimentation problems can be overcome by perched beaches. In addition, the tourist villages can
be protected by floating or submerged breakwater, Iskander (2010). Rakha (2001) used a numerical model to
estimate the shoreline changes resulting from the construction of four detached breakwaters along Marabella Resort
to determine the beach nourishment requirements to protect the down-drift beaches.
6.2 Alexandria coastal sector
Frihy et al.(1996) recommended to Place a temporary wood fences on the backside of beaches to trap wind-
blown sand in winter storms, and to exploitation and development of the Eastern harbor by creating a new
recreational beach around the Corniche margin by dredging of borrowed material from the bottom of the harbor
during development of this project will also facilitate greater water depth for larger ships.
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6.3 Nile Delta coastal zone
Nile Delta faces many problems, like erosion, due to the lack in sediment supply from the River Nile, which can
be overcome by dividing the beaches into small cells by using headlands , Iskander (2010). The suitable cell size
can be achieved using numerical and physical models. This solution may have the ability to minimize the sediment
transport outside each cell and stop the retreat of the beaches.
• The flood problems of the low land and sabkha(flat and very saline areas of sand or silt lying just above the
water-table) can be partially stabilized by using sand dunes with vegetation to support the outside face.
• Siltation problem of the lake entrances, drains and river outlets can be solved by dredging or by increasing the
water velocity across the mouth by using the equilibrium cross section or by using open cycle pumping system.
Also constructed jetties with sand bypass from upstream side to downstream side can also solve this problem.
• The pollution problem in the northern lakes can be solved by controlling the pollution sources or by the
increase of circulation system between the lakes and the sea.
Recently, a hydrodynamic model for Rosetta Inlet is investigated numerically to overcome coastal shoreline
erosion and siltation problems, and is expected to finish at the end of 2013. This study aims to apply soft approach
in terms of reestablishment of natural hydrologic conditions such as providing a unique discharge processes and
sediments through the estuary to predict the effect of natural conditions for Rosetta coastal area.
6.4North Sinai Coastal sector
GIS remote sensing studies were performed to assess vulnerability in the coastal zone, Azab and Noor(2003).
This zone has very active surf zone and any structure within this area can cause extreme environmental problem.
So, it is recommended to avoid executing any obstacle structure within this area , Iskander(2010).
6.5 Red Sea and Gulfs Coastal sector
As pollution is considered the main problem, the floating structures in this region can be adopted as it proved
be successful , Frihy et al.( 2006)
7. Assessing progress toward integrated coastal zone management in Egypt
The integrated coastal zone management approach (ICZM) is a necessary tool for long-term sustainable
development of the coastal area in Egypt. An international and national pressure encouraged and persuaded Egypt
to adopt ICZM to try to address these challenges .External pressure has been represented in World Bank and other
international donors .Internally there has also been a bottom-up regional demand for ICZM as an attempt to control
haphazard development of different economic sectors , El Ghorab (2006). Subsequently since the mid of 1990s
several attempts have been made to promote ICZM, although none have achieved their goal of having an effective
ICZM plan nationally and locally. Within the context of the developing world countries, there have been few
critical and analytical evaluations of why ICZM experiments have failed especially in Egypt. This is attributed to
some factors as following , Ibrahim and Shaw (2012):
• Using top-down approach: A top-down approach to coastal management initiatives still predominates.
• Lack of capacity: at the local level, there is a great need for more qualified staff in the field of ICZM .
• Inadequate legal framework: The absence and disintegration of legalized laws to deal with coastal zone issues.
• Random of responsibilities at national and local levels: no effective coordination between all coastal actors at
all levels of governance.
• No adequate financial resources are being allocated.
• Lack of stakeholder involvements.
It is concluded that the integrated coastal zone management approach (ICZM) is an essential tool for long-term
sustainable development of the coastal area in Egypt , El-Raey (1997).
1110 A. Masria et al. / Procedia Engineering 70 ( 2014 ) 1102 – 1111
8. Recent projects and proposals regarding integrated coastal zone management in Egypt
The Government of Egypt, represented by (EEAA) is currently preparing the Alexandria Integrated Coastal
Zone Management Project (AICZM) which has the following main objectives:
• To supply a strategic framework and immediate small- scale investments to reduce the load of land- based
sources of pollution entering the Mediterranean Sea in the hot spots" of El Mex Bay and Lake Mariout; and
• To protect/restore globally significant coastal heritage and ecosystem processes by supporting the Government
of Egypt's efforts to develop and implement a National Coastal Zone Management Plan.
The second project "Adaptation to Climate Change in the Nile Delta through Integrated Coastal Zone
Management" . The program period (2009-2014) aims to integrate the management of SLR risks into the
development of Egypt’s Low Elevation Coastal Zone (LECZ) in the Nile Delta by strengthening the regulatory
framework and institutional capacity to improve resilience of coastal settlements and development infrastructure,
implement innovative and environmentally friendly measures that facilitate/promote adaptation in the Nile Delta,
and establish a monitoring and assessment framework and knowledge management systems on adaptation.
9. Conclusion, and recommendation
This paper introduces a survey of the coastal zone issues worldwide and then focuses in Egypt. The main aim
is to assess the different approaches dealing with the coastal zone issues illustrated by some case studies around the
world and the posed solutions suggested. One of the more significant findings to emerge from this study is that the
Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) strategy is the predominant attitude of almost all the world to
achieve the sustainable use of coastal zone resources, preserving biodiversity and habitat. The traditional
protection, it proved to be a temporary solution and have a negative effect on the environment and the beach uses
as well as costly solution. In order to achieve sustainable development of the coastal zone, coastal resources should
not be handled separately from the rest of the ecosystem and from other resource demands.
Moreover, this paper identified the coastal zone problems in Egypt accompanying with some proposed
solutions to enhance the dramatic situation. Based on the review of the Egyptian ICZM initiatives , it can be
concluded that Egypt in general still suffers from centralization and all the decrees and good intentions towards
decentralization need to be practised in reality. Although there are some evidence of moves towards
decentralization in Egypt, the process is still in its initial stages and needs support to enhance ICZM
implementation. This means that the ICZM structure in Egypt lack clarity and a systematic approach.
Acknowledgment
The first author is supported by a scholarship from the Mission Department, Ministry of Higher
Education of the Government of Egypt which is gratefully acknowledged.
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