No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Emotional and Behavioral Responses to Workplace Incivility and the Impact of Hierarchical Status
Abstract
Using appraisal theory, this research examined targets' emotional responses to workplace incivility, and how these responses impact targets' behavioral responses. Targets who reported greater incivility reported greater anger, fear, and sadness. Targets' anger was associated with more direct aggression against the instigators; targets' fear was associated with indirect aggression against instigators, absenteeism, and exit; and targets' sadness was associated with absenteeism. Status moderated the effects of fear and sadness. Our results underscore the need for organizations to manage civility so that they and their employees can avoid substantial direct and indirect costs associated with workplace incivility. At a broader level, our results suggest the importance of developing greater awareness about the harmful effects of fear and sadness in the workplace.
... Briefly, the CMR theory suggests that when people face a stressor, they appraise the situation and experience specific emotions as a response. In the context of customer incivility, this appraisal involves assessing potential challenges, threats to job performance, and resource availability, which may determine emotional responses such as hostility, guilt, anger, fear, and sadness (Grandey, Kern, & Frone, 2007;Porath & Pearson, 2012;Yagil, 2008). Recognizing incivility as a negative behavior, this study focuses on three key negative emotions: anger, fear, and sadness. ...
... The outcome of this process may be that the employee feels that their expectations for interpersonal interaction were not met (Pearson et al., 2001;Porath et al., 2008). Uncivil behaviors can also be perceived as a violation of the target's self-esteem and social status (Pearson, Andersson, & Porath, 2000;Porath & Pearson, 2012). In the next stage, the secondary appraisal involves assessing accountability for the unfair behavior. ...
... Thus, when facing customer incivility, the employee's sense of powerlessness may arise (Thacker, 1996;Thacker & Ferris, 1991). In addition, the employee's low ability to control the unfavorable outcomes that may follow customer incivility can lead to a sense of hopelessness (Porath & Pearson, 2012). Thus, we propose the following: ...
Purpose
The primary purpose of this study is to analyze the effects of customer incivility on employees' negative emotions (i.e. anger, fear and sadness) considering the moderating role of organizational power distance.
Design/methodology/approach
A survey sample comprising 312 service employees was collected from 51 Taiwanese and Vietnamese companies spanning different industries. Given the multilevel characteristics of the data structure, hierarchical linear modeling was used to rigorously test the proposed hypotheses.
Findings
The results indicate a significant contribution of customer incivility to employees' negative emotions. Notably, this impact is more pronounced among employees in organizations characterized by low power distance compared to those in organizations with high power distance.
Originality/value
This research significantly advances our understanding of the emotional repercussions of customer incivility on employees by integrating cognitive–motivational–relational theory and organizational culture perspectives. The findings not only provide valuable theoretical insights but also offer practical implications for effectively managing employee well-being in culturally diverse contexts. The study recognizes certain limitations and puts forth suggestions for future research directions.
... Keywords Enacted incivility · Guilt · Prosocial motivation · Venting · Task performance For many employees, incivility is unfortunately a common experience at work (Porath & Pearson, 2012;Rosen et al., 2016). For example, one poll conducted across 14 years suggested that 98% of employees had experienced incivility at work, and a 2011 survey showed that 50% of respondents reported experiencing rudeness at least once a week (Porath & Pearson, 2013). ...
... Keywords Enacted incivility · Guilt · Prosocial motivation · Venting · Task performance For many employees, incivility is unfortunately a common experience at work (Porath & Pearson, 2012;Rosen et al., 2016). For example, one poll conducted across 14 years suggested that 98% of employees had experienced incivility at work, and a 2011 survey showed that 50% of respondents reported experiencing rudeness at least once a week (Porath & Pearson, 2013). Workplace incivility involves rude behaviors that violate social norms and is characterized by disregard for others (Andersson & Pearson, 1999; for a recent meta-analysis, see Yao et al., 2022). ...
... Workplace incivility involves rude behaviors that violate social norms and is characterized by disregard for others (Andersson & Pearson, 1999; for a recent meta-analysis, see Yao et al., 2022). Since the introduction of this construct by Cortina and colleagues (2001), the literature has carefully examined the consequences that accrue to targets of this pernicious behavior (Schilpzand et al., 2016), such as increased stress (Bowling & Beehr, 2006), decreased work effort (Porath & Pearson, 2013), as well as reduced performance (Porath & Pearson, 2013). ...
The majority of workplace incivility research has focused on implications of such acts for victims and observers. We extend this work in meaningful ways by proposing that, due to its norm-violating nature, incivility may have important implications for perpetrators as well. Integrating social norms theory and research on guilt with the behavioral concordance model, we take an actor-centric approach to argue that enacted incivility will lead to feelings of guilt, particularly for prosocially-motivated employees. In addition, given the interpersonally burdensome as well as the reparative nature of guilt, we submit that incivility-induced guilt will be associated with complex behavioral outcomes for the actor across both home and work domains. Through an experience sampling study (Study 1) and two experiments (Studies 2a and 2b), we found that enacting incivility led to increased feelings of guilt, especially for those higher in prosocial motivation (Studies 1 and 2a). In addition, supporting our expectations, Study 1 revealed that enacted incivility—via guilt—led to increased venting to one’s spouse that evening at home, increased performance the next day at work, as well as decreased enacted incivility the next day at work. Our findings demonstrate that enacted incivility has complex effects for actors that span the home and work domains. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of our results.
... One key aspect that resonates with this review's focus is the primary appraisal, in which individuals assess how workplace incivility and ostracism may threaten their well-being and, importantly, their dignity. For example, Porath and Pearson (2012) employed this framework to investigate the target's emotional reaction to workplace incivility, offering insights into the emotional responses that prompt behavioral reactions. Similarly, Hanley and Garland (2014) used this theoretical lens to explore the integration of coping resources and styles, indicating that the response to workplace ostracism is contingent on the target's access to personal resources. ...
... Individuals' perceived control over outcomes, also known as internal locus of control, plays a significant role in shaping their coping strategies (Zhou et al. 2019;Porath et al. 2012). When people feel they have considerable control over events, they are more likely to adopt positive, constructive coping strategies. ...
... Fatima 2018), Emotional stability(Kabat-Farr et al. 2018; Internal locus of control(Zhou et al. 2019;Porath et al. 2012), Hostile attribution bias(Zhou et al. 2019; Humour appreciation(Collinson 2002;Kuiper et al. 1992), Core self-evaluation(Beattie and Griffin 2014), Sense of coherence(Nielsen et al. 2008), Personality such as Proactive personality (Park and DeFrank 2018), Conscientiousness (Welbourne et al. 2016), Positive appraisal of the uncivil situation (Cortina and Magley 2009), Self-perception of competence (McDaniel et al. 2015), Ability to defend -low exposure only (Nielsen et al. 2008), Dispositional optimism (Myers and Steed 1999; Chang 1998), Positive affect (Folkman and Moskowitz 2000) Social Dynamics Social network dynamics (Cortina et al. 2022), Objective characteristics of the situation (Cortina and Magley 2009), Social power and Status (Cortina and Magley 2009; Porath et al. 2008) Family support (Bakker et al. 2019), Workplace friendship (Methot et al. 2016) Organization environment Leadership such as positive leader-member exchange quality (Lee et al. 2021), Supportive Policies (Beale and Hoel 2011), Organization climate such as Psychosocial safety climate ...
... One key aspect that resonates with this review's focus is the primary appraisal, in which individuals assess how workplace incivility and ostracism may threaten their well-being and, importantly, their dignity. For example, Porath and Pearson (2012) employed this framework to investigate the target's emotional reaction to workplace incivility, offering insights into the emotional responses that prompt behavioral reactions. Similarly, Hanley and Garland (2014) used this theoretical lens to explore the integration of coping resources and styles, indicating that the response to workplace ostracism is contingent on the target's access to personal resources. ...
... Individuals' perceived control over outcomes, also known as internal locus of control, plays a significant role in shaping their coping strategies (Zhou et al. 2019;Porath et al. 2012). When people feel they have considerable control over events, they are more likely to adopt positive, constructive coping strategies. ...
... Fatima 2018), Emotional stability(Kabat-Farr et al. 2018; Internal locus of control(Zhou et al. 2019;Porath et al. 2012), Hostile attribution bias(Zhou et al. 2019; Humour appreciation(Collinson 2002;Kuiper et al. 1992), Core self-evaluation(Beattie and Griffin 2014), Sense of coherence(Nielsen et al. 2008), Personality such as Proactive personality (Park and DeFrank 2018), Conscientiousness (Welbourne et al. 2016), Positive appraisal of the uncivil situation (Cortina and Magley 2009), Self-perception of competence (McDaniel et al. 2015), Ability to defend -low exposure only (Nielsen et al. 2008), Dispositional optimism (Myers and Steed 1999; Chang 1998), Positive affect (Folkman and Moskowitz 2000) Social Dynamics Social network dynamics (Cortina et al. 2022), Objective characteristics of the situation (Cortina and Magley 2009), Social power and Status (Cortina and Magley 2009; Porath et al. 2008) Family support (Bakker et al. 2019), Workplace friendship (Methot et al. 2016) Organization environment Leadership such as positive leader-member exchange quality (Lee et al. 2021), Supportive Policies (Beale and Hoel 2011), Organization climate such as Psychosocial safety climate ...
Navigating a toxic work environment can be challenging, and if not addressed, it can escalate into personal as well as organizational-level conflicts. It can also have implications beyond workplace discord, affecting employee morale, job efficiency, job satisfaction, and physical and mental well-being. While many prior studies have probed these issues, the literature on positive or constructive coping strategies is neither exhaustive nor conclusive. Therefore, this paper investigates constructive coping mechanisms in toxic settings using a comprehensive review of 105 peer-reviewed articles spanning three decades until 2023. To investigate various aspects of constructive coping strategies, this review develops a conceptual framework of constructive coping mechanism-induced restoration of self-dignity. This review attempts to identify effective and ineffective coping responses and the nuanced dynamics of preserving and losing self-dignity. When facing adversity, it is essential to maintain control over one’s actions and attitudes, as highlighted by the individualized nature of coping processes. Thus, this review focuses on constructive coping strategies to address negative behaviours while restoring employees’ self-dignity. Overall, the findings from this review have significant takeaways for scholars and practitioners in organizational behavior, advocating for proactive measures to combat workplace toxicity. Ultimately, the study champions cultivating a workplace culture that prioritizes respect and inclusion while recognizing the pivotal role of positive or constructive coping strategies in achieving these goals.
... As a representation of mild violent interpersonal experience, incivility shapes the social context in which individual resources are consumed. Research has revealed that incivility leads to negative emotional states; targets of incivility report adverse feelings such as anger, fear, sadness (Porath & Pearson, 2012), stress, and irritation (Miner et al., 2019;Schilpzand et al., 2016). Irritation is the experience of uncertainty triggered by a discrepancy between a given situation and the ability to achieve an important personal goal (Mohr et al., 2006;Porath & Pearson, 2012). ...
... Research has revealed that incivility leads to negative emotional states; targets of incivility report adverse feelings such as anger, fear, sadness (Porath & Pearson, 2012), stress, and irritation (Miner et al., 2019;Schilpzand et al., 2016). Irritation is the experience of uncertainty triggered by a discrepancy between a given situation and the ability to achieve an important personal goal (Mohr et al., 2006;Porath & Pearson, 2012). It includes two complementary mechanisms. ...
While revenge has captured the attention of researchers, certain nuances have been disregarded. Some studies have recognized the existence of two distinct forms of revenge — “hot” or “cold” — but the specific conditions underlying these variants have been overlooked. The present two studies delve into the boundary conditions that differentiate hot and cold revenge. By analyzing data collected from 172 and 107 preschool teachers in studies one and two, respectively, this research confirms the presence of both emotional (hot) and calculated (cold) revenge responses. Furthermore, it uncovers the mechanisms driving these two revenge types and identifies a trade-off between vertical solidarity motivated by pragmatic ambitions and revenge, representing divergent resource acquisition strategies. The findings' relevance for decreasing vindictive behaviours and future research avenues are discussed.
... Emotion has been studied at both the macro and micro levels (Stets, 2012). For example, Porath and Pearson (2012) examined the association between workplace incivility and negative emotions such as anger, fear, and sadness. These emotions have been explored as primary negative emotions by numerous scholars (Frijda, 1993;Kemper, 1981Kemper, , 1991Plutchik, 1980) and must be managed by organizations (Brief & Weiss, 2002;Pinder, 2014). ...
... The three negative emotions influencing organizational behaviors (anger, fear, and sadness) were considered dependent variables. Porath and Pearson (2012). Anger was measured using three items (angry, irritated, and indignant), fear using three items (afraid, scared, and nervous), and sadness using three items (sad, disappointed, and downhearted). ...
This study investigated the role of bricolage behavior in fostering team members’ resilience and regulating negative emotions in the workplace and explored the moderating effect of team-level power distance on the association between bricolage and resilience. Data were collected from 63 small teams of registered nurses, and a cross-level model was employed to evaluate the hypothesized relationships. The results of the analysis demonstrated that team members’ bricolage behavior is positively correlated with resilience and that this association is stronger when the team-level power distance is higher. Additionally, resilience mediates the association between bricolage and negative emotions. Therefore, this study proposes bricolage as a behaviorally oriented approach to enhancing workplace resilience and emphasizes the importance of cultural factors, such as power distance, to understanding the boundary conditions of the bricolage–resilience relationship. Future research should explore other cultural dimensions and examine the role of bricolage in various organizational contexts. Organizations should encourage and support bricolage behavior to foster resilience and counteract negative emotions, and managers should consider the effect of team power distance on the effectiveness of bricolage behavior.
... Insight into this question is essential since different affective experiences can motivate different behavioural tendencies (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996). Indeed, research suggests that sad mood can motivate withdrawal in response to workplace incivility, whereas angry mood can motivate approach-oriented behaviours (e.g., Porath & Pearson, 2012). Building on these findings, we highlight the role of affective job insecurity as a factor that may explain these differences. ...
... Notably, it gains relevance in light of research identifying angry and sad mood as mechanisms that link workplace incivility to different behavioural responses. In particular, research has indicated that anger mediates the link between workplace incivility and retaliatory actions, whereas sadness mediates the link between workplace incivility and withdrawal (Porath & Pearson, 2012). Drawing on this research, our findings suggest an affective response pattern that could make conflict escalation less likely (Andersson & Pearson, 1999). ...
Blue-collar temporary agency workers may confront daily workplace incivility, based on their status as outsiders in the user company, and affective job insecurity, based on their unstable employment situation. Building on the employment-health dilemma (Kößler, F. J., Wesche, J. S., & Hoppe, A. (2023). In a no-win situation: The employment–health dilemma. Applied Psychology, 72(1), 64–84) and the cognitive appraisal theory of emotion (Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. Oxford University Press), we examine how these factors jointly shape workers’ daily affective experiences. We assume that workers with high levels of affective job insecurity feel less capable to fight back against workplace incivility. Consequently, we hypothesize that these workers are less likely to respond to daily workplace incivility with angry mood and more likely to respond with sad mood. To address our hypotheses, we conducted a daily diary study in Switzerland with 95 blue-collar temporary agency workers. As expected, affective job insecurity weakened the link between daily workplace incivility and angry mood, whereas it strengthened the link between daily workplace incivility and sad mood. In sum, our findings suggest that worries and fears related to keeping one’s job can alter how workers respond to daily workplace incivility. We discuss our findings in the context of temporary agency work.
... Incivility does show a robust link to resource depletion across studies. Incivility contributes to employees' resource depletion because (a) it triggers strong negative emotions such as depression, anxiety, and frustration, which erode employees' emotional resources (Tremmel and Sonnentag, 2017), (b) it violates organizational norms of mutual respect, which threaten or consume employees' personal resources such as dignity, sense of value, and favorable self-evaluation (Andersson and Pearson, 1999;Porath and Pearson, 2012;Taylor et al., 2017), (c) it impedes social interactions, which threaten employees' socialcapital resources, such as social identity and good social relations (Porath and Pearson, 2012;Taylor et al., 2017), and (d) it induce incivility-related negative work rumination, which inhibits the creation of new resources during non-work time (Nicholson and Griffin, 2015;Demsky et al., 2019). Given that people's resource pool is limited in capacity, not infinite, the resource-draining situations of incivility inevitably exhaust the total resources and reduce employees' energy that accomplishes family tasks. ...
... Incivility does show a robust link to resource depletion across studies. Incivility contributes to employees' resource depletion because (a) it triggers strong negative emotions such as depression, anxiety, and frustration, which erode employees' emotional resources (Tremmel and Sonnentag, 2017), (b) it violates organizational norms of mutual respect, which threaten or consume employees' personal resources such as dignity, sense of value, and favorable self-evaluation (Andersson and Pearson, 1999;Porath and Pearson, 2012;Taylor et al., 2017), (c) it impedes social interactions, which threaten employees' socialcapital resources, such as social identity and good social relations (Porath and Pearson, 2012;Taylor et al., 2017), and (d) it induce incivility-related negative work rumination, which inhibits the creation of new resources during non-work time (Nicholson and Griffin, 2015;Demsky et al., 2019). Given that people's resource pool is limited in capacity, not infinite, the resource-draining situations of incivility inevitably exhaust the total resources and reduce employees' energy that accomplishes family tasks. ...
The effects of workplace incivility have been understudied in educational settings. To expand incivility research to educational professions, the present research investigates whether, how, and when workplace incivility deriving from different sources (coworkers, supervisors, and outsiders) is related to work-to-family interference (WFI) of preschool teachers. Drawing on the conservation of resources theory, the present study proposes that workplace incivility and subsequent maladaptive emotion labor strategies (i.e., surface acting) jointly create a resource-depletion mechanism contributing to elevated WFI and two resource-providing variables (supervisor work–family support and psychological detachment after hours) function as potential mitigating factors to break the resource-depletion mechanism. This study used a female-dominated sample (i.e., preschool teachers) found that workplace incivility from insiders (supervisors and coworkers respectively) and external stakeholders (child’s family members) all positively linked to WFI, and surface acting mediated these relationships. Moreover, moderated mediation analyses indicated that psychological detachment buffered the mediated effect of surface acting on WFI, whereas supervisor work–family support did not. Findings deepen the understanding of why and when workplace incivility influences employees’ family lives, as well as point to future intervention strategies.
... Çalışanlar diğer mesai arkadaşlarına aşağılayıcı bir dil kullanarak (Porath & Pearson, 2012), onların; sözünü keserek, hiçe sayarak (Gallus, Bunk, Matthews, Barnes-Farrell, & Magley, 2014) veya selam vermeyerek (Wasti & Erdaş, 2019) nezaketsiz davranabilirler. Çalışanların neredeyse birçoğunun maruz kalabildiği iş yeri nezaketsizliği (Porath & Pearson, 2013), yol açtığı bireysel ve örgütsel sonuçlar (Han, Harold, Oh, Kim, & Agolli, 2022) sebebiyle önemli bir iş stresörü olarak değerlendirilir. ...
... Employees can be rude to others by using derogatory language (Porath & Pearson, 2012), interrupting, ignoring (Gallus et al., 2014), and/or not greeting (Wasti & Erdaş, 2019). Practically any employee can be exposed to workplace incivility (Porath & Pearson, 2013), which is considered an important work stressor based on its individual and organizational outcomes (Han et al., 2022). ...
There are research findings showing that workplace mobbing or incivility can be contagious and targets may react to such behaviors with mistreatment. However, the relationship between mobbing experience and instigated incivility, mechanisms explaining and factors strengthening this relationship has been relatively less examined. The current study aims to examine the mediating role of need satisfaction and moderating role of self-compassion in the relationship between mobbing and instigated incivility. It is hypothesized that mobbing is positively related to instigated incivility and negatively related to need satisfaction. Moreover, need satisfaction is proposed as mediator and self-compassion as moderator in the relationship between mobbing and instigated incivility. Study data was collected from 221 employees via an online survey. Hayes Process Macro was used to test hypotheses. Results revealed that mobbing was negatively related to need satisfaction and positively related to instigated incivility. Moreover, need satisfaction mediated the relationship between mobbing and instigated workplace incivility. But, self-compassion did not moderate the relationship between mobbing and instigated incivility. Exploratory study finding revealed that self-compassion moderated the relationship between mobbing and basic need satisfaction. In conclusion, different mistreatments might trigger each other by hindering need satisfaction and self-compassion might strengthen the effects of mobbing.
... Anger, an emotion that exists in every human is triggered when a person perceives a situation to be insulting, harmful or threatening, unpleasant, unfair, irresponsible, or when one's expectations are not met (Porath et al., 2010;Spielberger et al., 1995). Feeling angry, hence, signals one's displeasure with an action, blaming the other party for the situation, a challenged or threatened identity, as well as a bruised sense of self-worth (Barclay et al., 2005;Porath et al., 2010;Porath and Pearson, 2012). In the workplace, uncivil behaviour by others can be an anger-inducing environment (Porath and Pearson, 2012). ...
... Feeling angry, hence, signals one's displeasure with an action, blaming the other party for the situation, a challenged or threatened identity, as well as a bruised sense of self-worth (Barclay et al., 2005;Porath et al., 2010;Porath and Pearson, 2012). In the workplace, uncivil behaviour by others can be an anger-inducing environment (Porath and Pearson, 2012). Because workplace incivility is a form of bad behaviour, targets of incivility may experience anger following incivility incident. ...
... In practice, the consequences of rudeness (e.g., incivility) are experienced not only by those who directly experience the rudeness but also by those who interact with those who experience it (Foulk et al., 2016;Vahle-Hinz et al., 2019). In addition, studies have shown that employees exhibit sadness, anger, fear, and other negative emotions after experiencing workplace incivility (Porath & Pearson, 2012). They attempt to eliminate such emotions and may vent their frustration on third parties. ...
... First, to prevent employees from becoming victims of workplace incivility, the organization should make every effort to reduce its occurrence. Studies have shown that employees exhibit sadness, anger, fear, and other negative emotions and behaviors after experiencing workplace incivility (Porath & Pearson, 2012;Wang et al., 2022). For example, uncivil behavior by customers can lead to emotional exhaustion in employees (Kim & Qu, 2019), decrease employees' work happiness (Baker & Kim, 2020), and cause service disruptions (Cheng et al., 2020). ...
Studies on workplace incivility have typically posited that the targets of incivility respond in a “tit-for-tat” manner. Moving beyond this dominant logic, we argue that in some cases, the targets may have a different response to incivility that potentially reduces its spiraling negative consequences. Drawing on attribution theory, we explored the following two aspects of the targets’ responses: psychological motivation and subsequent behavioral response. Based on 555 samples of experience sampling data collected from 61 nurses over 10 workdays at a hospital in China, we found that the nurses’ attribution of incivility to either the uncivil patient or themselves moderated the relationship between the patients’ incivility and the employees’ psychological motivation. When the nurses attributed the reason for a patient’s incivility to the patient, their experience of incivility triggered their revenge motivation. In contrast, when the nurses attributed to themselves the reason for a patient’s incivility, their experience of incivility triggered their forgiveness motivation. Furthermore, we found that the nurses’ revenge motivation positively affected their subsequent incivility toward third parties, whereas their forgiveness motivation positively promoted their subsequent helping behavior toward third parties. This study enriches the application of attribution theory to the spillover effects of incivility toward third parties.
... Defensive silence may be a cultural artifact that, although it may shield workers from outside threats and anxieties, also puts belittling can set off a range of negative emotional consequences. These include negative emotions (Sakurai & Jex, 2012), end-of-work negative affect (Zhou et al., 2015), emotional labor (Sliter et al., 2010), psychological distress (Cortina et al., 2001;Lim & Cortina, 2005;Park et al., 2018), and feelings of sadness, fear, and guilt (Kabat-Farr et al., 2018;Porath & Pearson, 2012). Additionally, maltreatment of this kind has been connected to worsening mental health (Lim et al., 2008), ostracism-related sentiments (Caza & Cortina, 2007), and increased emotionality combined with decreased optimism (Bunk & Magley, 2013). ...
This study investigates the intricate dynamics between workplace mistreatment, defensive coping mechanisms, emotional exhaustion, and the moderating influence of spirituality in Pakistani service-sector organizations. Data was collected via self-reported online questionnaires from a diverse range of service-sector entities including banks, telecom firms, and higher education institutions. The study employed a cross-sectional method using non-probability convenient sampling, surveying permanent and contract workers from ten distinct organizations. Results revealed significant pathways from Workplace Incivility and Workplace Ostracism to Defensive Silence and Emotional Exhaustion, underscoring the detrimental impact of mistreatment on emotional well-being. Mediation analysis revealed the role of Defensive Silence as a mediator, elucidating how individuals subjected to mistreatment are inclined towards defensive coping, thereby amplifying emotional exhaustion. Importantly, moderation analysis reveals spirituality as a buffering mechanism against mistreatment’s adverse effects, mitigating the risk of emotional exhaustion. The study’s findings underscore the imperative for organizations to address mistreatment and foster open communication to alleviate emotional strain among employees. Furthermore, recognizing spirituality as a protective factor emphasizes the need for holistic approaches to employee well-being. By elucidating these relationships, the study provides valuable insights for organizations seeking to cultivate healthier work environments and support employees’ emotional resilience.
... Emotions, including anger, appear to be influential in shaping participants' behaviours. This is consistent with the findings of Porath and Pearson (2012), who emphasised that anger often arises as a response to perceived injustice or threats. Additionally, as Van Kleef (2014) noted, individuals' behaviour tends to align with their emotional state. ...
Orientation: Microinequities, encompassing subtle, unintended and disconcerting behaviours directed towards colleagues, detrimentally influence employee productivity and hinder organisational goals’ attainment within the workplace setting. Research purpose: This study aimed to examine the nature and influence of microinequities within a workplace environment in Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, and propose strategies for mitigating their occurrence. Motivation for the study: Microinequities need to be explored in terms of their influence, typology and specific manifestations within the South African workplace. Research approach/design and method: An interpretive qualitative research design, using 13 semi-structured interviews conducted with employees from a South African manufacturing company. Nonprobability convenience sampling was used. Thematic content analysis was employed for data analysis. Main findings: Study participants experienced diverse microinequity acts intertwined with power dynamics, manifesting through subtle discriminatory actions and personal aggressions hampering worker performance and organisational efficacy. These included interpersonal discrimination scenarios, toxic behaviours, rank-based bias and deviant practices, culminating in challenges across organisational levels. Practical/managerial implications: The findings can be incorporated into educational, mentorship, sponsorship and training initiatives for work personnel at all hierarchies. These can facilitate the managerial formulation and enforcement of nondiscriminatory, nonharassment policies. Cultivating transparent, rule-based and ethically sound work practices via two-way communication and an inclusive leadership approach is advocated. Contribution/value-add: This research makes a significant scholarly contribution to understanding microinequity dynamics within the South African context. Moreover, the study posits that managerial teams can operationalise the proffered recommendations to nurture an all-inclusive work ambience, enhance awareness, reinforce principles of equity and facilitate constructive dialogues concerning microinequities across diverse workforces.
... Retaliation helps employees assert their demands in such circumstances [92]. The everyday occurrence of uncivil behaviors in the workplace amplifies employees' experiences of negative emotions, and anger within negative emotions is more prominently magnified than fear or sadness; employees realize that their rights have been violated, and thus, they instigate other employees to engage in retaliation behavior against the organization [93]. Based on these theories, this study proposes the following hypothesis: Hypothesis 10. ...
With the global economic downturn, the impact on internal systems of Chinese SMEs has also received great attention. However, the provocative and destructive nature of retaliation behavior by SME employees shifts resources meant for organizational system development towards addressing internal balance issues. Employees’ retaliation behavior poses significant harm to organizations systems, limiting their long-term sustainability and competitiveness in the long run. This study argues for a close relationship between employee behavior and leadership management style, particularly in the context of inadequate management systems in SMEs, which can easily subject employees to direct influence from their leaders. For example, abusive supervision or oppressive practices at the management level can trigger resistance and rebellious behavior among employees, leading them to choose retaliatory actions as a response to the organizational system. This study aims to explore the causal relationship between abusive supervision and retaliation behavior within the system. We aim to clarify the pathway through which abusive supervision triggers retaliation behavior among employees within the system and examine the serial multiple mediating effects of psychological distress and negative emotions as well as the moderating effect of workplace incivility. To validate the hypotheses proposed in this study, a survey was conducted among employees of Chinese SMEs. The data provided by 303 employees were analyzed using SPSS ver. 26.0, AMOS ver. 23.0, and SPSS PROCESS Macro 3.4.1 Model 6. The findings indicate that abusive supervision has an indirect effect on employee retaliation behavior through the serial multiple mediating effects of psychological distress and negative emotions. Workplace incivility moderated the influence of negative emotions on retaliation. This study explored the process by which abusive management triggers retaliative behavior through a serial multiple mediation model, providing theoretical evidence for related research. This study explicitly reveals the process leading to retaliation behavior within the system and presents the differences from previous research. Additionally, this study demonstrates the interactive effect between abusive supervision and incivility through the moderating role of incivility in determining the level of retaliation behavior. Ultimately, this study has pioneering significance in exploring the causes of retaliation behavior within the Chinese SME organizational system and how to prevent the occurrence of retaliation behavior.
... It is a negative coil, in which Incivility is the cause of workplace hostility and organizational and relational skirmishes; further research gave foundation to this theory and found that a destructive spiral intensifies the aggression and generates a hostile work environment [69]. Targets of workplace Incivility exhibit negative sentiments by which aggression exist [70]. If a man is treated with uncivil behavior reciprocates with a cynical attitude of exacerbation to the organization [62]. ...
Workplace harassment is the most disliked behavior; it is about entering others' private space. It has dangerous consequences if the organizations do not control it. Perceived Incivility is a low-intensity deviant behavior that tends to apply damaging behavior; it may cause a wide range of mistreatment. This study investigates the effect of workplace harassment on organizational Cynicism in Pakistan, with the mediation of perceived Incivility and the moderating role of perceived organizational obstruction. Based on a sample of research students from various fields and institution types, the analysis supports the hypothesis that workplace harassment is positively related to perceived Incivility and organizational Cynicism.
Furthermore, perceived Incivility is positively related to organizational cynicism and may mediate the relationship between workplace harassment and organizational cynicism. However, contrary to expectations, perceived organizational obstruction appears to weaken rather than strengthen the relationship between perceived Incivility and organizational cynicism. The findings have important implications for understanding the complex interplay between workplace harassment, Incivility, organizational obstruction, and Cynicism and for developing interventions to mitigate the negative impact of harassment on employees and organizations.
... While BWCs may be used when there are incidents of both physical and verbal aggression, results indicate that they may also provoke verbal aggression, as was suggested during some interviews within this study. This should be a concern, as strong evidence that being repeatedly subject to verbal aggression and abuse can lead to burnout and withdrawal of care by staff [30]. These mixed findings reflect results that were reported in two earlier studies of BWCs on mental health wards [12,13]. ...
Background
Body worn cameras (BWC) are mobile audio and video capture devices that can be secured to clothing allowing the wearer to record some of what they see and hear. This technology is being introduced in a range of healthcare settings as part of larger violence reduction strategies aimed at reducing incidents of aggression and violence on inpatient wards, however limited evidence exists to understand if this technology achieves such goals.
Aim
This study aimed to evaluate the implementation of BWCs on two inpatient mental health wards, including the impact on incidents, the acceptability to staff and patients, the sustainability of the resource use and ability to manage the use of BWCs on these wards.
Methods
The study used a mixed-methods design comparing quantitative measures including ward activity and routinely collected incident data at three time-points before during and after the pilot implementation of BWCs on one acute ward and one psychiatric intensive care unit, alongside pre and post pilot qualitative interviews with patients and staff, analysed using a framework based on the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research.
Results
Results showed no clear relationship between the use of BWCs and rates or severity of incidents on either ward, with limited impact of using BWCs on levels of incidents. Qualitative findings noted mixed perceptions about the use of BWCs and highlighted the complexity of implementing such technology as a violence reduction method within a busy healthcare setting Furthermore, the qualitative data collected during this pilot period highlighted the potential systemic and contextual factors such as low staffing that may impact on the incident data presented.
Conclusion
This study sheds light on the complexities of using such BWCs as a tool for ‘maximising safety’ on mental health settings. The findings suggest that BWCs have a limited impact on levels of incidents on wards, something that is likely to be largely influenced by the process of implementation as well as a range of contextual factors. As a result, it is likely that while BWCs may see successes in one hospital site this is not guaranteed for another site as such factors will have a considerable impact on efficacy, acceptability, and feasibility.
... Behaviorally, workplace incivility leads to reduced performance and creativity (Porath & Erez, 2009;Liu Chang'e et al., 2018). Incivility affects organizational performance by increasing costs related to healthcare, litigation, and turnover (Porath & Pearson, 2013). It creates a negative work environment, reducing productivity and quality of work (Gonthier, 2002). ...
This study investigates the impact of workplace impoliteness on the work engagement of faculty in private universities in China. Employing a moderated chain mediation model, it explores the mediating roles of internal identity perception and organizational identity, as well as the moderating effect of self-perceived employ-ability. Hierarchical regression analysis confirms the negative influence of workplace impoliteness on work engagement, internal identity perception, and organizational identity. Empirical testing reveals the mediating effects of internal identity perception and organizational identity, individually and jointly, on the relationship between workplace impoliteness and work engagement. Moreover, the study validates the moderating role of self-perceived employ-ability on specific pathways within the theoretical model. The findings underscore the importance of addressing workplace impoliteness and enhancing work engagement in private university settings.
... This means that ratings of incivility exposure, to some extent, seem to change over time. If this is true, it highlights a potential validity issue in previous studies, where prevalence of incivility has been assessed retrospectively, as far back as the past year (Blau and Andersson 2005;Cortina et al. 2011;Porath and Pearson 2012) or 5 years (Cortina et al. 2001), for instance. If incivility ratings fluctuate over time, one or more years of retrospective ratings may yield misleading results. ...
Aim
Incivility is one of the most intrusive forms of antisocial behavior in the workplace. Using a newly constructed, single-item measure of incivility, the aim of the current study was to assess the possible prevalence of incivility in a sample from the Swedish retail industry, and to investigate possible associations between prevalence of incivility and a multitude of indicators of health, stress, well-being, and the psychosocial work environment.
Subject and methods
A total of 1014 (20%) individuals enrolled in the cross-sectional study and responded to a questionnaire, partially or fully. We conducted t-tests to assess possible differences in the indicators between those responding “Yes” versus “No” regarding prevalence of incivility at their workplace.
Results
Incivility at work was related to statistically significant differences in mean values in 32 out of 33 key indicators of health, well-being, stress, recovery, and the psychosocial work environment. Those reporting a prevalence of incivility systematically exhibited worse ratings.
Conclusion
The findings are in line with previous research. Although this study cannot infer causality, the profoundly systematic results indicate that the prevalence of workplace incivility is a bothersome problem that should be addressed. A single item about the prevalence of workplace incivility seems to be a feasible indicator of associations to a wide range of health-, stress-, well-being-, and psychosocially oriented work-related variables.
... Despite improving the ownership attitude, Diploma Health Nurses (DHN) nurses involuntarily grow hatred against workplace discourteous behaviors when they are attacked by triggers and insulting attitudes (Porath and Pearson, 2012). Riskind et al. (2000) postulated that these attitudes, in turn, decay job satisfaction damage and work roles psychological health. ...
Workplace bullying (WB) and workplace incivility (WI) appear to be the most alarming events with a potentially threat to the entire workforce and organization. Considering their implications, this research study is examining the effect of WB and WI on employee performance (EP) in the presence of psychological well-being (PW) among both relationships. Sample of the female employees (Nurses) working in the health care units and hospitals of the Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJ&K), Pakistan was taken to collect the data. Data were collected from female nurses and their supervisors working in the public sector hospitals of AJ&K, Pakistan. The current study uses AMOS 21.0 for empirical analysis to estimate the “Structural Equation Model (SEM)”. The results of SEM show that WB and WI negatively influence nurses’ performance in Azad Jammu and Kashmir’s health sectors. Moreover, PW mediates the association between WB and EP. Similarly, the effects of WI decrease in the presence of PW. The current study provides theoretical and practical implications for Pakistan’s health sector regulators and other stakeholders. It also sheds highlight on the importance of a stress-free environment for health sector employees and postulates that employee productivity may be enhanced after eliminating bullying and incivility at the workplace. Further, the study guides managers to create stress-free environments and policies to enhance employee’s productivity.
... Supervisors are usually the main source of incivility and it is the least likely to experience incivility from subordinates. Because of the power difference, subordinates are reluctant to reciprocate (Lim & Lee, 2011;Porath & Pearson, 2012). At the same time, since employees pay more attention to the behaviors of their superiors, they are more sensitive to their potentially uncivil behaviors. ...
This article is about development and validating workplace incivility scale
... The examination of supervisor and coworker incivility separately answers prior calls for research that distinguishes among incivility sources in public-sector studies (see Smith et al., 2021;Young et al., 2021). The study findings align with prior work that has also found that supervisor incivility is more harmful than coworker incivility and more likely to incite turnover intentions (Porath & Pearson, 2012;Schilpzand et al., 2016). However, the findings about employees of color and their job search behavior may be especially important for public organizations that seek to diversify their workforce and retain employees from underrepresented groups. ...
While extensive research documents that workplace incivility has negative consequences for both employees and organizations, there has been limited research on how workplace incivility experiences affect public-sector employees. This study examines the associations between workplace incivility experiences and public employee job satisfaction and job search behavior. Relying on the Conservation of Resources theory, this article develops a research model that suggests that workplace incivility experiences prompt job search by lowering employee job satisfaction. The analysis of survey data collected from 751 professional employees working in a state-level law enforcement agency shows that both supervisor and coworker incivility are associated positively with employee job search behavior, but supervisor incivility has a stronger association. Moreover, the analysis shows that the indirect effects of supervisor incivility and coworker incivility on job search behavior through job satisfaction are stronger for employees of color and weaker for older employees. These findings have implications for public-sector human resource management.
... A recent meta-analysis revealed that employees receiving such treatment are more vulnerable, cynical, and exhausted (Han et al., 2022). Indeed, uncivil exchanges can likewise trigger emotional reactions (Cortina & Magley, 2009) that are unpleasant and irritating to employees (Porath & Pearson, 2012), such as guilt (Kabat-Farr et al., 2018), which impact their level of psychological well-being (Cortina et al., 2017;Han et al., 2022). ...
Organizations are increasingly facing complex issues related to diversity and inclusion. Although overt forms of discrimination might have declined significantly, researchers are now alarmed in the face of insidious forms of “modern” discrimination that are flying under organizational radars despite policies and laws. While incivility has been broadly conceptualized and examined as “generalized” behaviors in organizations, less attention has been dedicated to the “selective” form it can take. The present study tested different aspects of Cortina’s theory of selective incivility as a “modern” manifestation of discrimination. This study extends the theory by being the first to investigate uncivil experiences Indigenous employees might be confronted with in organizations and how it might lead to experiencing higher symptoms of psychological distress. To do so, we collected data from 6706 employees working in a large Canadian public organization who were asked to complete measures of psychological distress and incivility from co-workers and supervisors. According to analyses of parallel mediation, women were less likely to report uncivil treatment from co-workers and direct supervisors than men. Evidence of moderated mediation also emerged, with target gender and Indigenous identity interacting to predict uncivil experiences, such that Indigenous women reported worse treatment from direct supervisors (b = .92, p = .03, ΔR2 = .0007), impacting their level of psychological distress (index = -.21, 95% CI [.01, .41]). Overall, our findings suggest that incivility does not work consistently against women in organizations and that intersectionality plays a role in predicting identity-based mistreatment. Our results also suggest that practitioners should consider an intersectional approach when implementing policies and interventions regarding identity-based mistreatment.
... On the other hand, the rational theory of decision-making is obsolete [4,5,82]. Studies have shown that the people are influenced by their emotional status [83,84], and hence, their brain chemical consistency changes, which influences their decisions accordingly. In that context, the main hypothesis of this study, which has been formulated is to investigate whether the managers/employees' decisions are influenced by their nutrition and habits. ...
Decision-making process (DMP), our everyday most frequent action, has attracted the attention of a wide range of disciplines aiming to identify and analyze its determinants, encompassing specific steps. This paper intends to investigate whether nutrition and habits of managers/employees–via hormone levels–might statistically influence DMP in the business field. Some groups of food could encourage the secretion of specific hormones, which in turn influence the brain’s function that may in turn affect humans’ behavior and emotional status, and hence, their decision. To explore the set hypothesis, fieldwork was undertaken to an extensive random sample, from Greek companies/organizations, using appropriately designed questionnaire to select and statistically analyze related quantitative and qualitative information. The questionnaire was distributed to the employees/managers (n=242) of Greek companies. The findings confirm this hypothesis (statistical significance, p<0.05) and indicate that DMP is influenced by nutrition and habits in interaction with body mass index.
... These negative emotions eventually lead to adverse outcomes (C. L. Porath & Pearson, 2012). Emotions are particularly significant. ...
This study examines factors hindering employee engagement, focusing on perceived workplace incivility and its relationship with work engagement. It also presents the mediating and moderating roles of emotional responses and coping mechanisms in the workplace to determine “why” and “when” employee engagement is destabilized. The cross-sectional study used 391 samples from the hotel industry; data were collected from the crew staff via self-administered questionnaires and analyzed using Smart PLS. The study’s outcome draws attention to perceived workplace incivility and its significant negative impact on work engagement. The results also reveal that employees’ emotional responses and coping mechanisms play significant mediator and moderator roles in the relationship between workplace incivility and work engagement. In terms of theoretical background, the study makes a novel theoretical contribution by applying Affective Events Theory (AET) when employees confront incivility that triggers emotional reactions and then shows how those reactions lead to adverse work outcomes and behaviors. The study outcomes have significant implications for strategic hotel industry staff and policymakers and provide insights for future researchers. Hotel management might consider this study helpful for generating a crew-supportive work environment and stabilizing employee engagement.
... Meta-analytic evidence supports that stress and commitment partially mediate the relationship between experienced incivility and instigated incivility (Chris et al., 2022). Further, the targets of incivility have been found to have increased level of absenteeism (Sliter et al., 2012), turnover intentions (Cortina et al. 2001;Lim et al., 2008;Miner-Rubino & Reed, 2010;Taylor et al., 2017), and are more likely to leave their current organization (Porath & Pearson, 2012). ...
... Incivility in the workplace is a comparatively recent concept in the area of negative organizational behavior, its association with alienation refers to low-intensity disrespectful or unpleasant behavior with deliberate intent to harm the target and is in violation of workplace norm for mutual respect (Anderson & Pearson 1999). Researchers in the field of organizational behavior and management direct the impact of workplace incivility on various negative employee behaviors, such as withdrawal, abuse, production deviation, sabotage, and theft (Bibi, Karim & Din, 2013, Lim, Cortina & Magley, 2008, work dissatisfaction and fatigue (Kim, et al, 2008, Welbourne, Gangadharan & Esparza, 2015, absenteeism, higher levels of sadness, anger, and fear at work (Porath & Pearson, 2012) and reduction in creativity (Porath & Enez, 2009). Workplace incivility is also directly related to productivity (Rahim & Cosby, 2016) and turnover intention (Rahino & Cosby, 2016). ...
... Control Variables. Considering that employees' positions, education, gender, and age can impact their reactions to job stressors and their behavior [85], we used employees' gender, age, education, years of experience, company category [66], and industry as control variables (male = 1, female = 0; college or less = 1, bachelor's degree = 2, master's degree or above = 3; less than 1 year = 1, 2-3 years = 2, 4-5 years = 3, more than 5 years = 4; state-owned enterprise = 1, private enterprise = 2, joint venture/foreign investment enterprise = 3, other = 4; finance = 1, digital technology = 2, trade = 3, transportation = 4, software = 5). ...
Generation Z employees in the workplace cause a management challenge that enterprises have recently faced. The unique characteristics of Generation Z employees necessitate an urgent update to the knowledge of organizational management. However, few studies of the literature focus on the workplace behaviors of Generation Z. This study proposes that illegitimate tasks may lead to work withdrawal behavior among Generation Z employees. Based on the equity theory model, this study constructed a moderated mediation model to explore the impact of illegitimate tasks on the work withdrawal behavior of Generation Z employees, as well as the mediating role of perceived insider status and the moderating role of perceived overqualification. The analysis of survey data from 283 Generation Z employees in China at two time points found that illegitimate tasks are positively correlated with work withdrawal behavior. At the same time, the mediating role of perceived insider status was successfully confirmed. The results also showed that perceived overqualification strengthened the effect of illegitimate tasks on work withdrawal behavior and the mediating effect of perceived insider status. This study offers new insights into the management and development of Generation Z employees and the sustainable evolution of workplace relationships from both theoretical and practical perspectives.
... A third limitation of the focus on measuring separate NWBs is that limited insights are gained on the specific nature of their inflicted harm on different actors and their roles. Previous research has shown that NWB inflicts harm on targets [21], perpetrators [22], bystanders as witness [23], companies [24], and society [25]. However, the current questionnaires often limit their focus to the harm of targets, thus only collecting data on one source [26]. ...
Negative work behavior (NWB) threatens employee well-being. There are numerous constructs that reflect NWBs, such as bullying, aggression, and discrimination, and they are often examined in isolation from each other, limiting scientific integration of these studies. We aim to contribute to this research field by developing a diagnostic tool with content validity on the full spectrum of NWBs. First, we provide a full description of how we tapped and organized content from 44 existing NWB measurement instruments and 48 studies. Second, we discussed our results with three experts in this research field to check for missing studies and to discuss our integration results. This two-stage process yielded a questionnaire measuring physical, material, psychological, sociocultural, and digital NWB. Furthermore, the questions include a range of potential actors of NWB, namely, internal (employees, managers) and external actors (clients, customers, public, and family members) at work and their roles (i.e., target, perpetrator, perpetrator’s assistant, target’s defender, outsider, and witness of NWBs). Finally, the questionnaire measures what type of harm is experienced (i.e., bodily, material, mental, and social harm).
Incivility harms both employees and organizations but is often overlooked due to its low intensity and ambiguous intent. Unfortunately, existing studies on incivility coping have not yet identified effective strategies, such as avoidance or confrontation, to reduce its recurrence. Building upon the coping process of the transactional model of stress, this research proposes that organizational communication openness and targets’ status at work significantly affect the effectiveness of coping strategies. To test our hypotheses, we conducted a three-wave study with a sample of 219 employees in China from diverse occupations. The results indicated that avoidance, rather than confrontation, mediated the relationship between incivility and its recurrence. Furthermore, this indirect effect could be moderated by both organizational communication openness and targets’ status at work. Supplementary analysis also showed that these factors could moderate the conditional influence of confrontation on the relationship between incivility and its recurrence. In summary, this study concludes that targets often resort to avoidance when facing incivility, which inadvertently leads to its recurrence, particularly within organizations characterized by high communication openness or when both parties in the incivility interaction share the same organizational status. In contrast, confrontation can sometimes appear as a more constructive approach to preventing the recurrence of incivility, especially within organizations with high communication openness or when the instigator occupies a high-level position.
Purpose
This paper aims to empirically establish necessity conditions within a relational context. The formulated necessary condition-based hypotheses are drawn from and are anchored in extant relational and psychology literature. The authors focus on three relational dimensions that have attracted considerable attention – relational culture, relational decency (RD) and relational readiness, as well as on workplace social inclusion. The three relational dimensions serve as the study’s independent variables as the authors explore their necessity for workplace social inclusion.
Design/methodology/approach
This study seeks to explore the civility dimensions of RD, culture and readiness, as defined by the workplace relational civility index and examine just how necessary they are for workplace social inclusion. Drawing on a sample of 160 employees from various industries, and using necessary condition analysis (NCA) to revisit key relational dimensions and the extent to which they are necessary for heightened social inclusion. Because NCA is fundamentally a bivariate analysis method, with only one X and Y being analyzed at a time, the method generates unique quantified parameters that allow for the selection of only those variables that meet necessity conditions for a desired level of an outcome.
Findings
Drawing on a sample of 160 employees from various industries, and using NCA, the authors find support for two out of three hypotheses. Specifically, a high level of RD and readiness emerge as statistically significant conditions that are necessary for a high level of social inclusion in today’s workplace. Relational culture emerged as an insignificant condition and thus appears to be unnecessary for ensuring high level of social inclusion.
Research limitations/implications
This study was limited to self-report measures, which are subject to recall and response bias. In addition, the sample size ( n = 160), while robust, cannot be reliably used to make inferences about the greater population.
Practical implications
These results have practical implications for leaders, who are faced with managing a post-pandemic workforce that has presented some serious organization-level challenges. Workers who are in demand to fill new and existing jobs are leaving their current jobs in unprecedented numbers, making it necessary to consider new ways to attract and retain them. This research points to the importance of individual-level civility as a foundation for fostering an organizational culture of inclusion, employee job satisfaction and retention.
Social implications
In the sample of professional workers, capitalizing on behaviors that reinforce and promote decency and readiness may appear sufficient for social inclusion, yet they ought to be complemented by further nurturing, training and crafting of policies that safeguard inclusion. Both decency and readiness related behaviors emerge as priorities for in-house training and coaching that managers across industries cannot, and should not, ignore.
Originality/value
Workplace social inclusion as an outcome, is the study’s dependent variable. Although these capabilities are conceptually and empirically studied by several works, as the authors discuss next, most reported findings have been correlational in nature. Namely, they explored the average effect of a single variable, or the average effect of a combination of relational variables, on different outcomes. Yet, our review of the literature suggests that no empirical study has employed NCA as a research method, making our current effort a modest attempt to apply NCA to the relational field.
Purpose
This study aims to examine the relationship between abusive supervision and workplace incivility using a dual theoretical framework. First, it draws on the ego depletion theory to investigate the relationship between abusive supervision and incivility by exploring the mediating role of ego depletion. Second, it integrates the job demands–resources model with the ego depletion theory to examine how perceived co-workers’ support functions as a buffer in mitigating the effects of ego depletion on incivility.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors tested our moderated mediation model using hierarchical linear modeling through an experience-sampling study based on data collected from a participants across five consecutive workdays.
Findings
The findings reveal employees subjected to abusive supervision are more likely to experience a depletion of self-regulatory resources. Moreover, the authors found a positive association between ego depletion and workplace incivility, suggesting that diminished self-control resulting from abusive supervision contributes to a higher likelihood of engaging in uncivil workplace behaviors. In addition, perceived coworkers’ support emerged as a significant moderating factor that attenuates the indirect impact of abusive supervision on workplace incivility through ego depletion. Specifically, when perceived coworkers’ support is high, the negative influence of abusive supervision on ego depletion, and subsequently, on workplace incivility, is mitigated.
Originality/value
By exploring ego depletion as the underlying mechanism and boundary conditions imposed by perceived coworker support on the relationship between abusive supervision and workplace incivility, this research contributes to a nuanced understanding of the intricate dynamics of this relationship. Based on the research findings, the authors advocate that organizations should establish and integrate support services, such as counseling and employee assistance programs, to reduce the emotional turmoil caused by abusive supervision.
We present a meta-analytic investigation of the theoretical mechanisms underlying why experienced workplace aggression is harmful to the three core performance outcomes (i.e., task performance, citizenship behavior, and deviant behavior). Through a comprehensive literature review of 405 empirical articles, we first extract and identify five prominent theoretical mechanisms: relationship quality, justice perception, psychological strain, negative affect, and state self-evaluation. By synthesizing evidence from these articles, which include 471 unique samples from 36 countries or regions (N = 149,341 participants), we reveal the incremental effects of the five mechanisms, compare their relative strengths for each performance outcome, and examine their cultural contingencies. We find that when the five mechanisms are examined simultaneously, only relationship quality and state self-evaluation show incremental effects across all performance outcomes in the predicted direction. Moreover, the comparative strengths of mechanisms vary across performance outcomes: The impact of workplace aggression on task performance is best explained by the negative affect and state self-evaluation mechanisms, its impact on citizenship behavior is best explained by the relationship quality mechanism, and its impact on deviant behavior is best explained by the negative affect mechanism. Finally, the prominence of some mechanisms is contingent on certain cultural dimensions: The relationship quality mechanism is strengthened by individualism and masculinity, while the state self-evaluation mechanism is strengthened by masculinity. We conclude with a discussion of the theoretical and practical implications of our research.
Leader–follower relationships are a cornerstone of leadership research. Considering recent developments that point to emotions as key determinants of dyadic relationships, we shift the focus of this literature to the episodic interplay of leader emotional expressions and follower emotional reactions for the emergence of high‐quality interactions. Specifically, we develop an emotional entrainment perspective stating that the trajectory of leader emotional expressions and corresponding follower emotional reactions over the course of a day gives rise to follower perceptions of their interaction quality with their leader. We glean additional insights by examining follower attachment styles as a moderator. Results of an experience sampling study ( N employees = 72, N days = 479) demonstrate that emotional entrainment of high‐activated emotions (joy and fear) predicts end‐of‐day interaction quality contingent on followers' (avoidant and anxious) attachment styles. Future avenues for research on the emergence of high‐quality leader–follower relationships are discussed.
Purpose
The present study examines the effect of supervisor incivility on service employee creativity and the mediating mechanism of negative affect state on the said relationship with the aid of Affective Events Theory (AET) and Social Power Theory. Additionally, the study explores the mitigating role of core self-evaluation in the dual stage of the moderated mediation model.
Design/methodology/approach
Survey data were collected from 420 frontline employees working in four-star and five-star hotels across India and PROCESS macro in SPSS 23.0 was employed to test the hypotheses proposed in the study.
Findings
The study findings observe that frontline employees experiencing supervisor incivility face a negative affect state and it further diminishes service employee creativity. Also, the indirect effect gets attenuated at dual stages when frontline employees are equipped with a high level of core self-evaluation.
Practical implications
The study findings provide various insights to the managers to understand the deleterious effect of supervisor incivility at work and to develop interventions to manage supervisor incivility and the negative affect state among frontline hotel employees.
Originality/value
The present study is the first and unique attempt to investigate the role of supervisor incivility experienced by frontline hotel employees in India with reference to their creativity towards customers and mediating mechanism of negative affect state. The study adds value to the literature by establishing the role of core self-evaluation in the moderated mediation model. Further, the study also provides a unique contribution to the management of frontline hospitality employees.
Workplace incivility is considered a common workplace stressor, linked to a range of adverse impacts such as reduced wellbeing. However, there is a lack of research focused on how targets of incivility respond. The current study addresses that gap by examining responses to incivility within veterinary practice. Veterinarians and veterinary nurses (n = 132) evaluated six scenarios depicting two types of incivility (direct e.g. demeaning comments/indirect, for example, ignoring someone) across three instigators (clients, co-workers, senior colleagues), reporting their perception and appraisal of the uncivil behaviour depicted along with potential responses. Direct incivility was linked to responses such as reciprocation, exit, and support seeking, whereas indirect incivility was associated with affiliative and ignoring responses. Negative appraisal of incivility predicted a higher likelihood of exit, avoidance, support seeking and reporting responses. These findings suggest that incivility targets utilise a broad range of response options and adapt their response dependent on the situation.
Women are more likely than men to be targets of incivility in the workplace. Scholars have referred to this pattern as selective incivility and suggest that incivility directed toward women—that is, selective incivility—is a form of modern sexism in the workplace. However, it remains unclear whether women themselves make sense of incivility from men as a form of gender bias, and when such perceptions shape whether women engage in unique responses to incivility perceived as selective. Drawing on social identity theory, we develop a conceptual model to better understand these relationships. Across two studies with working women, we show that women perceive male‐instigated incivility as selective. Further, our findings show that women are more likely to engage in problem‐focused‐responses (i.e., direct confrontation and formal reporting), rather than emotion‐focused responses (i.e., avoidance) in response to incivility perceived as selective and that these coping responses are, at times, moderated by the frequency of incivility. Overall, our research advances the literature on incivility, selective incivility, and gender bias at work, offers practical implications for managers seeking to foster workplace inclusion, and suggests novel directions for future research.
Purpose
Drawing on conservation of resources theory, this study aims to develop a resource-based model depicting a decreased level of psychological resourcefulness – relational energy, as a novel explanatory mechanism that accounts for the harm of abusive supervision, and we further investigate the role of leader humor as a boundary condition.
Design/methodology/approach
We applied multilevel path analysis to test our hypotheses with three-time-point survey data collected from 226 supervisor-employee dyads in a telecommunication company in China across six months.
Findings
Our results show that abusive supervision is negatively related to employee relational energy, leading to a subsequent decline in employee job performance. The predictions of the depleting effects get alleviated by leader humor.
Practical implications
This study foregrounds the importance of employee relationship management in the workplace and reveals that some abusive supervisors may manage to sustain employee performance and relational energy by using humor in their interactions, which necessitates immediate intervention.
Originality/value
These findings offer novel insights into the deleterious impact of abusive supervision by demonstrating the critical role of relational energy in dyadic interactions. We also reveal the potential dark side of leader humor in the context of abuse in the workplace.
Introduction: Turnover among nurses is one of the important issues for managers in this field. Many factors such as Workplace Incivility and quality of work life affect nurses' Turnover Intention. In this regard, the aim of the current research is to investigate the effects of nurses' quality of work life on Turnover Intention with the moderating role of Workplace Incivility. Methods: The present research was of the descriptive correlational type. The target population consisted of all nurses working in Imam Reza, Shahid Madani, and Children's hospitals in Tabriz. A sample of 320 nurses was selected using the available sampling method. Data were collected through a two-part questionnaire, including demographic information and research variables. Descriptive and inferential statistics were employed for data analysis. The data analysis tool used was SmartPLS version 3.2.8, based on the partial least squares (PLS) method. Results: The results obtained from the model analysis indicated that the hypotheses related to the impact of the quality of work life on Turnover Intention have an inverse effect (t = 3.01, p =-0.163). The Workplace Incivility has a direct effect on the Turnover Intention (t = 11.99, p = 0.583). Additionally, the moderating effect of the Workplace Incivility in the relationship between quality of work life and the Turnover Intention among nurses was confirmed (t= 6.84, p=-0.327). Conclusions: Based on the results obtained, it can be concluded that the effects quality of work life and the Workplace Incivility on nurses' Turnover Intention are confirmed. Furthermore, the moderating the effect of the atmosphere moderator Workplace Incivility was also proven in the effect of the quality of work life on the Turnover Intention, that is, the more uncivil the work environment is, the effect of the low quality of work life on the increase of Turnover Intention is also greater.
The quality of a crowdsourcing virtual community is an essential factor that stimulates users' perceptions of belonging and attachment to the community, thereby influencing their behavior. As a prerequisite for the development of “creative crowdsourcing,” it is particularly important to study how users' voice behavior can be promoted in virtual communities. Drawing on the Stimulus-Organism-Response (SOR) framework and the Social Identification Theory, this study developed a conceptual model that investigates the impact of crowdsourcing virtual communities in system, information, interaction, and service quality on users' voice behavior. Furthermore, we introduce community identification and self-disclosure to further analyze the influencing mechanism between these two variables. Data were collected through 672 survey questionnaires from participants in well-known crowdsourcing virtual communities such as Xiaohongshu, Bilibili, Haier Hope, Test Baidu, and Test China. Using hierarchical regression and bootstrap analysis, we found a positive correlation between the quality of the crowdsourcing virtual community and users’ voice behavior, with community identification acting as a mediator. Furthermore, self-disclosure showed a significant moderating effect on the relationship between community identification and voice behavior. These findings significantly contribute to the theoretical landscape by advancing the SOR framework within a virtual community. This not only deepens the understanding of the quality of the crowdsourcing virtual community, but also provides theoretical and practical implications for managers and users on how to promote voice behavior.
Purpose
This study is designed to bridge a gap in the existing leadership communication literature by delving into lesser-explored facets of the field. It particularly concentrates on investigating how the verbal aggressiveness of supervisors influences various aspects of the workplace, including workplace emotional culture, the quality of employee–organization relationships (EORs) and the prevalence of counterproductive work behaviors (CWB).
Design/methodology/approach
This study employed a quantitative research design to investigate the impact of supervisors' verbal aggressiveness on employee and organizational outcomes. The data were collected from 392 full-time employees across various organizations and industries in the USA using a self-report questionnaire. The researchers used structural equation modeling (SEM) to analyze the data and test hypotheses.
Findings
The findings of this study showed that supervisors' verbal aggressiveness had a significant positive association with negative emotional culture and employee CWB. However, it had no direct impact on employee–organization relationships. The effect of supervisor verbal aggressiveness on employee CWB was found to be mediated by a negative team-level emotional culture.
Originality/value
This study advances the literature on leadership communication by highlighting the detrimental influence of the dark side of leadership communication. More specifically, by identifying negative emotional culture and employee CWB as the direct outcomes of supervisor verbal aggressiveness, the authors add to the existing theoretical knowledge on verbal aggressiveness in the workplace. Additionally, this study provides empirical evidence of the impact of a negative emotional culture on eliciting employees' CWBs and diminishing relationship quality, adding to the body of knowledge on why managing emotional culture is crucial for organizations and workgroups.
Power and status are two critical elements of social hierarchy. However, whether power and status have similar effects on unethical behavior has received inconsistent results. We constructed a theoretical model of power, status, and unethical behavior to address this issue by integrating the approach-inhibition theory and expectation states theory. We verified this model based on 132 samples reported in 95 articles. Our meta-analytic results show that power and status affect unethical behavior differently, such that power is positively related to unethical behavior. Contrastingly, status is negatively associated with unethical behavior. Furthermore, power and status have different indirect effects on unethical behavior through moral cognition. Compared with power, status has a stronger indirect inhibitory effect on unethical behavior through moral cognition. We also examined the moderating role of power distance in the indirect effects of power and status on unethical behavior. The results of the moderated mediation meta-analysis show that the indirect positive effect of power on unethical behavior through moral cognition and the indirect negative effect of status on unethical behavior through moral cognition are stronger when power distance is higher. These findings help scholars better understand how power and status may increase or inhibit unethical behavior and when this occurs. Furthermore, these findings provide more convincing and referential evidence for practitioners.
Introduction
Humans are similar but behave differently, and one main reason is the culture in which they are born and raised. The purpose of this research is to examine how the perception and reaction to those who transgress social norms may vary based on the individualism/collectivism of their culture.
Methods
A study (N = 398) conducted in the United Kingdom, Spain, and China showed differences in the perception and reaction to incivilities based on individualism/collectivism.
Results
People from highly collective countries (China) perceive uncivil transgressors as immoral and enact more social control over them than people from highly individualistic countries (U.K.). They also experience more discomfort when facing uncivil transgressors, and this discomfort mediates the increasing immorality perceived on the agents of incivilities in contrast with people from less collective countries.
Discussion
Our findings provide insights into how cultural factors shape individuals’ perceptions of social norm violations and emphasize the importance of considering cultural differences when addressing incivility.
Bu araştırmanın amacı, müşteri nezaketsizliğinin hizmet sabotajı üzerindeki etkisinin tespit edilmesi ile algılanan yönetici desteğinin söz konusu etkiye yönelik muhtemel rolünün araştırılmasıdır. Bu kapsamda müşteri nezaketsizliğinin, konaklama çalışanlarının hizmet sabotajı davranışları üzerindeki olası etkisi, aynı zamanda, algılanan yönetici desteğinin, söz konusu etki üzerindeki rolü incelenmiştir. Konaklama işletmelerinde yapılan araştırmada yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme tekniği kullanılmış, bu kapsamda görüşmeler, müşteriyle yüz yüze çalışılan işlerde görevli 20 otel çalışanı ile gerçekleştirilmiştir. Elde edilen verilerin analizinde MAXQDA 2020 nitel analiz programı ve betimsel analiz yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Çalışmada ulaşılan ilk bulgu, konaklama çalışanlarının, hem psikolojik/duygusal, hem de iş davranışlarının, müşteri nezaketsizliğinden etkileniyor olmasıdır. İkinci bir bulgu ise, nezaketsiz müşteri davranışlarından olumsuz olarak etkilenen çalışanın hizmet davranışlarının, algılanan yönetici desteğinin müdahalesi ile önlenebildiğidir. Sonuç olarak, mevcut çalışma kapsamındaki konaklama çalışanları, nezaketsiz müşteri davranışlarından olumsuz anlamda etkilenmekte, kaba müşteriye yönelik hizmeti sabote eden davranışlar içinde bulunmaktadır. Yöneticiden algılanan destek ise, bu davranışları ve müşteri nezaketsizliğinin bu etkilerini azaltmaktadır.
The authors developed and tested a structural model predicting personal and organizational consequences of workplace violence and sexual harassment for health care professionals who work inside their client’s home. The model suggests that workplace violence and sexual harassment predict fear of their recurrence in the workplace, which in turn predicts negative mood (anxiety and anger) and perceptions of injustice. In turn, fear, negative mood, and perceived injustice predict lower affective commitment and enhanced withdrawal intentions, poor interpersonal job performance, greater neglect, and cognitive difficulties. The results supported the model and showed that the associations of workplace violence and sexual harassment with organizational and personal outcomes are indirect, mediated by fear and negative mood. Conceptual implications for understanding sexual harassment and workplace violence, and future research directions, are suggested.
This study examined the role of perceived control in ameliorating the negative outcomes associated with the experience of violence at work, using 2 large samples of hospital staff (N = 187) and group home staff (N = 195). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of the measure of perceived control converged in suggesting a 3-factor structure consisting of Understanding, Prediction, and Influence. Results of a series of moderated regression analyses suggested that perceived control did not moderate the relationships between violence and fear or between fear and emotional well-being, somatic health, or neglect. However, perceived control was directly associated with emotional well-being and indirectly associated with somatic health and neglect. In addition, training that targets workplace violence was found to be related to enhanced perceptions of control.
To date, little empirical research has examined the personal and organizational outcomes associated with exposure to workplace violence. On the basis of data from 194 bank tellers, the authors evaluated, and supported, a model suggesting that fear of future violence mediates the relationships between exposure to workplace violence and negative outcomes. Specifically, exposure to workplace violence predicted fear of future violence that, in turn, predicted psychological well-being, somatic symptoms, and intent to leave the organization. These effects emerged after controlling for self-report bias. The mediating role of fear was supported, and implications for future research and practice are discussed.
The authors investigated the relationship between organizational justice and organizational retaliation behavior —adverse reactions to perceived unfairness by disgruntled employees toward their employer—in a sample of 240 manufacturing employees. Distributive, procedural, and interactional justice interacted to predict organizational retaliation behavior. A relation between distributive justice and retaliation was found only when there was low interactional and procedural justice. The 2-way interaction of distributive and procedural justice was observed only at a low level of interactional justice, and the 2-way interaction of distributive and interactional justice was observed only at a low level of procedural justice.
There has long been interest in describing emotional experience in terms of underlying dimensions, but traditionally only two dimensions, pleasantness and arousal, have been reliably found. The reasons for these findings are reviewed, and integrating this review with two recent theories of emotions (Roseman, 1984; Scherer, 1982), we propose eight cognitive appraisal dimensions to differentiate emotional experience. In an investigation of this model, subjects recalled past experiences associated with each of 15 emotions, and rated them along the proposed dimensions. Six orthogonal dimensions, pleasantness, anticipated effort, certainty, attentional activity, self-other responsibility/control, and situational control, were recovered, and the emotions varied systematically along each of these dimensions, indicating a strong relation between the appraisal of one’s circumstances and one’s emotional state. The patterns of appraisal for the different emotions, and the role of each of the dimensions in differentiating emotional experience are discussed.
This study investigated the relationships between blame, victim and offender status, and the pursuit of revenge or reconciliation after a personal offense. Results from a sample of 141 government agency employees showed that blame is positively related to revenge and negatively related to reconciliation. In addition, victim-offender relative status moderated the relation between blame and revenge such that victims who blamed sought revenge more often when the offender's status was lower than their own. The victims' own absolute hierarchical status also moderated this relation such that lower, not higher, status employees who blamed sought revenge more often.
The current study bridges literatures on sexual harassment, person-environment systems, and stress and appraisal processes. Conventional wisdom equates severity of sexual harassment with type of harassment. We test this notion empirically and posit a more comprehensive model that examines both person- and situation-level variables. Data came from 13,743 U.S. Armed Forces women responding to survey questions about a significant experience of sexual harassment. Multiple regression results indicate that pervasiveness of sexual harassment relates outcomes better than does type of sexual harassment. Pervasiveness and type interact to predict subjective appraisal of harassment. Additionally, according to multiple-group structural equation models, appraisal mediates relations between pervasiveness and outcomes. Results further suggest that relations among sexual-harassment antecedents and outcomes are consistent, regardless of the type of sexual harassment. These findings highlight the importance of examining both persons and situations when assessing sexual harassment severity.
In this article, we attempt to distinguish between the properties of moderator and mediator variables at a number of levels. First, we seek to make theorists and researchers aware of the importance of not using the terms moderator and mediator interchangeably by carefully elaborating, both conceptually and strategically, the many ways in which moderators and mediators differ. We then go beyond this largely pedagogical function and delineate the conceptual and strategic implications of making use of such distinctions with regard to a wide range of phenomena, including control and stress, attitudes, and personality traits. We also provide a specific compendium of analytic procedures appropriate for making the most effective use of the moderator and mediator distinction, both separately and in terms of a broader causal system that includes both moderators and mediators. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Recent models of unethical behavior have begun to examine the combination of characteristics of individuals, issues, and organizations. We extend this examination by addressing a largely ignored perspective that focuses on the relationships among actors. Drawing on social network analysis, we generate propositions concerning types of relationships (strength, multiplexity, asymmetry, and status) and the structure of relationships (structural holes, centrality, and density). We also consider the combination of the type and structure of relationships and how this embeddedness perspective relates to social contagion and conspiracies.
Contrary to the impression generated by an increasing number of news reports in the past several years, the occurrence of workplace violence—extreme acts of aggression involving direct physical assault—represents a relatively rare event in work settings. However, workplace aggression—efforts by individuals to harm others with whom they work or have worked—are much more prevalent and may prove extremely damaging to individuals and organizations. This paper presents empirical evidence on the varied forms of workplace aggression and their relative frequency of occurrence in work settings. We offer a theoretical framework for understanding this phenomenon—one based on contemporary theories of human aggression—and demonstrate how principles associated with this framework may be applied to the management and prevention of all forms of aggressions in workplaces.
This study contrasts community violence and an organization's procedural justice climate (or lack thereof) as explanations for employee-instigated workplace aggression in the geographically dispersed plants of a nationwide organization. The findings showed that violent crime rates in the community where a plant resided predicted workplace aggression in that plant, whereas the plant's procedural justice climate did not.
In this article, we provide guidance for substantive researchers on the use of structural equation modeling in practice for theory testing and development. We present a comprehensive, two-step modeling approach that employs a series of nested models and sequential chi-square difference tests. We discuss the comparative advantages of this approach over a one-step approach. Considerations in specification, assessment of fit, and respecification of measurement models using confirmatory factor analysis are reviewed. As background to the two-step approach, the distinction between exploratory and confirmatory analysis, the distinction between complementary approaches for theory testing versus predictive application, and some developments in estimation methods also are discussed.
Contrary to the impression generated by an increasing number of news reports in the past several years, the occurrence of workplace violencemextreme acts of aggression involving direct physical assault represents a relatively rare event in work settings. However, workplace aggression--efforts by individuals to harm others with whom they work or have worked---are much more prevalent and may prove extremely damaging to individuals and organizations. This paper presents empirical evidence on the varied forms of workplace aggression and their relative frequency of occurrence in work settings. We offer a theoretical framework for understanding this phenomenon---one based on contemporary theories of human aggression----and demonstrate how principles associated with this framework may be applied to the management and prevention of all forms of aggression in workplaces.
This article advances a theory of incivility as a veiled manifestation of sexism and racism in organizations. To support this argument, I draw from social psychological research on modern discrimination. The result is a multilevel model of selective incivility, with determinants at the level of the person, organization, and society. Selective incivility could be one mechanism by which gender and racial disparities persist in American organizations, despite concerted efforts to eradicate bias. I dis- cuss scientific and practical implications.
In Passion and Reason, Lazarus draws on his four decades of pioneering research to bring readers the first book to move beyond both clinical jargon and feel-good’ popular psychology. In plain, accessible language, Lazarus explains how emotions are aroused, how they are managed, and how they critically shape our views of ourselves and the world around us. Dr Lazarus explores the latest findings on the short and long-term causes and effects of various emotions, including the often conflicting research on stress management and links between negative emotions and heart disease, cancer, and other aspects of physical and psychological health.
Joyce Fletcher's research shows that emotional intelligence and relational behavior are often viewed as inappropriate because they collide with powerful, gender-linked images.
This study of female design engineers has profound implications for attempts to change organizational culture. Joyce Fletcher's research shows that emotional intelligence and relational behavior are often viewed as inappropriate because they collide with powerful, gender-linked images. Fletcher describes how organizations say they need such behavior and yet ignore it, thus undermining the possibility of radical change. She shows why the "female advantage" does not seem to be benefit women employees or organizations. She offers ways that individuals and organizations can make visible the invisible work.
Recent news reports have focused attention on dramatic instances of workplace violence—extreme acts of aggression in work settings. It is suggested here that such actions, while both tragic and frightening, are only a small part of a much larger problem of workplace aggression—efforts by individuals to harm others with whom they work or the organizations in which they are employed. The present study investigated two major hypotheses with respect to such aggression: 1) contrary to what media reports suggest, most aggression occurring in work settings is verbal, indirect, and passive rather than physical, direct, and active; 2) recent changes in many organizations (e.g., downsizing, increased workforce diversity) have generated conditions that may contribute to the occurrence of workplace aggression. A survey of 178 employed persons provided partial support for both predictions. Verbal and passive forms of aggression were rated as more frequent by participants than physical and active forms of aggression. In addition, the greater the extent to which several changes had occurred recently in participants' organizations, the greater the incidence of workplace aggression they reported. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Evidence is reviewed which suggests that there may be little or no direct introspective access to higher order cognitive processes. Subjects are sometimes (a) unaware of the existence of a stimulus that importantly influenced a response, (b) unaware of the existence of the response, and (c) unaware that the stimulus has affected the response. It is proposed that when people attempt to report on their cognitive processes, that is, on the processes mediating the effects of a stimulus on a response, they do not do so on the basis of any true introspection. Instead, their reports are based on a priori, implicit causal theories, or judgments about the extent to which a particular stimulus is a plausible cause of a given response. This suggests that though people may not be able to observe directly their cognitive processes, they will sometimes be able to report accurately about them. Accurate reports will occur when influential stimuli are salient and are plausible causes of the responses they produce, and will not occur when stimuli are not salient or are not plausible causes.
In this article we introduce the concept of workplace incivility and explain how incivility can potentially spiral into increasingly intense aggressive behaviors. To gain an understanding of the mechanisms that underlie an "incivility spiral," we examine what happens at key points: the starting and tipping points. Furthermore, we describe several factors that can facilitate the occurrence and escalation of an incivility spiral and the secondary spirals that can result. We offer research propositions and discuss implications of workplace incivility for researchers and practitioners.
Research into the role that emotions play in organizational settings has only recently been revived, following publication in 1983 of Hochschild's The Managed Heart. Since then, and especially over the last five years, the tempo of research in this field has stepped up, with various initiatives such as conferences and e-mail discussion lists playing significant roles. This Special Issue is another initiative in this genre. The six papers in the Special Issue were selected from forty submissions, and cover a wide range of contemporary research issues. The papers deal with the relationship of mood to job characteristics and to job satisfaction, manifestation of anger in dyadic relationships, perceptions and effects of emotional labor, emotional intelligence in selection interviews, and the effects of displays of sadness and anger by leaders. In this introduction, we broadly introduce the topic of emotions in workplace settings, summarize the six papers, and present some directions for future research. Copyright (C) 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
"In private life, we try to induce or suppress love, envy, and anger through deep acting or "emotion work," just as we manage our outer expressions of feeling through surface acting. In trying to bridge a gap between what we feel and what we "ought" to feel, we take guidance from "feeling rules" about what is owing to others in a given situation. Based on our private mutual understandings of feeling rules, we make a "gift exchange" of acts of emotion management. We bow to each other not simply from the waist, but from the heart. But what occurs when emotion work, feeling rules, and the gift of exchange are introduced into the public world of work? In search of the answer, Arlie Russell Hochschild closely examines two groups of public-contact workers: flight attendants and bill collectors. The flight attendant's job is to deliver a service and create further demand for it, to enhance the status of the customer and be "nicer than natural." The bill collector's job is to collect on the service, and if necessary, to deflate the status of the customer by being "nastier than natural." Between these extremes, roughly one-third of American men and one-half of American women hold jobs that call for substantial emotional labor. In many of these jobs, they are trained to accept feeling rules and techniques of emotion management that serve the company's commercial purpose. Just as we have seldom recognized or understood emotional labor, we have not appreciated its cost to those who do it for a living. Like a physical laborer who becomes estranged from what he or she makes, an emotional laborer, such as a flight attendant, can become estranged not only from her own expressions of feeling (her smile is not "her" smile), but also from what she actually feels (her managed friendliness). This estrangement, though a valuable defense against stress, is also an important occupational hazard, because it is through our feelings that we are connected with those around us. On the basis of this book, Hochschild was featured in Key Sociological Thinkers, edited by Rob Stones. This book was also the winner of the Charles Cooley Award in 1983, awarded by the American Sociological Association and received an honorable mention for the C. Wright Mills Award. © 1983, 2003, 2012 by The Regents of the University of California.
In this article, we provide guidance for substantive researchers on the use of structural equation modeling in practice for theory testing and development. We present a comprehensive, two-step modeling approach that employs a series of nested models and sequential chi-square difference tests. We discuss the comparative advantages of this approach over a one-step approach. Considerations in specification, assessment of fit, and respecification of measurement models using confirmatory factor analysis are reviewed. As background to the two-step approach, the distinction between exploratory and confirmatory analysis, the distinction between complementary approaches for theory testing versus predictive application, and some developments in estimation methods also are discussed.
Three vignette studies examined stereotypes of the emotions associated with high- and low-status group members. In Study 1a, participants believed that in negative situations, high-status people feel more angry than sad or guilty and that low-status people feel more sad and guilty than angry. Study 1b showed that in response to positive outcomes, high-status people are expected to feel more pride and low-status people are expected to feel more appreciation. Study 2 showed that people also infer status from emotions: Angry and proud people are thought of as high status, whereas sad, guilty, and appreciative people are considered low status. The authors argue that these emotion stereotypes are due to differences in the inferred abilities of people in high and low positions. These perceptions lead to expectations about agency appraisals and emotions related to agency appraisals. In Study 3, the authors found support for this process by manipulating perceptions of skill and finding the same differences in emotion expectations.
Interest in the problem of method biases has a long history in the behavioral sciences. Despite this, a comprehensive summary of the potential sources of method biases and how to control for them does not exist. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to examine the extent to which method biases influence behavioral research results, identify potential sources of method biases, discuss the cognitive processes through which method biases influence responses to measures, evaluate the many different procedural and statistical techniques that can be used to control method biases, and provide recommendations for how to select appropriate procedural and statistical remedies for different types of research settings.
Research now indicates that mothers' experiences of employment are more predictive of children's behavior than is mothers' employment status. A four-stage model of how mothers' interrole conflict and satisfaction with the role of employed mother affect children's behavior was developed and tested by using path analysis. In a sample of 147 employed mothers, the model provided an excellent fit to the data. The relationship between maternal employment role experiences (interrole conflict and satisfaction with maternal employment) and children's behavior (attention/immaturity, conduct disorder, and anxiety/withdrawal) was mediated by personal strain (cognitive difficulties and negative mood) and parenting behavior (punishment and rejection).
A relatively new and promising area of research is the effect of mood in the workplace. In an effort to extend existing literature on the subject, we examined the impact of two mood dimensions (positive affect and negative affect) on employees’ withdrawal behavior—specifically, on their absenteeism and turnover from an organization. A longitudinal study of 129 employees of a division of an electronics firm revealed that positive affect reduced absenteeism, while negative affect increased absenteeism and turnover. Job satisfaction moderated the relationship between positive affect and absenteeism. These results point to the importance of considering both job attitudes and emotions in efforts to predict and manage employee withdrawal behavior.
These studies addressed expectancies concerning the emotion-eliciting conditions experienced by individuals of differing status, the emotions experienced and displayed by these individuals, and the norms dictating their display of emotions. As expected, participants in Study 1 judged low-status relative to high-status individuals as (1) more likely to experience elicitors of anger, disgust, sadness, and fear, (2) less likely to experience elicitors of happiness, and (3) generally equally likely to experience elicitors of love. In agreement with Study 1, participants in Study 2 perceived low-status relative to high-status individuals as experiencing (1) more anger, sadness, and fear,(2) less happiness, and (3) similar levels of love. Participants in Study 2 also perceived low-status relative to high-status individuals as displaying less anger and disgust, more sadness and fear, less happiness, and similar levels of love. Findings of Study 3 indicate that the perceived discrepancy between experience and display for both anger and disgust in Study 2 reflects people's beliefs regarding norms of emotional expression.
Although research shows wide agreement that emotions are responsive to social incentives and environmental outcomes, there is little agreement about how to characterize the social environment productively in order to predict emotions. I review here several approaches, selecting a model of social relations in two dimensions, called here power and status, that is well supported in the research literature across diverse domains as well as cross cultures. I use a theory of emotions based on power-status outcomes of social relations to 'predict' a set of 162 emotions reported by respondents in the eight-nation study of emotions by Scherer, Wallbott, and Summerfield (1986). Hypotheses about four emotions-fear, anger, sadness, and joy-are supported in two studies. Finally, I discussed the interpretative issues in the method used here.
We present a model that captures processes leading to aggressive behaviors in the workplace. Starting with trigger events, the model outlines the development of aggressive behaviors via three processing routes that vary in their level of deliberate, mindful processing. The model outlines how repeated exposure to trigger events can lead to the escalation of workplace aggression while also highlighting the moderating role of such factors as an individual's level of self-control and attitude toward revenge.