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Body Image of Pakistani Consumers
Tariq Jalees∗Ernest C de Run†
Abstract: This paper examines how media exposure, self esteem, and religiosity
influence body image of Pakistan consumers.The underpinning of this study is based
on Social Comparison Theory with two additional variables (religiosity and self es-
teem) for understanding understand consumer attitude towards body image. A self
administered questionnaire was used. 193 persons responded at mall intercepts. The
Conceptual framework was empirically tested through SEM. A positive relationship be-
tween exposure to media and body image was found while negative influence was found
between self esteem and body image. No relationship was found between religiosity and
body image. The results showed mixed outcomes as compared to past studies. The scope
of this study is limited to one city only and hence the finding could not be generalized.
Future researcher may use a larger sample drawn throughout Pakistan, and by examin-
ing whether body image perception varies ethnically, age and gender. Media exposure
is affecting the traditional norms and values of Pakistan culture and body image. The
obsessions of the media and thin body image have to be controlled and this requires
policy changes. Corporate sector might take initiative by not selecting ultra thin mod-
els. They might also sponsors public service messages showing ill effects of being ultra
thin, and showing that the ultra thin models are not real but is results of artworks and
camera angles. Social Comparison Theory with two addition variable religiosity and
self esteem has been successfully extended/empirically tested in the domain of Pakistan
culture.
Keywords: Social Comparison Theory, Media Exposure, Self Esteem Religiosity
and Body Image.
1 Introduction
A limited numbers of TV channels and magazines were available in Pakistan up to
the end of 1980s. In the next few years the growth of media was exponential. As
a consequence, now hundreds of foreign and local televisions channels and magazines
are available for the local population (Hassan, 2011; ”Media Pakistan,” 2009). Media
exposure has not only revolutionized the culture but has also affected the local pop-
ulation’s perception of body image, dressing habits, styles of living and purchasing
behavior (Kamran, 2008). Despite its significance insufficient literature on exposure
to media and body is available on consumers of Pakistan, India and Sri Lanka is not
sufficiently available (Kapadia, 2009).Thus, it arise a need to understand body image
∗Associate Professor and Head of Marketing,College of Management Sciences, Karachi
Institute of Economic and Technology, Creek, Karachi 75190, Pakistan.
†Professor and Dean of Graduate Studies Faculty of Economics and Business, University
Malaysia Sarawak, Sarawak, Malaysia.
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Journal of Management Sciences
Vol. 1(1): 16-34, 2014
Journal of Management Science
of Pakistani consumers from a theoretical and quantitative purpose.
In order to fill the above gap a conceptual framework has been developed by incor-
porating religiosity and self esteem as additional variables in the Social Comparison
Theory as these have been identified as important variables in the context of Pak-
istan. Thus this conceptual framework will help in understanding consumer’s attitude
on body image in a non-Western country namely Pakistan.
2 Literature Review
In early nineties body image concerned ( eating disturbance) was not an issue in India
(Khandelwal, Sharan, & Saxena, 1995). In a comparative study between Caucasian
and Asians girls it was found that on an overall basis the Asian females were found
to be more happier and content with their body image as compared to British Cau-
casians (Wardle, Haase, & Steptoe, 2005). Interestingly in another study in the United
Kingdom it was found that despite the same exposure to media in England the white
females had a higher level of body dissatisfaction and calories concern as compared
to the Indian and Pakistani living in the same country (Ogden & Elder, 1998). Con-
trarily, others found that both Indian and Pakistani females immigrants living in the
United Kingdom were highly dissatisfied with their body images and shapes (Mumford
& Choudhry 2000).
Young Chinese, Indian and European females living in Canada are more con-
cerned about their weight. Indians have more positive body image in comparison to
the Chinese, and negative body image as compared to European students (Kennedy ,
Templeton, Gandhi, & Gorzalka, 2004). University students in Delhi are of the opin-
ion that there is a high correlation between negative body image and maladjustment.
However, they also feel that self esteem acts as a moderator between negative body
image and maladjustment (Kapadia, 2009). In a comparative study on Indian and
Caucasian students it was found that both the groups feel that for improving the
body image necessary remedies are dieting, self induced vomiting, use of laxative and
water tablets (Button, Reveley, & Palmer, 1998). In another cross culture study on In-
dian, Tibetan, France and American students no correlation was found between socio
economics status, media and body image(Rubin, Gluck, Knoll, Lorence, & Geliebter,
2008).
A comparative study found that Australian females have significantly lower body
self esteem, and greater body image dissatisfaction than the Pakistani females belong-
ing to Urdu medium and English medium schools (Mahmud & Crittenden, 2007) It
may be pointed out that students in Urdu medium schools generally belong to lower
status and English medium school to upper status. The above perception about body
image could be attributed to the difference in socio-culture and religious upbringing of
Australian and Pakistani respondents (Dolan, 1991; Nasser, 1988). Both Australian
and Pakistani female were also of the opinion that their ideal body size is smaller than
their actual body sizes (Mahmud & Crittenden, 2007).
Media explosion in Pakistan has adversely affected media consumption trend of
the local population. On an average they spent three to four hours on media due to
which the cultural norms and values are being distorted (Zia, 2007). Moreover, the
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Body Image of Pakistani Consumers
incidence of depression and low self esteem has increased quite significantly in young
adults especially females in Pakistan. (Qidwai, Ishaque, Shah, & Rahim, 2010). In
the similar context, it has been found that the incidents of eating disorder has also
increased significantly in the female medical students of Karachi (Memon et al., 2012).
Local females obsession to internalized media images has reached such a level that
they are highly unsatisfied with their body image and hence has resorted to starving
due to which they are suffering with acute eating disorder. (Daily News Paper, 2007).
Traditionally, Pakistani females were more concerned to have an association with
their families, and society with little or no concern about their body image. This is not
true anymore. Now in view of their inspiration with celebrities and reference groups
they are adopting dressing and grooming practices that are not aligned to Pakistan
social context (Abideen, Latif, Khan, & Farooq, 2011).
The above discussions contradicts the old perception that the ideal body image of
Asian females is influenced by different ideal of body size (Lee, Hsu, & Wing, 1992).
In fact preference for thin body image has become international phenomena and is
now more or less uniform across all the cultures (Ford, Dolan, & Evans, 1990; Molloy
& Herzberger, 1998).
3 Conceptual Framework
The social comparison theory helps in understanding the impact of media and socio
cultural factors on body image. It also examines the individual behavior in response
to peer groups and other social categories (Milkie & Peltola, 1999). The focal point
of the theory is that people compare/internalize themselves with others on the ba-
sis of those dimensions that are similar to them (Festinger, 1954; Milkie & Peltola,
1999). The comparison could be either upward or downward. In upward comparison
individuals compare themselves with someone who is superior to them which lead to
depressed mood. In case of downward comparison people compare themselves with
those who are inferior to them on several dimensions, which results in the elevation of
mood (Lin & Kulik, 2002; Schooler & Schreiber, 2004; Tiggemann & McGill, 2004).
It has also been found that womens exposure to highly attractive models adversely
affect their body image and mood (Slater, Henry, Swaim, & Anderson, 2003) as a
consequence they resort to buying and shopping for elevating their moods (Gardner &
Rook, 1988). An individual can look and compare themselves through various sources
but mass media is considered to be the strongest influencer on body image (Field et
al., 2001)
Originally, the Social Comparison Theory was applied on opinion and ability eval-
uation, but now it is being used to measure social comparison effect on self esteem
(Richins, 1991). Several studies have demonstrated that there is a link between self
esteem and body Image (Martin & Kennedy, 1993) Moreover, it has also been found
that high level of religiosity does not affect body image (Boyatzis, 2005). The concep-
tual frame work developed for this study is depicted in Figure 1, and the final SEM
model is depicted in Figure 2.
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Journal of Management Science
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework
3.1 Media and Body Image
In view of media exposure conceptual definition of body image has changed consider-
ably. Initially, it was considered as a picture formed by individuals in their mind about
their body (T.F. Cash, 2004). Comparatively others were of the opinion that body
image is not restricted to visual impact of the body, but is inclusive of collective atti-
tudes and feeling about the body image (Allan, Mayo, & Michel, 1993).Subsequently,
body image definition became multidimensional due to inclusion of self attitude to-
wards body image in terms of size, shape and aesthetic. (T.F. Cash, 2004; T. F. Cash
& Pruzinsky, 2004). Other additions to the conceptual definition of body image are
perceptual and cognitive behaviors (T.F. Cash & Deagle III, 1997).
Media pressure people inclination towards body image has increased significantly,
as a results the number and frequency of diet related advertisements in television and
magazines have also increased substantially in the United States (Berg, 2001) and
world over. Thus both television and magazines are not only sources of internaliz-
ing thin models but have completely changed the cultural ideals as well (Berg, 2001;
Thompson & Stice, 2001). Circulation and readership of magazines in recent years
have increased as readers, especially females want to keep themselves updated on the
issues related to beauty, fitness, and grooming products (Tiggemann, 2003).
Television advertisements and magazines are not only source of upward compari-
son but the images being portrayed are impossible to achieve (Schooler & Schreiber,
2004; Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999; Yelland & Tiggemann,
2003). Since the media images are significantly thinner than most of the individuals in
the real world, as a consequence it is one of the major sources of body dissatisfaction
(Mason, 2012). These pretty media images have become a benchmark for prettiness
and attractiveness to most people in society due to which incidents of body dissatis-
faction have increased. Constructs such as internalization, awareness, and perceived
pressure to be thin have significant relationship with body image (Cafri, Yamamiya,
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Body Image of Pakistani Consumers
Brannick, & Thompson, 2005). Numerous studies have validated the inverse relation-
ship between exposure to media and body image (Grabe, Ward, & Hyde, 2008; Groesz,
Levine, & Murnen, 2002). This relationship of media exposure and negative effect on
body image was again revalidated in an experimental study. In this study one group
was exposed to thin media images and the other to neutral images, and it was found
that those who were exposed to extra thin model have significantly higher effect on
body image dissatisfaction as compared to those who were exposed to neutral images
(Folger & Reeb, 2010). Based on the above discussion the following hypothesis has
been generated.Thus the following hypothesis has been formulated:
H1: There is positive relationship on media exposure and body image dissatisfac-
tion.
3.2 Self-esteem and Body Image
It has been found that a direct relationship between self esteem and body image exist
(Martin & Kennedy, 1993). Self esteem plays a significant role in an individuals social
behaviors, physical and mental health (Mann, Hosman, Schaalma, & Nanne, 2004).
Rosenberg (1965) defined self esteem as a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the
self (p. 15), while other researchers refer self esteem as favorable or unfavorable self
assessment (Cooper & Taylor, 1988).
Individuals with low or negative self esteem are more vulnerable to poor health,
and social problems including depression, anxiety and eating disorder (Mann, et al.,
2004). Comparatively, highly esteemed persons generally are in good health, and have
positive social behavior such as satisfaction, and success. Perception about the phys-
ical attractiveness plays a significant role towards self esteem (Kim & Lennon, 2007).
Several studies have demonstrated that high self esteem act as a buffer against body
dissatisfaction and eating disorder (Geller, Zaitsoff, & Srikameswaran, 2002; Tigge-
mann & Williamson, 2000). For example Frost & McKelvie (2004) found a positive
correlation between self esteem, and body dissatisfaction for children, adolescent, and
adults. Similarly, in an another study it was found that female college students with
high perception about their body image, had a high level of self esteem as compared
to those who have low perception about their body image (Geller, et al., 2002). Based
on the above discussions the following hypothesis has been generated:
H2: There is a negative relationship between those with high self esteem and body
image dissatisfaction.
3.3 Religiosity and Body image
Religiosity refers to level of commitment to a religious group, and it plays a significant
role in influencing consumer attitude and behavior, whereas attitude is based on con-
sumers belief or religion (Essoo & Dibb, 2004). Religious philosophy provides a frame
of reference on how to live, and behave in a society (Weaver & Agle, 2002), therefore,
the impact of media exposure on body image should vary with the level of religiosity.
The interest of social scientist in investigating the relationship between religion and
health issues has grown significantly in the last few years (Ellison & Levin, 1998). Reli-
giosity and religious involvement have positive influence on several variables including
physical health and morality (Hummer, Rogers, Nam, & Ellison, 1999; McCullough,
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Journal of Management Science
Hoyt, Larson, Koenig, & Thoresen, 2000; Sherkat & Ellison, 1999; Strawbridge, Co-
hen, Shema, & Kaplan, 1997).
It has been found that high level of religiosity does not affect body image. In
this contest Boyatzis and colleagues carried out a series of research in which they ex-
plored the relationship between religiosity, eating disorder and body image. In one
such study, it was found that girls belief in God significantly affects her body image
perception. Girls with higher level of belief in God, also had higher perception about
their body image.(”Body Image and Eating Disorder in Women,” 2010). It was found
that women with healthier body image were closer to God, prayed more often and
consider their body as Holy and Sacred.
Moreover, those women who are open to change in their religious belief had lower
perception towards their body image (Boyatzis, 2005). In a similar study, it was
found that women who spent more time on reading religious books were less concern
about their body image perception(”Body Image and Eating Disorder in Women,”
2010).Thus the following hypothesis has been generated.
H3: There is a negative relationship between those with high religiosity and body
image dissatisfaction.
4 Methodology
4.1 Sample and sampling technique
An appropriate sample size is critical for any research. However, there is no consensus
on this issue. For example a sample of 30 per variable is sufficient in multivariate
analysis (Sekaran, 2003), while, 30 samples for Structural Equation Model is certainly
not sufficient (Hair Jr., Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 2007). Some are of the opinion
that a minimum sample size of 100 to 150 will be sufficient in SEM analysis (Anderson
& Gerbing, 1988). On the other extreme some have recommended a sample size of
400 while others are of the opinion that a sample size of 5000 may not be sufficient in
some case (Boomsma, 1982, 1983; Hu, Bentler, & Kano, 1992). The sample size used
in this study is 193 which are in conformity to what has been suggested by Anderson
& Gerbing (2007).
Probability sampling is generally preferred over non-probability sampling when
overall generalize ability is critical for the study. However, for probability sampling
a pre-requisite is defining sampling frame, which is not possible if the research is
consumer oriented and national based (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2009). Thus, the
researcher has used quota sampling by allocating 225 samples to five high income areas
of the city (Karachi, Pakistan). Data was collected through mall intercept method.
4.2 Measure and Scale
Instrument used in this thesis are those which have established reliabilities and have
been used in the similar context of the research.
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Body Image of Pakistani Consumers
4.2.1 Media Exposure Scale
For this study, exposure to media was measured through the media consumption scale
MCS (Stice & Shaw, 1994). The original scale had seven questions. Four were related
to TV programs in which the respondents were required to indicate the time they
spent watching four named programs. Similarly they were required to indicate the
time they spent reading three named magazines. The reported reliability for media as
a whole was 0.73, and for TV and magazine were 0.69 and 0.67, respectively (Varnado,
2000).
The same measure was used in this study with a few modifications. Since original
questionnaire was recall dependent which generally are not recommended, therefore,
they were converted to seven points Likert scale. Seven in the scale indicates very
high exposure to media and one very low exposure. Moreover, the TV programs and
magazines on which the respondents were asked to give their rating were local TV
programs and magazines.
4.2.2 Body Image Dissatisfaction Scale
Body image dissatisfaction scale administered by (French & B.Terrell, 2005) in their
study was used in this study. These authors have combined two subscales of Eating
Disorder Inventory (Garner, Olmstead, & Polivy, 1983). In all there were 16 items,
seven were related to Drive for thinness, and nine items were related to persons neg-
ative emotions about different parts of the body. The original scale was on six points
Likert scale, with a reported reliability of 0.94 which in this study was converted to
seven point Likert scale. Again seven in the scale shows very high body image dissat-
isfaction and one very low.
4.2.3 Self Esteem Scale
The ten items self esteem questionnaire developed by Rosenberg (1965) has been used
in this study. The original scale was based on four points with a reported reliability
0.85(Silber and Tippet, 1965). In this study the same scale was converted to seven
point liker scale seven showing high level of agreement and one high level of disagree-
ment.
4.2.4 Religiosity Scale
Religious Commitment Inventory Scale-10, developed by Worthington, et. al (2003)
has been used in this study. This questionnaire was based on 5-point Likert scale, with
reported reliability of 0.93. In this study the same scale was converted to seven point
liker scale seven showing high level of agreement and one high level of disagreement.
4.3 Outliers and Normality
Test of normality of data was carried out in several stages. Initially, Box, Whisker,
and Steam Leaf were plotted for identifying outliers. Outliers are those observations
which are significantly different than the entire sample data(Hair Jr., et al., 2007).
22
Journal of Management Science
If outliers are greater than five percent then suggested remedy is to recode them to
the nearest upward or lower values (Meyers, Gamst, & Guarino, 2006). On the other
hand if it is up to 1% than it is suggested is to carry them for further analysis as their
effects would be insignificant (Meyers, et al., 2006). Since, the outliers in this study
were less than 1%, therefore they were neither dropped nor recoded.
Normality of data in this study was also ascertained by converting each case to Z-
score and removing those cases which exceeded 2.5. Moreover, normality of the data
was also ascertained through Skewness and Kurtosis tests. The Skewness and Kurtosis
of all constructs were within prescribed range of 1.5 (Leech, Barrett, & Morgan, 2005).
4.4 Research technique
SPSS-v19 has been used for normality of data, EFA, and reliability analyses. AMOS-
v18 has been used to test the measurement model and structural model for assessing
the derived hypotheses. Structural Equation Model (SEM) has been used because of
its efficiency in multivariate approach for assessing theories (Hair Jr, Black, Babin,
Anderson, & Tatham, 2010).
A typical six stage procedure for SEM was employed in this study (Hair Jr, et
al., 2010). Initially an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was carried out for all the
constructs separately to identify the items to be retained or dropped. Subsequently,
reliabilities of each construct were obtained through Cronbach Alpha, which should
be at least 0.70 (Leech, et al., 2005). Also Convergent and Discriminant Validity for
all the constructs were also measured. Convergent Validity was used to measure the
convergent of items on single construct (Steenkamp & Van Trijp, 1991), while Discrim-
inant validity was used to measure the uniqueness and distinctiveness of each measure
as compares to others (Hair Jr, et al., 2010). Finally CFA for all the exogenous models
and overall model were worked out which are discussed in the subsequent section.
A typical two step approach was used for SEM analysis(Gerbing & Anderson,
1988). In the first stage, measurement items of each construct were subjected to con-
firmatory analysis (CFA) to ascertain whether measurement variables including body
image, self esteem, religiosity, and exposure to media reflects hypothesized latent vari-
ables. At the CFA stage three criteria were used for improving the fitness of the
model, which are: Standardized Regression Weights (should be at least 0.40 for all
the latent variables) (Singh, 1995); Standardized Residual Covariance (should be less
than 2.58) (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1988); and Modification Index (should be lesser than
10) (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1988).
Additionally the following statistics were also employed for ascertaining the over-
all fitness of the model. Chi Square statistic (Bollen, 1989) was used to measure the
variance between observed and expected covariance matrices. In case the Chi Square
value is close to zero than the probability value must be significant (p¿0.05). Chi
Square value is generally reported as a tradition, due to its limitations. For example it
is sensitive to sample size, and properly fit model might get rejected due to deviation
from normality (Bentler & Bonett, 1980; Joreskog & Sorbom, 1988; McIntosh, 2007).
The Comparative Fit Index (CFI) is based on adjusted sample size. CFI index
23
Body Image of Pakistani Consumers
should be at least 0.90 or greater (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Root Mean Square Error of
Approximation (RMSEA) is related to residual in the model. RMSEA value should
be of 0.08 or less (Hu & Bentler, 1999). The CFI is an improved version of NFI. CFI
should also be at least 0.90 (Gerbing & Anderson, 1988; Hair Jr, et al., 2010). Since
AGFI also consider the complexity of the model, therefore, its value is generally lesser
than GFI (Hair Jr, et al., 2010).
5 Results
5.1 Normality of Data through Standardized Z-Score
The normality of the data was tested by converting all the 193 cases to standardized
Z-score. The summarized results depicted in Table 2 shows that all the cases were
within the prescribed limit of 2.5.
Min Max
Body Image Dissatisfaction -1.887 2.506
Religiosity -2.511 1.739
Self Esteem -2.481 2.313
Exposure to media -2.45 2.065
5.2 Descriptive and Reliability of Initial Constructs
The instrument used for this paper comprised of constructs which were earlier used
by the researchers and therefore have established validities and reliabilities. However,
the reliabilities of the used constructs were again reestablished, and the summarized
results are presented in Table-3.
Construct Mean St.Dev Skewness Kurtosis Reliability
Body Image 4.233 1.024 0.781 -0.414 0.751
Self Esteem 5.121 0.994 -0.616 -0.494 0.813
Exposure to Media 4.79 0.877 0.266 -0.403 0.805
Religiosity 4.36 0.926 0.062 -0.251 0.902
Table-3, shows that the reliably of religiosity was the highest (=.902, M=4.360,
SD= 0.926) followed by self esteem (=.813, M= 5.124, SD=.994), exposure to media
(=.805, M=4.790, SD= 0.877) and body Image (=.751, M= 4.233, SD= 1.024) which
are within the acceptable range indicating that the respective items have reasonable
internal consistency and reliability.
Table 3, also shows that since all the constructs in terms of Skewness and Kurtosis
are within the range of 1.5, therefore it could be safely assumed that the data has
normal tendency.
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Journal of Management Science
5.3 Exploratory Factor Analysis
Principal factor analysis with Varimax Rotation was applied on the four constructs.
The assumption of independent sampling, linear relationships, and moderate correla-
tion ships were met, and the final results are summarized in Table 4.
Construct Items KMO Barley Test Cumulative
Factor loading
Items
Retained
Self Esteem 10 0.814 1005.283 71.07% 10
Body Image Dissatisfaction 11 0.698 508.737 62.15% 8
Religiosity 10 0.895 831.107 60.11% 9
Exposure to Media 11 0.861 694.615 61.739 9
Table 4 shows that all the items of self esteem were retained as they fulfilled the
prescribed criteria. However for the rest of the constructs at least one item had to be
dropped as they were not fulfilling the prescribed requirements.
5.4 Validity of the Final Constructs
Since all the factor loadings of all the indicator variables were greater than 0.40 and
goodness of fit indexes were within the prescribed limit therefore convergent validity
requirement have also been met (Hsieh & Hiang, 2004; Shammout, 2007).
Discriminant validity shows the uniqueness of the variables (Hair et al. 2010).
Discriminant validity was established though correlation of the entire final constructs
on one to one basis. In order to fulfill the discriminant validity, the correlations on
one to one basis must be less than 0.85 (Kline, 2005; Shammout, 2007). The results of
discriminant validity show that all the pairs of correlations are within the prescribed
limit of 0.85.
Body Image Religiosity Self Esteem Media Exposure
Body Image 1
Religiosity 0.342 1
Self Esteem -0.345 -0.041 1
Media Exposure 0.336 0.292 -0.049 1
5.5 Confirmatory Factor Analysis
CFA is a test for measurement theories (Hair et al, 2006, p. 747). In CFA, the
specified number of factors and items (indicators) are initially developed on theory
than required statistical analyses are carried out. The summarized CFA results of the
four constructs are presented in Table 6.
Factor loading for each observed variable is at least 0.40 and hence meeting the
minimum requirement of factor loading of 0.40. Moreover, standardized residual were
below 2.58 (Hair Jr. et al., 2007). All the Fit indexes for each of the exogenous model
are within/close to the prescribed limit (See Table 6). Based on these results the
overall model through SEM was tested which is discussed in subsequent section.
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Body Image of Pakistani Consumers
Construct Self
Esteem
Body
image Religiosity Media
Exposure Criteria
χ223.636 9.858 56.5 25.15 Low
Prob 0.005 0.007 0.000 0.000 <0.05
CMIN/df 2.626 4.929 2.828 2.794 <5.0
GF1 0.976 0.895 0.905 0.915 >0.90
AGFI 0.938 0.969 0.958 0.967 >0.90
CFI 976 0.958 0.955 0.966 >0.90
RMESA 0.092 0.143 0.098 0.097 <0.08
5.6 Overall Model
The overall SEM model comprise of four exogenous models namely, exposure to media,
self esteem, religiosity and body image. The CFA result of each exogenous model has
been discussed in earlier section, the overall final model is depicted in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Final SEM Model
Figure 2 for the overall model shows that factor loading for each observed variable
is at least 0.40 and hence meeting the minimum requirement of factor loading of 0.40.
Moreover, standardized residual were below 2.58 (Hair Jr., et al., 2007). Goodness of fit
indexes is within the prescribed limits which are discussed in the following paragraph.
The Chi Square value (Absolute Fit Indices) was significant (χ2= 124.971, df=
87, p= .004 <.05). The CMIN/df (Relative χ2/df) was 1.451<5. The Root Mean
Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) = 0.048 <0.08 meet both the absolute
of goodness-of-fit and badness-of-fit criteria. The Relative Fit Index (RFI) = 0.940
>0.90 and the Incremental Fit Index (IFI) = 0.996 >0.900 and Adjusted Good of
Fitness Index AGFI=0.978>0.90 meet the Incremental Fit Index Criteria. In sum,
the CFA results indicate that the overall exogenous model is a good fit.
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Journal of Management Science
5.7 Hypotheses Results
SEM model depicted in Figure 2 above shows that all two developed hypotheses were
accepted, and one was rejected. The summarized results are presented in Table 7.
Hypothesized Path Standardized
Extimates
Critical
Ratio Supported
Media exposure and Body Image 0.401 3.94 Yes
Self Esteem and Body Image -0.257 -2.543 Yes
Religiosity and Body Image -0.034 0.376 NO
The relationship between religiosity and body image was negative, but it was non-
significant.
6 Discussions and Conclusion
Body image concerned is an issue which was more severe in Western culture, but non-
significant in Eastern Culture such as Pakistan. But media explosion in Pakistan in
last one decade has become a major source for changing traditional norms and values.
Thin body in Pakistani culture was considered unhealthy and a bit of body heaviness
(not excessive weight) was considered as a healthy and symbol of prosperity. But now
obsession towards ideal body image has increased significantly in Pakistani culture as
well. Hence the local population is facing issues related to body image, which Western
Culture faced a few decades ago.
Thus it was felt that there is a need to develop a conceptual framework for under-
standing consumer attitude towards body image. Therefore a new conceptual frame-
work based on Social Comparison Theory with two additional variables religiosity and
self esteem was proposed and empirically tested in understanding consumer behavior
in the context of exposure to media, self esteem, and religiosity towards the body
image of Pakistani consumers.
Although the results in the context of exposure to media and body image, and
exposure to media and self esteem were consistent to some earlier studies and incon-
sistent to others, but the surprising results was no relationship between religiosity and
body image (discussed in detailed in subsequent paragraphs). Pakistan being promi-
nently, a Muslim state, it was expected that people with high level of religiosity will
have a significant negative effect on boy image (concerned/dissatisfaction). Two pos-
sible reasons could be extended for these findings. Influences of media and ethnicity
are so in Pakistan, that they have overridden the influence of on body image. The
above are discussed in more detail in the following paragraphs.
A positive relationship was found between exposure to media and body image.
This in essence means that higher exposure to media would lead to more concerned
about body image. This result substantiates the findings of Stice & Shaw (1994)
who also found that two predictors magazine and television exposure have relation-
ship with the depended variable body image. Stice and Shaw(1994), also found that
exposure to media adversely affects body image (especially women), which leads to
increase in depression feeling, unhappiness, shame, guilt, and decreased confidence
(Stice, Schupak-Neuberg, Shaw, & Stein, 1994). On the other hand the finding of the
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Body Image of Pakistani Consumers
others are contradictory to the finding of this paper, and of Stice and Shaw(1994), who
found no significant relationship between exposure to media and body dissatisfaction
exists (Mizes et al., 2000).
A negative relationship was found between self esteem and body image, this in
essence means that consumers with higher self esteem would be lesser concerned about
body image. This finding is consistent several earlier studies. For example Martin &
Kennedy (1993) found a direct relationship between self esteem and body image. Sim-
ilarly, others in their studies have demonstrated that high self esteem act as a buffer
against body dissatisfaction and eating disorder (Geller, et al., 2002; Tiggemann &
Williamson, 2000). Moreover, Frost & McKelvie (2004) found positive correlation be-
tween self esteem, and body dissatisfaction for children, adolescent, and adults. In
an another study it was found that college students with high perception about their
body image, also have high level of self esteem as compared to those who have low
perception about their body image (Geller, et al., 2002).
No relationship was found between religiosity and body image concerned. This
finding is inconsistent with earlier studies. For example in a study it was found that
the religious philosophy provides frame of reference on how to live, and behave in a
society (Weaver & Agle, 2002), therefore, the impact of media exposure on body image
would vary with the level of religiosity. Similarly, Boyatzis and colleagues carried out
a series of research in which they explored the relationship between religiosity, eating
disorder and body image. In this study it was found that girls belief in God has helped
her to have a positive body image perception(”Body Image and Eating Disorder in
Women,” 2010).
Islamic religion prohibits taking pride in physical attributes and comparing oth-
ers on the basis of color and physical attributes therefore it should results in lower
body dissatisfaction (Ahmad, Waller, & Verduyn, 1994). Although, there was non-
significant relationship between religiosity, and the body image, but still it could be
used for discouraging body-image dissatisfaction, as the relationship was negative.
Since the influence of the media is stronger therefore, legislations could be developed
which discourage displaying very thing model images. Public service messages could
also be displayed on the ill effects of being thin and communicating to the audience
that the image being displayed are not real but the results of artworks and using differ-
ent camera angles. Moreover, it has also been found that due to the recent availability
of media the youth in Pakistan have become so obsessed with it that they are watch-
ing television very extensively four hours daily. Thus the parents and teachers should
encourage youth to get involved in constructive physical activities and hobbies.
7 Limitation and Future Research
The scope of this study is limited to one city only and hence the finding could not
be generalized as being overall perception of Pakistans consumers. Since Karachi has
diversified ethnicity, therefore, the sample should have been drawn in such a man-
ner that it would have reflected the perception of all the ethnical population living
in Karachi. Future researcher may use a larger sample drawn on all Pakistan bases.
They could explore whether the body image perception varies ethnically, by age and
28
Journal of Management Science
gender.
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