More feared than revered: Insects and their impact on human societies (with some specific data on the importance of entomophagy in a Laotian Setting)

Abstract

VICTOR BENNO MEYER-ROCHOW, KENICHI NONAKA & SOMKHIT BOULIDAM
Summary: The general public does not hold insects in high regard and sees them mainly as a nuisance and transmitters of disease. Yet, the services insects render to us humans as pollinators, entomophages, producers of honey, wax, silk, shellac, dyes, etc. have been estimated to be worth 20 billion dollars annually to the USA alone. The role holy scarabs played to ancient Egyptians is legendary, but other religions, too, appreciated insects: the Bible mentions honey 55 times. Insects as ornaments and decoration have been common throughout the ages and nowadays adorn stamps, postcards, T-shirts, and even the human skin as tattoos. In many parts of the world, insects serve as objects of entertainment and represent a considerable value: large, single, live stag beetles are known to have sold for approximately 3,000 US dollars in Japan. In New Zealand and Malaysia luminescent insect displays have become lucrative tourist attractions. In forensic investigations insects have gained more and more in importance as incidences of homicide and smuggle of
contraband rise. Insects as parts of comic strips, horror movies, video games, etc. have also become very popular. Insects appear in sarcastic and science fiction novels, but are also frequently the subjects of romantic or humorous poems. Folk music of virtually all countries of the world knows certain insect songs and in probably all languages of the world idioms exist that make reference to insects. Very often such idioms, just like the many insect-based folk medicines of the different ethnic groups of the world, disappear, before they have even been scientifically analyzed. There is some hope, however, with regard to insects as human food. Insects contain easily digestible fats, valuable protein, fibre, minerals, and vitamins. Under threat through “westernization” in many parts of the world, entomophagy has seen some resurgence in certain areas. In southern Africa mopame worms are now being canned and exported to many countries and in Laos a veritable crickets-as-food industry has evolved over the last 18 years. Children and women collect wild (not farmed) crickets, sell them to middlemen (which are mostly ladies), who take the insects to the
towns and sell them there for a profit to customers like snack bar and restaurant owners. Crickets are, of course, not the only edible insects (there are hundreds of species belonging to virtually all insect orders), but in Laos they are considerably more valuable than rice and even meat. We conclude that any investigation dealing with humankind in nature, be it from the viewpoint of sociology, ecology, economy, or philosophy, will remain incomplete unless the substantial role of the insects is included in such investigations.

Full text

Entonologre heute 20 (2008): 3-25
More
Feared than
Revered:
Insects
and
their
lmpact on
Human Societies
(with
some
Specific
Data
on the
lmportance
of Entomophagy
in a Laotian
Setting)
Mehr verabscheut
als
geschätzt:
Insekten und
ihr Einfluss auf die
menschliche
Gesellschaft
(mit
spezifischen
Daten
zur Rolle der
Entomophagie
in einem Teil
von Laos)
Vrcron BrNNo Mryrn-Roctow, KrNtcHt NoNnr.r & Sor'lrHr Bourtonu
Summary: The general public does not hold insects in high regard and sees them mainly as a
nuisance and transmitters of disease. Yet, the services insects render to us humans as pollinators,
entomophages, producers of honey, wax, silk, shellac, dyes, etc. have been estimated to be worth
20 billion dollars annually to the USA alone. The role holy scarabs played to ancient Egyptians is
legendary, but other lsligions, too, appreciated insects: the Bible mentions honey 55 times. Insects
as ornaments and decoration have been cofiunon throughout the ages and nowadays adorn stamps,
postcards, T-shirts, and even the human skin as tattoos. In many Parts of the wodd, insects serve
as objects of entertainment and represent a considerable value: large, single, live stag beedes are
known to have sold for approximately 3,000 US dollars in Japan. In New Zealand and Malaysia
luminescent insect displays have become lucrative tourist attractions. In forensic investigations
insects have gained more and more in importance as incidences of homicide and smuggle of
contraband rise. Insects as
parts of comic strips, horror movies, r,rdeo
games, etc. have also become
very popular. Insects ^pper in sarcastic and science fiction novels, but are also frequendy the
subjects of romantic or humorous poems. Folk music of virtually all countries of the wodd knows
certain insect songs and in probably all languages of the world idioms exist that make refererice to
insects. Very often such idioms, just like the many insect-based folk medicrnes of the different
ethnic groups of the world, disappear, before they have even been scienufica\ analyzed. There is
some hope, however, with regard to insects as human food. Insects contain easily digestible fats,
valuable protein, fibre, minerals, and vitamins. Under threat through "westernization" in many
parts of the wodd, entomophagy has seen some resurgence in certain areas. In southem Afnca
mopame wofins afe now berng canned and exported to many countries and in Laos a veritable
crickets-as-food indusry has evolved over the last 18 years. Children and women collect wild (not
farmed) crickets, sell them to middlemen (which are mosdy ladies), who take the insects to the
towns and seli them there for a profit to customers like snack bar and restaurant owners. Crickets
are, of course, not the only edrble insects (there are hundreds of species belonging to virtually all
insect orders), but in Laos they are considerably more valuable than rice and even meat. We
conclude that any rnvestigation dealing wrth humankind in nature, be it from the viewpoint of
sociology, ecologS economy, or philosophn wrll remain incomplete unless the substantial role of
the insects is included in such invesugations.
Keywords: ethnobiology, ethnoentomology, ethnomedicine, entomoPhrgy, cultural entomology,
cultural geography
Zusammenfassung: Die Allgemeinheit hält Insekten zumeist für Plagegeister und Krankheits-
überttäger und meidet sie. Doch wirtschafdich gesehen leisten uns manche Insekten immens
werrvolle Dienste als Bestäuber, als Vertilger und Zerstörer von Schädlingen und als Produzen-

Vrcrrx BnNNo MeyEn-RocHo\{', KENrcsr NoNara & S
rxmsn BoULTDAM
ten von Honig, Wachs, Seide, Lacken usw. Der \ü7ert dieser Leistungen wird allein für die USA
auf 20 Milharden Dollar im Jahr geschätzt. Die Rolle der Mistkäfer bei den alten Agyptern ist
Iegendär, doch auch andere Religionen und lüTeltanschauungen
haben Insekten in ihrem ,,Pro-
grarnm":55 Mal wird in der Bibel das Wort Honig erwähnt. Insekten als Ornamente und Teil von
Schmuckstücken sind seit alters her beliebt und finden ihre modernen Versionen z.B. als Bro-
schen und Haarspangen, Äbbildungen auf Briefmarken und Postkarten, T-Shirt-Aufdrucken
und Tätowierungen der Haut. Insekten sind in vielen Gegenden der til/elt auch Gegenstand der
Unterhaltung von z.T. erheblichem N7ert:
Einzelne große,lebendige Lucaniden erzielten inJapan
einen Verkaufspreis von rund 3000 Dollar. Sammler von Schmetterlingen greifen ebenfalls manch-
mal tief in die Tasche, um ein seltenes Exemplar zu erg ttern In Neuseeland und Malaysia stellen
leuchtende Insekten als Touristenattraktion eine erhebliche Einnahmequelle dar. Insekten in der
Forensik haben in den letzten Jahren dank des zunehmenden Trends an Gewaltverbrechen und
Drogenschmuggel an Bedeurung gewonnen, ebenso wie es Horrorgeschichten, Comrcstrips,Zei-
chentrickfilme und andere Streifen mit Insekteninhalt taten. In der klassischen Literarur tauchen
Insekten relativ häufig in romantischen oder humorvollen Gedichten auf, fehlen aber auch nicht
aus satirischen Romanen. Und aus der Musik kennen wu zahheiche Volkslieder und andere
Weisen, die sich mit Insekten befassen. Häufig sind Insekten ein Teil von Redewendungen und
Vergleiche von dedei Redewendungen aus
verschiedenen Sprachen führen manchmal zu verblüf-
fenden Ergebnissen hinsichtlich ihter Bedeurung. Leider verschwinden mehr und mehr solcher
Redewendungen aus dem Sprachgebrauch, und ebenso wie die einst zahlreichen volksmedizini-
schen Rezepte, in denen Insekten zur Behandlung von Krankheiten Verwendung fanden, ist es
heute oft zu spät, sich wissenschaftlich mit diesen Gebräuchen auseinanderzusetzen, weil keiner
sie mehr kennt. Einen Lichtblick stellen Insekten als Nahrungsmrttel - zumindest in einigen
Gegenden der Erde - dar Insekten enthalten gut verdauliche, langkettige Fettsäuren, in der
Regel viel Protein und Mineralien sowie Vitamrne. Sie sind also gesund und wurden einst welt-
weit von vielen Menschen konsumiert, doch sind sie rnit zunehmender ,,Verwestlichung" häufig
aufgegeben worden. In jüngster Zeit erfahren einige Insekten als Nahrungsmittel allerdings eine
Art,,Renaissance": Mopane-Raupen werden heute in Dosen gepackt und aus Südafrika in andere
Länder exportiert. Äus Laos wissen wir, dass seit den letzten 18 Jahren ein regelrechter Handel
mit Grillen als Nahrungsmittel getrieben wird. Hauptsächlich von Frauen und Krndern gesam-
melte wilde (nicht kultivierte) Gdllen werden an ,,Mittelsmänner" (in der Regel ältere Frauen)
verkauft, die dann ihrerseits dre Insekten in dre Städte transportieren und sie dort an Hausfrauen,
Restaurants, Hotels, etc. mit einem Gewinn weiterverkaufen. Nanirlich sind Grillen nicht die
einzigen essbaren Insekten (derer gibt es Hunderte von Arten fast aller Ordnungen), aber sie
stellen zumindest rn Laos einen !7ert dar, der weit über dem von Reis und sogar dem von Fleisch
lregt. Unsere Schlussfolgerung ist, dass jegliche Untersuchungen, die sich zum Ziel setzen, die
Rolle des Menschen in der Natur zu verstehen, sei es aus soziologischer, ökologischer, wirt-
schaftlicher oder philosophischer Sicht, ohne dre substanzielle Rolle der Insekten zu berücksich-
tigen, zwangsläufig unvollständig bleiben.
Schlüsselwörter: Ethnobiologie, Ethnoentomologie, Ethnomedizin, Entomophagie, kulturelle
Entomologie, kulturelle Geographre
1. Introductory Remarks
There can be no doubt that insects
were ever-
present companions during the cultural evol-
ution of humankind (f onml.rsE o-PÄNZErrÄ
2005) and, for this reason, have infilttated
our history, philosophli religion, language,
food. and the arts.
Insects as a nuisance and
irittant,as vectors of serious disease, as
har-
bingets of evil and signs of filth and unhy-
grenic conditions impacted enormously on
the development andfate of human societies
throughout the world and, indeed, there is
no denying the fact that a gre t m rry species
of insects do inflict harm on humans either
direcdy or indirecdy, be it as transmitters of

Insects and their Impact on Human Societres
pathogens, through the damage they cause
to crops and human habitation, or through
rendering food sruffs unpalatable or even
inedible (Gorurau 1979). Litde wonder then
that urbanized folk have become fearful of
insects and in extreme cases, can develop pho-
bias that require psychiatric attention flX/en-
srEIN
1,994). Yet, insects
have
also
had awide
r^nge of positive effects on human societies
and their culrural evolution. This positive
aspect
is frequendy downplayed vis-ä-vis the
much more publicized negative image of in-
sects
(championed by makers of horror mo-
vies and science
fiction stories)
as the declared
enemies of our civilization. The aim of this
article
is to redress *us imbalance and to show
that the positive side of human-insect in-
teractions has
been -and still is- of immense
importance in ourworld. A similar approach,
but restricted to Heteroptera, has
been taken
by Horn'mxN (2006) in his excellent and beau-
tifully illustrated review on this ordet of in-
sects and by NoNara (1996) in his ethno-
entomological overview of insect use gen-
erally, but resuicted to the KalahanSan peo-
ple.
2. Worth a lot and revered since ancient
times
Starting with the pollinating services that in-
sects
render to humans, it has been estimated
by Bonnon et al. (1989) that such
services are
worth 19 bilhon US dollars annually fot the
USA alone. Commercialproducts derived from
insecs like honey, wax, sillg cochineal dye (ftom
D a a/op i u
s co c cu s) and s h ellac (fr om I-.a c cife r k c
-
ra) would be worth an additional300 million
dollars annually. And if firully we added the
value thatinsects play as entomophagous biol-
ogical control agents in farms, gardens, and
plantations we would probably arnve at an
annual value of at least 20 bilhon US dollats
for the USA alone.
The global value of insects
is,
thus, sheer inestimable.
Some of the insect products used by humans
and mentioned above have verv old histories:
Entomologie heute 20 (2008)
The word honey is mentioned in the Bible
55 times and the Israeli archaeologist DrÄmi-
chatMazar has recendy reported that bee-keep-
ing near Tel Rehov probably began 3000 years
ago Q.[ewsletter
der Botschaft des
Staates
Is-
rael vom 4. Septemb er 2007). Nowadays the
honeybee, after cattle and swine, is the third
most important domesticated anknal (faurz
2007). The use of wax by the Egyptians for
mummification purposes is well known and
the harvesting of silk from the pupae of wild
silkworm moths may tr2rr. started possibly
as far back as 6000 years ago (CrouDSLEy-
TuonpsoN 1976) in the region that is now
known as Assam (I.{orth-E,ast India). An
equally long or perhaps even longer history is
likely to be associatedwith entomoph^gy,r. e.
the use ofinsects as
food for humans. How-
ever, u/e shall return to the topic of entomo-
phagy a litde later and will then deal with it in
greater detail,
Litde needs to be said about the extraordi-
n^ry reg rd the ancient Egyptians held for
dung beedes, chiefly the genera furptr, Scara-
baeus, Glmopleurus, Copris, and Catharsius and
Rarct-rpps
Q006) in his recent review of sca-
rab beedes
in human culture gives possible
reasons for this attitude. He, furthermore,
explains that rhinoceros beetles (probably
Orltctes spp.)
and related species wete equally
esteemed by the ancient Greeks and Romans,
who credited scarabs with considerable pow-
er, using them as good-luck charms in com-
bat. It has been suggested
that one of the
holy scatabs, the pock-marked species
(either
S. aaio/osus
or S. cicaticosus),
made it into the
Judeo-Chrirdmlsligion and became the heav-
enly'Cherubim' (ScurunrscHEK 1 968). Almost
certainly scarabs and other beetles also played
some role in religions and mythologies in
regions that had no contact with ancient
Egypt. In Australia, for example, some sca-
rabs and other beedes arc trrbal totems and
seen as the ancestors of humans during the
era of the dreamtime (SrnNcBn & GrnsN
1899), but unfortunately it is nowadays of-
ten too late to investigate this aspect of in-

Vrcron BsNNo Mr,vsn-RocHow. KENIcHI NoNa.rcq,
& Sorrrxnn BoULIDÄM
teractions between insects and human
cultures as younger, urbanized people know
little or nothing about the ancient beliefs and
traditions of their ancestors.
In Hinduism with its belief in re-incarnation,
insects are
given the same protection andap-
preciation that other living organisms enjoy
andnJapan, even today, there are still temples
dedicated to insects. The so-called 'Suzu-
mushiTemple'in Kyoto contains a memor-
ial dedicated to all insects. Annua\ 50,000
crickets of the species Homeogrytllusjaponicus
are
raised in the temple (hence
the name 'su-
zumushi temple', which translates
into
'cricket temple). In another region of Japan
the jewel beetle Chrlsochroa
fulgidissima ts
being used for a so-called 'tamamushi no
zushi' (a receptacle for Buddhist scriptures
that, on the outside, features the elytra of
Buprestid beetles: http: / / skino49.web.
infos eek.
c o.jp
/ trmamus hi/ tamamushi/
slide2.html) and in several other places,
including Korea, wings of Chrysochroa
spp.
are being used in connection with grave and
tomb decorations. Incidentally, although rare,
some cave drawings of insects and other ar-
thropods made by stone-age people ^re
known from a variety of settings (southern
Africa,Europe, Australia) and signify to the
archaic
roots of insect appreciation be it for
spiritual or other reasons. An exceptionally
well-res earched review, although actually not
dealing with ins ects, but riruals, ceremonies,
and customs related to sacred
trees,
has very
recendy been published by Dat'Nt Q007) and
readers
with a
wider interest in ethno-biome-
taphysics may find this reviewusefrrl.
3. Insects as a form of decoration and
entertainment
Whole insects, dead or alive, can be wotn as
ornaments and it has been reported that
young girls of some tribal South American
Indians placed luminescent beetles
(PyEho-
rus sp.,trapped in tiny straw containers)
into
their hair to increase the wearer's attracdve-
ness (I(rors & Kr.ors 1959). Shiny tenebrio-
nid b e e tle s (I-n
n ap te
ri
a
j o
rki a
n
a), crafted into
headbands or necklaces (Fig. 1), have been
shown to be worn by married \X/ahgi
Valley
highland women in Papua New Guinea
Q{eran-RocHow 1,97 5a, 1,982a) and tattoos,
including those on the skins of persons with
a background of western civilizations, now
often feature insects and related arthropods.
The use of the weevil Rhlnchopborus
femrgi-
neas or, to be precise, its btzz as a musical
instrument Fig. 2), amongst the men folk
of the Onabasulu cannibals
of the southern
highlands of Papua New Guinea has been
documented by Mpvnn-RocHo\ü (1973a,
1982b) and is also known from tribals in the
Telefomin area of New Guinea.
The modern use
of insects for decorating an
almost endless v^rLeq of items, ranging from
pencil cases
via coffee cups andT-Shirts (Fig.
3) to company logos and involving chiefly
butterflies and beetles, cleady has mosdy
economic reasons: if it sells, why not decor-
ate it with colourful images of beautiful in-
sects?
Modern jewelry, broaches and fancy
harrclips in particular, are often modeled after
butterflies and beedes anda fewinsect sculp-
tures in parks and other public places can also
be found. Catalogues fearuring stamps of
the wodd contain thousands of stamps de-
picting almost any
insect. Hoppu,tNN (2007)
devoted an entire review to the topic of "\X/'an-
zen (Hemiptera- Heteroptera) in der Phila-
telie". Insects on coins or paper money, on
the other h and, are considerably rarc,the best
examples perhaps being the 5 Pula coin of
Botswana and the 1,000 Franken bill of
Switzerland, the former feat:uring a
mop(h)ane woffn (the caterpillar of the moth
Conimbrasia belina) and the Latter feattnng a
number of ants and the face of the entomo-
logrstAugust Forel. An older exampie would
be the Greek silver coin of Ephesus milled at
atound 400 B.C. A very nice article devoted to
beedes on postcards and stamps
has been
published in Hungarian and English by
SzpNrrrn lrrr (2003\.

Insects and their Impact on Human Societies
In otder to witness that it is nowadays not
entirely unpopular to keep certain species
of
insects like, for example, walking sticks and
hissing cockroaches
as pets,
one need onlyvis-
it the pet shops ("Zoolog1sche Fachhandlun-
gen') in our big cities. To marntain crickets
and othet insects was once widespread in the
port cities of Bremen and Hamburg (Scun'n-
rscHEK 1968). According to V.B. MnvBn-
RocHcrw's own grandfather (E Marnn-Ro-
cHow, pefs. coliln.) vendors went from house
to house to sell insect cages
and their singng
(and sometimes silent) inhabitants. !7hy this
custom died out at around \X/odd \X/ar I is
anybody's
guess,
but it was probably not the
price of the litde critters. However, in todayt
Japan
insect pet owners are prepared to pay
eflormous sums for their sixJegged friends:
very large stag
beedes,
e.g.
Dorcus
caruidens,
ate
known to have fetched 300,000 Yen (about
3,000 US dollars) or more @nocr<
2006). In-
terestingly,
live specimens
are much more ex-
pensive than dead ones,
apinned specimen of
Dlnastes
hercules
costing only 45,000 Yen. The
cheaper rhinoceros beedes (e.g.
Trypox1lus
di-
chotomus)
are sold by the thousands together
with small plastic vivariums in the summer to
eager
young beede ov/ners, boys and gids alike,
for litde more than 1,000 Yen. Beetle fights
and the accompanying gambling have been
reported fromThailandand annual
spider
fight
meetinp, cartied out by rnature gentlemen with
their pet spiders, ate known from Klmshu in
J upnn.Abstract forms of insect entertainmefl
ts
for children come rn a vanety of games, ral:'g-
ing from puzzles
and'memorygames' for the
little ones Fig a) to insect qtizzes and video
games like 'Mushi Kitg' for the oldet chil-
dren.
Some
insects
have become
tourist attractions:
approximately 2 million visitors annually ad-
mire the subterraneafl "sky" in the Waitomo
cave ofNew Zealand,a spectacle
created by the
thousands of bluegteen lights of the larvae of
the mycetophild dipteran, known as the glow-
worm- fly Arachno
campa
lumino sa,
inhabiting the
ceiling of the cave (Mernn-Rocrow 2007).In
Iintomologre hcutc 2i) (2008)
othet tegions where such glo-wworms occrx (for
example, Australia) a similar touristic use of
this attractive insect resource
is envisaged.
To
see the synchronously flashing fireflies of Ma-
laysia
has recendy also become the aim of an
ever-increasingnumber of tourists and the an-
nual butterfly exposition of Hampyeong (South
Korea) has already
become legendary
since
its
inception approximately 20 years ago (N{rvEn-
Rocuow 2008).
Frnally, one ought not to forget
the many museufns, zooIoglcal. gardens and
even a few oriental hotels that nowadays dis-
play insects
in so-called butterfly houses' and
insectariums
to attract the public.
4. Insects in scientific research and
forensic investigations
As entomologists we do not require any con-
vincing arguments to accept that insects are
important as subjects
of scientific
explorations.
Any attempt to understand food-webs and
eco-systems
in a terrestrial or fteshwater sett-
ing almost inevitably has to include insects, of
which rougtrly 1 million species
have been de-
scribed to date,
butperhaps ten times as
many
remain undescribed. The field of
'applied entomology' deals with insects that
are either harmful or of other particular in-
terests
to humans.
For example,
to assess the
quality of a naturai
water body, be that a pond,
broo\ stream or bog, or to characteflze
a habi-
tat, one frequendy refers to the insects present
in thern However, insect
species
*atarcselected
to become patt of acomparative physiological
study are
normally not chosen
because
of their
economic or medical importance, but because
they possess
interesttng,
sometimes
unusual
features worthy of closer investigation. The
easyway flies can be keptin captivity and their
short generation times combined with ana-
tomical features (the giant chromosomes in
the salivaryglands
come to mind) have helped
D ro
s
op hi
Ia m e lanogas
terbecome an eatly "work-
horse" for the geneticists.
O f panicular interes t
to curators ofinsect collections are
abnormal-
ly-coloured specimens €ig. 5) and the so-

Vri;r'oR BnNNo Mp,r'en-Rocuov'. KrNurHI NoNlK,\ & Soirtrirtr BoL'LIDÄNI
Fig. 1: Thi.s woman from the Wahgr Valley of the Papua New Guinea Hrghlands uses the dried
bodres of the tenebrionid bcetlc L,onapteia
jorkiana to adorn herself with.
Abb. 1: Erne Ftau aus dem Wahgr Valley (Hochland von Papua Neugurnea) benutzt getrocknete
Tene brioni den (La
nt ap te ra
.
1
o r
k i a n a)al s S
chmuck.

Insects and their Impact on Human Societres
called 'gynanders', i.e., insect individuals that
on one side of the body possess
male and on
the other female fearures. Cockroaches, too,
feature prominendy as
laboratoryinsects and
so do nulnerous other forms like mealworrns,
stickinsects,
ctickets, etc. that one regularlyen-
counters in the biology departrnents of our
ufuvefslfles.
\Mhile the ability of insects like, for instance,
ants to free bones from adhering tissue and to
clean up skeletons
has long been used
by anat-
omists to obtain undamaged specimens, the
superior capacities
of the senses
ofinsects like
being able to perceive ultravioletradiation as
a
separate
colout ot using the e-vector of the slqr
for orientational purposes or detecting the in-
frared waves emitted by burned wood as well
as the 'wonders' of the social fabric of ants,
wasps, bees, and termites have provided
powerful incentives to scientists of a variety
of disciplines to occupy themselves
with these
hexapods. In one research
field, however, more
than in any other, an undetstanding and cor-
rect intelpretation of aninsect's life cycle and
behaviour can actually
influence a persont fate:
namely forensic medicine.
Homicide investigations frequendy rely upon
an expertt interpretation of insect abundance
and species compositiori on a corpse, because
the colonization of a coqpse
byinsecs represent-
ing a variety of species
follows a well-defined
sequence.
Carnivorous beedes and their larvae
can not occur on a dead bodyr.rrless first a thriv-
ing population of fly maggots has developed
and dermestid beede and tineid moth species
will not be present until the colpse has firlly
dried out. Not only are there nowadays nu-
merous textbooks dealing with forensic ento-
mologrcal
questions
(cf.
Srw:rn
1 986), insecs have
indeed helped solving several
murder cases and
obtaining evidence to convict drug smugglers.
5. Insects in the arts and literatute
Since it is impossible to give even a partially com-
plete overview of insect depictions
in the ars, we
shall
restrict ourselves
in this essay
to a few repre-
sentative
examples.
Insectpaintings of the anti-
quiry whose principle moflves were nsects are
not terribly colrunon. And this, to some exteng
holds true even for the Far Easg where traditio-
nally insects
were held in greater esteem
than in
the \X/esr Although nulnerous works of arr in
the westem world do exisg in which insects re-
presentan
added element
(forexample, the bees
around the head
of the honeycomb+tealingchild
Amor in Lucas CnaNacnt (1,
47 2-1.553)'Amor
as a
honey thief" or the butterflies
in Dosso Dosis
(1,
480
/ 90-1542)'Jqiter and Mercuqy'', the
painting of a single "Hirschkäfe1' by Amnncrrr
Dunnn (1,471,-1528)
stands
out and is undoub-
tedly one of the most farnous masterpieces of
tlrat period. LeoNanoo oa Vnlq (1.
452-1.
51.9), on
the other hand, j"dgrg by the number of sket-
ches
made byor attributed to him andin spite of
his enormouslywide interests generally and his
fascination with flight ln panicular, could not have
found insects
very inspiring for they almost ne-
ver feanre in his works. But some of the most
beautifirl (and accurate)
insect painun5 of the
Fig 2: The adult of the sago palm weevil, pricked on a stick, is being used by this Onabasulu man
from Papua New Guinea as a musical instrument.
Abb. 2: Ern Onabasulu Mann aus Papua Neugurnea benutzt einen auf einen Stock gespießten Sago
Palmen Rüsselkäfer als Musikinstrurnent.
Fig. 3: Modern T-shirt manufacturers fiequendy use pictures of insects on their products, here the
Hadequin Ionghorn beede.
Abb. 3: T-Shirt Hersteller bilden häufrg Insekten auf ihren Produkte ab, hier einen Harlekin-
Langhornbock.
Fig. 4: Numerous games and educational aids, here an example from Finland, feature insects and
other arthropods.
Abb. 4: ZaL:Jerche Spiel- und Ausbildungsgegenstände,
Insekten und andere Arthropoden.
Entomologie heute 20 (2008)
hier ein Beispiel aus Finnland, zeigen

10 Vrcron BeNNo MEypn-Rt xrH( )!i'. KT,NIcHI
NoN,t r,l & Scttrrcrn B( )uLID
AN{
18th century, made by AugustJoHANN Rclsst-
voN RosENHon
(1 705-1 759) and published
17 46
in his monthly'lnsecten Belustigturg" (Oncu.-
on rc;pn
2006),
make up for thar Special
mention
should also
be made of the beautifr-rl19th
cen-
u1'paintngs on glass
by Evnr.n G,lrrE (1846-
1904),as they often involve avaÄeg of insects,
e.g.,
grasshoppers,
dragonflies, praying
mandses,
etc
Serious
(and
not so serious) literature as well as
poetry focusing on insects, as with insect
paintings, increase
in frequency from the past to
the present.
It is perhaps odd that D,'rNInr
Ds-
ron (1
660-1
731)
in his'Robinson Crusoe" story
mentions all sorts of plants and animals, but
totally ignores the insects that must have been
present on the uninhabited island his hero got
stranded
on. However, one of the eadiest
love
poem, which hinges atound an insect, namely
the flea, is a sonnet first published n 1633, tit-
EIN GANZE,S LE,BEN
,,Weißt du noch", so frug die Eintagsfliege
Äbends, ,,wie ich auf der Stiege
Damals dir den Käsekrümel stahl?"
Mit der Abgeklärtheit eines Greises
Sprach der Fliegenmann:
,,Geu'iß,
ich weiß es!"
Und er lächelte:
,,Es
war einmal -"
,,Süeißt
Du noch", so fragte
weiter sie,
,,Wie ich damals unterm sechsten
Knie
J
ene schwere Bluwergiftung hatte?"-
,,Leider", sagte
halb verträumt der Gatte.
,,\)7eißt
du noch, wie ich, weil ich dit grollte,
Fl-iegenleim-Selbs
tmord verüben wollte?-
Und wie ich das erste
Ei gebat?-
\ü7eißt
du noch. wie es
halb sechs
Uhr war?-
Und wie ich in die Milch gefallen
bin?-"
Fliegenmann gab keine Änt'wort mehr,
Summte leise.
müde vor sich hin:
,,Lang,lang ist's
her - ,,
Joachin Nngelnatq
led'The Flea" byJoi+.i
DoNNt (1.572-1,631),n
which this poet declares
his love through rhe
fusion of his and his adored ladyt blood insi-
de rhe insect that has bitten the both of them.
Other poems in English that refer to or directly
address insects are \ü/tt-t-lwt Wonpswctmr's
(1770-1850)
1801
'To aButterfl/', the
contem-
por^ry
CHnrsr
opnnR
SrlnARr's
(1,7 22-17
7 1)' The
Bald Man and the Fly" and the incredibly influ-
ential parzb
ola
of Bmx,rnn N{,rxusrum's (1
670-
1733)'"Th,eFable
ofthe Bees"
of 1705,tnwhich
the aurhor critically examines
human greed and
concludes that this and other 'negadve traits'
actually
h"lp u society to progress. German in-
sect poetry finds some mastetly and firnny pie-
ces by Wu-r
nI-'vr
B usct-t (1 832- 1 908) and especi-
aliy
Jo,rcnrn
r RINc;u -N,lrz (1
8 83-
1 9 34).
Two o
f
their respective poems and their free translati-
ons into Engltsh by \48. Mevsn-RocHosv are
found below:
Ä LIFETIME
"Do you tecall" an ageing lady mayfly remi-
nisced one night
"when just above that willow tree we had
that fight,
because you chased me much too hard?"
And with the wisdom of a saint
Old mayflygent -his voice quite faint-
Replied "I do recall, I do recall, my love.
That was
ouf staft. . ."
'And you femember" she went on
"leg number six of mine was gone
as
I felt somethingwrongwith my anatomy?"
"It dawns on me, it dawns on me"
the mayfly husband nodded dreamily.
'hnd do you knowwhen I was cross
with you
and close
to kill myself in sticky glue,
and how at six past
erght a.m. this mom, o dear,
I nearly fell into that jug of beer
and how I later laid my litde eg5 all in a row?"
The mayfly man no longer listened cleatly;
Too old and weak to talk he uttered merely,
"This morn - oh, what a long,long time agol"
V.B. Meyer-Rochow

Insects and their Impact on Human Socretres 1,1.
BALDUIN BAHI-AMM - Der verhinderte
Dichter
In freier Luft, in frischem Grün,
Da, wo die bunten Bltimlein blühn,
In \X/iesen,
!7äldern, auf der Heide,
Entfernt von jedem \X/ohngebäude,
Auf rein botanischem Gebiet
\ü/eilt
ieder gern, der voll Gemüt.
Hiet legt sich Bählamm auf den Rücken
Und fühlt es tief und mit Entzücken,
Nachdem er Rein und Blick erhoben:
Groß ist die Welt, besonders oben!
Wie klein dagegen
und beschränkt
Zeigtsich der Ohrwurm, wenfl er denkt.
Engherzig schleicht er durch das
Moos,
Beseelt
von dem Gedanken
bloß,
Wo's dunkel sei und hohl,
Denn da nur ist ihm pudelwohl.
Grad wie er wünscht und sehr gelegen
Blinkt ihm des
Dichters Ohr entgegen.
In diesen
wohlerwärmten Räumen,
So denkt er, kann ich selig
träumen.
Doch wenn er glaubt, dass
ihm hienieden
Noch weitre Wirksamkeit beschieden,
So irrt er sich. - Ein Winkelzug
Von Bählamms Bein, der fest genug,
Zerstörtdie Form, das
heißt so ziemlich,
Die diesem Wurme eigentümlich,
Und seinem
Dasein als Subiekt
Ist vorderhand ein Ziel gesteckt.
IVilhelm Busch
BÄLDUIN BÄHLAMM-The would-be poet
Fresh au andnatufe's green
Ä multitude of shades
and colours to be seen
And not a word, but birdsong to be heard -
This is the poet's paradise.
A sheer
delight
That's found in gtoves and meadows,
heath-
land and the like.
\W4ren
overheadwhite puffs of clouds pass
by
There is no better way to muse and think
Than lying on one's back submetged in
waves of grass
\X/ith eyes
directed to the sky.
It's then that intuition fills the poet's head
To formulate mostwonderfi.rlly rhyrnes it's said'
An earwig has a smaller brain
And being less accomplished in its thinking
Its only goal
and greatest
gain:
That is to find a ttny hole to slink in.
It's crawling narrow-mindedly
Through moss and foliage and grass,
too,
With one decision dominating porgnantly
One of them poet's earholes
on the ground
will do
As comfortable resting place
To dteam that earwig's dteam of ideal living
space.
Yet, the earwig's
dteam is just a dream and
not realiry
The poet's mood is now disrurbed by this
banaliry
And up he gets to end the pesky creatutet life
By squeezing
it to death and cutting it with
his sharp knife.
Poetic thoughts got, thus, curtailed
And earwig as well poet, reaching higher
goals,
have failed.
V.B. Meyer-Rochow
lintomok)l+e hcutc 2t) (2008)

T2 Vrcron BeNNo Msrcn-RocHo\rr. KENtcHl NoN a.r,c, & S
rxtrHn B (
)ULID
AM
Fig. 5: Colour mutants, [ke this Aglais artica spectmen, which lacks the usual blue UV-reflectlng
spots along the margin of the wings, are g'iven special attention by collectors and scientists alike
ffeNc et al.2004).
Abb. 5: Farbmutanten, wie drese Aglais urtica, die keine UV-reflektierenden Flecken längs der
Flügelkanten mehr hat, sind bei Sammlern und Wissenschafdern beLiebt ffnNc et aL.2004).
Fig. 6: Delousing not only serves to strengthen social contacts. Amongst the lCriwina people of
the Trobriand Islands the presence of head lice rndicates that the child is a healthy child.
Abb. 6: Das Entlausen dient nicht nur der Intensivierung sozialer I(ontakte. Beim Volk der
Kiriwina (Irobriand Islands) zeigen Läuse bei einem l(ind an, dass es gesund ist.
Fig. 7: In Korea and China numerous insects and other arthropods, especially centipedes, play an
important role in folk medicinal recipes.

Insects and their Impact on Human Societtes 13
Numerous short stories with an insect-con-
tent also exist andFRANZ
KAFKÄ's
(1883-1924)
famous 1 91 5 story "Die Verwandlung" (fhe
Metamorphosis) has even been turned into a
movie. Other noteworthy short stories must,
of course, include the haunting "Tell-Tale
He rt" byEocanALIÄN PoE
(1809-1849),in
which only the sound, and not the actual in-
sect, of the death-watch beede
drives the hero
of the story to insaniry and'The Gold Bug",
published by the same author in the same
year (1,843). T.C. Bovr-p's (x1948) "The Hu-
man Fly", A.S. ByÄl.r's (x1936) novella
'Angels and Insects", and Roaro DAst's
(1916-1990)
"RoyalJ.lly" ate further gre^t
examples
of insects
in literature.
There ate probably few cultures and ethnic
groups that do not at least possess some
songs about insects. In German Paul LtNrnt
(1,866-1,946) "Glühwürmchen" or the "Mai-
käfer flieg, Dein Vater ist im Krieg" song of
an unknown composer of the 'Auf der
Mauer, auf der Lauer sitzt'ne kleine Wan-
ze" immediately spring to mind, while in
Japan
everyone would start to hum or sing
'Aka tombo" (the song of the ted dragon-
fly) when asked to come up with a song of
an insect. English children learn "Fiddle dee
dee, the flywants to marry the bumblebee"
and even the Australian aborigines of Alice
Springs have songs (we might call them
'ditties') about wijuti grubs and bushflies.
The existence of Hungarian insect folk
songs
mentioning mayflies has
been Put on
record by SzeNr-I\ANy & Ululzv (1,973)
and
finally, Rtrvrs<v-KoRsAKov's
famous "Flight
of the Bumblebee" stands out as one of
finest examples
of classical
music to portray
an insect's most characteristic and typical be-
haviour.
6. Insects in idioms and provetbs
It can be assumed
that insect appreciation (or
at
least the awareness
of the insects'presence)
finds its precipitation in the vocabulary (and
perhaps even the choice of vowels: Meven-
Rocnow 1982c) of alangtnse and in particu-
lar in its use of idioms. Towatds this end
Japanese
and English idioms (i.e., common
sayings and provetbs) were compared with
each other by Mevnn-Rocuow et al. (2000)
and in the future are to be supplemented by
investigations of other languages as
well.
Of particular interest in this line of ethno-
entomological research is how different lin-
guistic group s inteqp
te
t ins
ect-c ontaining idi-
oms and how idioms and proverbs making
reference to insects came about in the first
place,
i.e.,
were "invented". Why do Germans,
for example,
say
"Eine Laus istihmüber die
Leber gelaufen", if someone
is a bit upset or
"Brhateinen Floh im Ohr", if someone is a
bit whimsical and perhaps obsessed with
something? Sometimes it must have been
the rhyme that led to the idiom, as in "Mit
Tücke FJngtman eine Mücke" and sometimes
it must have been the nature of the insect
itself as
in the German "Sie/er ist bienenflei-
߀" (= S/he is as
busy as a bee)
or the English
"S/he's fumping about like a fTea on a
griddle" or the Maori "Me te tarakihi epa;p^
anaitewaru" (= chatting like the cicadas).
However, how can idioms of different lan-
guages that in cofrtent ^rc app2;fendy
neatly
identical, mean some totally different things?
To witness: when Finns say
"Ei sääsken
lau-
lu taivaaseen
kuulu" (the voice of a mosqui-
to is not heard in heaven), they mean that the
complaint of 'the little man in the street' is
not heard by the powers above and nothing
Abb. 7: In Korea und China spielen viele Insekten und andere Arthropoden, vor allem Hundertfü-
ßer, eine wichtige Rolle in Rezepturen der Volksmedizin.
Fig. 8: Ät this market in Kohima (I.Jagaland) live, tied-up spiders, which can be cooked or roasted,
are offered for human consumption.
Abb. 8: Auf diesem Markt in Kohima Q.{agaland) werden lebende, zusan}Inengebundene Spinnen,
die gekocht oder geröstet werden, zum Kauf angeboten.
lintomologic heute 20 (2008)

14 Vlcron BsNNo Ms,vnR-RocH()!(/.
KeNrcHl NoN,q,rn & Sourcrn BoULIDAM
will ever change. However, when theJapa-
nese
say'l{tj. no omoi mo tenni todoku" (even
an ant's wish teaches heaven), they mean that
even the voice of 'the litde man in the street'
will be heard by the powers above and can
achieve change.
Does that reflect a more pessi-
mistic atrirude of Finns? This aspect would
cleady be worth a separate investigation.
It has become app^rent that the urbanized
citfzenrefers less frequendy to insects in idi-
oms that s/he uses than folk that live in the
countryside.Itis also apparent
from a collec-
tion of Finnish idioms (NInvnn-Rocsow &
KEloNrN, rnprepr^tion) that soldiers in the
^rr.rry
refer to insects in their idioms more
frequendy than persons of other occupations.
What does this mean? One interpretation,
fanciedbyMrvon-Rocuowet al. (2000)
is that
thtoughout the wodd humans increasingly
alienate themselves from narute and are sim-
ply less and less ^w^re of insects and their
ways of life. They simply encounter insects
less often than persons living in the country.
In places where people are still being con-
fronted regulady with insects, idiomatic use
ofinsectreferences is more cofiunon. Quan-
tity and qualiry of references to insects in idi-
oms and proverbs do vary, of coutse, be-
tween cultures and societies.
Perhaps the rea-
son whyJapanese
and Finns still possess
so
many more insect-containing idioms than the
British and Germans is that large-scale indus-
triahzaaon (and with it the alienation from
insects) occured later.
T.Insects as drugs and components of
traditional medicines
Since ancient times healers
have looked to-
wards insects
forremedies to reduce aperson's
suffedng from illness. In fact, according to
Tare-on (1,97
5) the word'medicine' itself owes
its origin to insects, namely the alcoholic be-
verage, known as 'mead', made from the
honeycombs of bees and believed to pos-
sess healingpowers. Amongst the Trobriand
Islandets the presence
of head lice in a child
€iS. 6) indicates 'good health', whereas an
absence of the parasite sets off the'alarni''
that something might be wrong with the
child (X4nwn-RocHow 1,97 9). Amongst Aus-
tralian Aborigines, large cateqpillars
have been
used as 'pacifiers' and put into the mouths
of cryingbabies. Thete are beyond doubtin-
numerous other uses of insects in tradition-
al societies that have
never been described and
in all likelihood never will be, because the
youngef genefation no longer knows of
them.
Howevef, for certain areas
we possess
very
good and detailed accounts not onlywith re-
gard to the species of insects used as medi-
cines, but also
the diseases and disorders they
were prescribed for. Often the use of a spe-
cies
follows 'folk logic': In the arsenal of tra-
ditional medicines in Kotea (PntteenroN
1,999)
^n ^rthtopod with many moving legs
like a centipede (Fig. 7), when ingested, sim-
ply has to be good for the restoration of limb
function in humans; consuming the feadess
scorpion or spiders €ig. 8) ought to work as
an efficient pain killer and able to remove fear
symptoms in children; treatment with blister
beedes should heal boils and horse flies are
said to counteract amenorrhe a (Tabanus
spp.).
Umnuna (19
45,cited
in ScHrmrscHn< 1 968)
assembled a list of at least 100 species
of
insects belongrng to many different orders
(chiefly Orthoptera, Hemiptera, Lepidopte-
ra, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, and Diptera),
and described their uses
for the treatment of
diseases and ailments inJapan. A list featur-
ing 58 species of insects, representing 11 or-
ders, has also been prepared by DINc et al.
(2005) with regard to Chinese folk medicinal
practices and details when and how to take
them for whatever complaint are to be found
in the tome "Chinese Mateita Medica" by
Reao (1982).
Äccording to HoppuaNN (2006) bed bugs
(Cimex lectularius)
were traditionally used for
a varieq of reason, of which the most cu-
rious was probably the introduction of live
bugs into the urethra to induce urination!

Insects and therr Impact on Human Societles 15
However, many insects do contain biologi-
cally-active compounds and cantharidin and
its derivatives are
ptobably some of the most
thoroughly investigated insect chemicals
(DerrNen & Psrnns 2003). In fact, the im-
portance of animal-based
medicines,
includ-
ing those obtained from insects,
is discussed
for the South American region with a view
on sustainable
development by Cosra-Nnrcl
& Ortvntna (2000).
Providing the scientific
names
of the insects,
the use
they are put tq
and the way they are supposed to be taken,
these authors feport thatin northeasternBn-
zil whole cockroach
es
Peip/aneta
americanaand
whole houseflies are
beingused against asth-
ma and baldness,
respectively..
In otder to record medicinal uses of insects
certain procedures have to be followed. Ac-
cording to YaNc & Hou (2002) the correct
protocol should include four major points:
1. Valid and avatfable
name as well as taxo-
nomic position of each species
needs to be
confirmed before any applied study can com-
mence; 2. E,cological data
(e.g.,
proper des-
cription of localiry, season,
etc.) should be
included; 3. Geographic distribution has to
be given;4. The condition of the resoutce(s)
of the insect material ought to be stated.
Moreover, CITES regulations should be con-
sulted before applying insect materials to
Chinese medicines and insect identification
methods should include traditional mor-
phoiogy as well as
general and molecular biol-
ogqcd,data.
8. Insects as human food
The use of insects as
human food was once
widespread and undoubtedly goes back to
the dawn of mankind. Even monkeys ex-
tensively consume locally abundant insect
species
Q'.lIcrru & HnrrrnNN 1996) and lo-
custs as
permitted kosher food items are
spe-
cifically mentioned in the Bible: Leviticus,
Chapter 11:21. Hundreds of insect
species,
representatives of virtually all orders, found -
and to some extent still find- acceptance
as
fJntomologe heute 20 (2008)
part of the human diet (Fig. 9). It was Bo-
DENHEII\IER
(1951), who for the first time pres-
ented a global review of insects as
food. Since
that seminal publication more than half a
cerrturJr
^go,^number of books (1\{trsuntsut
1984;Peor,ern 2005;NoNa<.1 2007), as
well
as book chapters
and articles
in scientific iour-
nals (too many to list) have appeared,
which
deal
with the topic of insects
as human food
or the nutritive value of insects (Mrven-Ro-
cHo!fl 1976: MävBn-RocHow & Cu,lNcrr;,t
1
997;
Ruros-F.r oRow oB CoNcoNt
et aJ.
1982;
BurrnNs 2005:CBnprt
et aI.
2}}5;N4trsurnsut
2}}5a;YHouNc-Anns & VIw,^\lp.lNtcr 2005),
and the trend to forego traditional insect
eating practices in favour of western diets,
even
in places as
remote as
the jungle of Pa-
pua New Guinea (Mevrn-RocFlow 1'975b,
2005; Tor,nlrseo-PoNznrr,t & Paomrn 1997)
and the Amazonian jungle (PaolnrrI &
Duroun2005).
Yet, there is considerable
value in maintain-
ing some of the traditional insect food items,
for frequendy
they are
more than iust anitem
of food (Fig. 10). First of all, they are often
typical and characteristic of a particular cultr-re
(Fig. 11) and do not simply represent an
'emergency
food item', consumed mainly by
the poorest of the poor. By 'removing' the
insects from the menu, such cultures can lose
part of their identities and such losses are
always
sad and usually not reversible. Rem-
nants of insect-eatingpractices
maybe found
in the populariry of candies shaped to re-
semble insects, spiders made out of sugary
jelly and beetles
or bugs made out of choco-
late (Fig 12). Secondly,
as SznNr-IvaNv
(1958)
had akeady
noticed many years
ago, often the
insects
regarded
as crop-pests,
represent
a
higher nutritional value than the croP one
wishes to save.
Why then spend huge sums
of money on insecticides and risk polluting
land and people,
if insects could be made
use
of either directly (as human food) or indi-
recdy (as fodder for domestic animals).
Adult
insects, after al).,are
rich in protein, minerals
and vitamins. while immature larvae and

1,6 vtcron BENNo
Mnyr,n-R()cHc)\x',
KENrcHr
NoNlrl\ & Solrrurr B( )uLrDÄN{
Fig. 9: Canned insects like (from left to right)
aquatic insect larvae are available rn Japan.
Abb. 9: In Japan srnd eingelegte Insekten wie (von hnks nach rechrs) Larvcn von Bienen und
\ül'espen,
Heuschrecken, und verschiedene aquaasche Insekten erhältlich.
Fig. 10: Some insects like cicada nymphs are not only consumed, but may also be used as
med.icines
or serve as models for masks and facial decoratrons.
Abb. 10: Einige Insekten wie die Nymphen von Zikaden werden nicht nur verzehrt, sondern
werden als Medizrn genutzt oder dienen als Vorlage frir Masken und Gesichtsschmuck.
Fig. 11: Grubs, collected from rotting wood and presented rn groups of one dozen each,
areoffered
for sale rn Nagaland at a Kohima marker.
Abb. 11: Engerlinge aus verrottendem Holz werden auf einem N,{arkr in I(ohima (Nagaland) im
Dutzend zum Kauf angeboten.
avaÄery of
bee and wasp larvae, grasshoppers, and

Insects and their Impact on Human Societles T7
grubs frequently contain high amounts of
easily dige
s tible polyrrns aturated fatq' acids.
Nectar-collecting
insects
are,
of course,
sweet
andmay contain honey (Fig. 13).
In fact, the
nutritive value of insects led to the recom-
mendation by Hlronnlilu (1'974)
in a New
Zealand survival book to consume insects
rather than unknown plants when lost and
marooned in the wilderness.
rX4eat
led to the relatively recent decline in the
use
of insects
as
food among non-Western
societies stems, in our view, largely from the
misguided belief that aping the lfestern walr
of life was the fastest
way for technologrcally
less
advanced
societies
to be accepted
by Eu-
ropeans. \)flhile this may have been the case in
colonial times, it no longer holds true and
countries in which entomophagv is still being
practiced or has been given up only very re-
centll', had better take note of the fact that
since the 1970s
traditional and ethnic foods
have become uendy and shown a remarkable
renaissance
in Europe (KosrltN 1975)
and
to
some extent in eastern
Asia as
well @nt\mnt-
roN 1994). In fact, growing self-confidence
and assertiveness
of people,
once falsely
re-
garded
as
unsophisticated,
are
the best
reme-
dy towards tetaining tradirional insect foods.
And so, to some exterlt, is the dwindling
amount of huntable and consumable larger
animals. Southern Aflcanmop(h)ane c ter-
pillars are
growing in popularity and can now
even be purchased in some food stores in
Europe, for example in Brussels.
How does one go about study'ing
insects as
human food? Obviousll', the fimt step is to
qualitatively record the species
that serve as
food items. Since
certain species
(or stages)
may be seasonal,
prolonged observations
are
needed.
Inwhichway and
bywhich method
for what particular puqposes
insects are
being
consumed are other important aspects
of
entomophagic research.
Quantitative data on
the amounts and percentages
of each
insect
species
in relation to other food items must
be collected
andin the end the economic im-
pact on family and society
of insect consum-
ingpeoples need
to be assessed.
Finally ecol-
ogist would wish to know how insect con-
sumption can be an ecologically-acceptable,
sustainable
ptactice, not upsetting the deli-
catebalance
of an ecosystem.
One approach
is
geogtaphic,
another focuses
on certain tribes or ethnic groups. For the
frst, the researchet
picks a region and investi-
gates
entomophagic practices
therein. For the
second the emphasis
is on particular ethnic
groups and their unique insect food pref-
erences
in comparison to other, perhaps
negh-
bouring uibes. Both approaches
have f ield-
ed considetable information, e.g. fot Africa
(Mn-lrssri 2005; V,ll, Hurs 2005), Papua
New
Guinea (\4nnin-RocHow 1
9 73b
;
ToHINL\sEO-
PcrNznrra & Paot-s'rn 1997
;Mnrnn-RocHow
200 5), Aus
tralian aborigines (C,r.rvrnnu-
1,9 26
;
McKnowx 1936;
Mn'aR-Rocrow 1
975a;
YnN
2005), Nottheast India (Mnvnn-RocHow
2005),Japan
(N{trsunasur
2005a),
China and
Southeast
Asia CWrrrANÄBE
1983;
YnouNc;-
AnBB & Vtw.lrp,,rNrcr
2005; Luo 2005), and
South America (Ceno'r et aL.2005;
ONonn
2005:
Paorern & Duroun 2005)' It is also
possible to take a paracrtlat insect taxon or
insect communig, and investigate by whom,
where, and how in the world this taxon or
insect
community is utilized,
be that as
a food
Fig.72: Chocolate beetles and candies shaped like insects and spiders may represent a leftover of
the now extinct but eadier pfesent insect consumption by local residents in northern Europe'
Abb. 12: Schokoladenkäfer und Süßigkeiten in Form von Insekten und Spinnen erinnern vielleicht
an eine ehemalige Nutzung von Insekten als Nahrungsmittel durch die Revölkerung NorderüoPas.
Fig. 13: Australian honeypot ants: a dehcary in which the swollen ant abdomens, fi.lled with sweet,
watefy honey, are preferentially consumed by wise old Aboriginal menfolk.
Abb. 13: Australische Honigtopfameisen: die von sirf3em,
wässrigen Honig angeschwollenen Hin-
terleiber der Ameisen werden bei den Aborigrnes als Delikatesse vor allem von weisen alten
Männern gegessen.
Entomologrc heute 20 (2008)

18 Vrcron BnNNo Mnvnn-RocHow. I(nNtcHr N<
tNlrR & Soursn' RouLID AM
item or for some othet reason.
This approach
has
formed the basis of reviews
by MrrsuH,l-
sHr
(2005b)
on sago palminsects, HoFFM'\NN
Q00
6) on Heterop tera, and Rrrr;lIrrE Q00
6)
on scarab beedes.
9. The Laotian Studv of Food Insect
Economics
The work we wish to report in this paper
deals
primarily with rhe economic importance
and impact of insects in the Laotian countqr-
side. Although we investigated a varieq'of
food insect species
in thatregion @ig.
14), we
were particulady concerned
with one group:
crickets.
They not only represent
one of the
cofi[nonest food insects, they also generate
income and even moderate wealth, which is
whywe emphasize
this gtoup ofinsects over
others ffHouNc-ARnn & Vtw,ut',\NIcH 2005)
thatarc considered
edible
in Laos.
The srudy ^reaw^s the Xaythani Distric, a
region travetsed from west to east
by the Mak-
hiaw River and covering roughly 32x32km2
of the so-called Vientiane
Plain (Fig.
15). The
major food insects
in connection with padd1,
fields were locusts, stinkbugs (=vegetable
bugs), giant waterbugs, dragonfly n)'mPhs,
dirriog
beedes, and ants. Edrble insects asso-
ciated with gardens were mainly crickets,
while those associated with fields were grass-
hoppers and dungbeedes
and rhose
associat-
ed with forests
were cicadas,
stinkbugs,
a va-
rieq'of bcetles and
grubs,
larvae and pupae
0h
Fig. 14: Map of the Xaythani study drstdct tn Laos and number of edible insects species
in shades
of green.
Abb. 14: Karte des untersuchten Xaytharu Distnke s (I-aos) und Anzahl der essbaren
Insektenarten
rn verschiedenen
(lrüntönen.
Fig. 15:
Typical landscape around Xaltharu villages
with rain-fed paddy fields and small stands
of forests.
Abb. 15: TJpische Landschaft n der Umgebung von Xaythani Dörfern mit Reisfeldern und kleinen
Waldstücken.
Fig. 16: Cdckets living underground are best collected with the help of a diggrng stick.
Abb.16: Im Boden lebende Grillen werden am Besten mit Hilfe eines Grabstockes erbeutet.
Fig.17: Grasshoppers and other field insects are collected with the help of a fine net.
Abb. 17: Heuschrecken r.rnd
andere Insekten wetden rnit Hilfe erres fernmaschigen Netzes gefangen.

Insects and their Impact on Human Socieues 1.9
of wasps and bees, arlt pupae and adults,
and termites of all developmental stages.
Ponds with stagnant
water were used to ob-
tain giantwaterbugs as well as diving beetles,
and in and around setdements mature ot im-
mature gras shopp ers,
cicadas, s tinkbugs, ants,
and termites were the most commonlv col-
lected
food insects.
The habitats most frequently visited by hu-
mans to collect
insects were forest edges, gar-
dens, and paddy fields, the latter not only
being aplace to grow rice, but ahabrtatfor a
vaflery of easily collectable,
edible species of
insects. Since paddy fields very often existed
at the edge of forests, people found it easy to
collect insects
in both habitats when walking
from theit homes to work in the fields in the
morning and returning home in the af-
ternoon or evening. Edible insects
were more
abundant in plains rather than mountainous
regions and in more than half of the area of
the district more than 10 different species of
insects were regulady consumed.
These insects
u/ere
not consumed because
of
a lack of other food stuffs (the locals had
access to fish and livestock), but because the;r
genuinely
appreciated
the taste of the insects.
Preferences with regard to certain species ex-
isted and such
likes
and dislikes
seemed to be
of a personal nature :m:ther than representing
taboos or following religious doctrine, al-
though region and family tradition may have
played a role. Preparation methods also var-
ied and depended on the qpe of insect being
.\'rS
.\rii
.\tt
.\1
.$\
|
,':
\
Fig. 18: A large number of plates filled with edrble insects, for sale at a market in the Xaphani distnct.
Abb. 18: Zalireiche Teller mit essbaren Insekten werden auf dem Markt im Xaythani Distrikt zum
Verkauf angeboten.
Fig. 19: Plate with a meal of cicadas, priced 10,000 krp per plate in Laos.
Abb.19: Teller mit einer Mahlzeit von Ztkaden für 10.000 Ktp pro Teller in Laos.
Fig. 20: Roasted stink bugs on sticks for sale.
Abb. 20: ZumYerkauf bestrmmte geröstete Sunlovanzen an Stöcken.
Fig.2l: Live crickets for sale for human consumption, pnced 2,500 kip per 10 insects.
Abb. 21: Lebende Grillen zurn menschhchen Yerzehr bringen pro 10 Stück 2.500 Kip.
Entomologie heute 20 (2008)

20 VlcroRBeNNo Mnren-RocHow. KENtcirt NoN,'rr<n & Sourun BouuoRu
used, famlly traditions, and circumstances.
Sometimes, for example, small insects
were
eatenraw and on the spot, but on othet occ -
sions insects were fried, dried, stewed, or
boiled. A variety of cooking methods and
recipes are
given by YnouNc-Anss & Vrwar-
IANICH
(2005). Insects
were mainlyhand-col-
lected, but for flying insects, nets of vaq.ing
dimensions were used (Fig. 17) and for fos-
sorial (i.e.,
ground- or timber-dwelüng) in-
sects, digging utensils and other mechanical
devices were employed (Fig. 16). Outings,
specifically
for collecting, for example, the edi-
ble field cncket Ache ta bim acu
latas, known Io-
cally as 'chinai', involved daily walks of 25 -
30 km along forest paths, gardens, and pad-
dy fields. How selective
collectors of edible
insects can be, shows the example of the
scale insect Drosicha sp. (N{argarodidae), a
giant aphid. Only a single species is eaten.
Äphids that do not move ^re not eaten.
Edible insects, especially those
known locah
as the aheady mentioned 'chinai', but also
the 'kai motdaen' (the weaver ant Oecophllla
sm aragdin a),' takaten' (grasshoppers
and lo-
custs), and'maen kaen' (a genenl term for
various species of stink bugs), represent a
commercial resource and although not exact-
ly plentiful, they can provide an opportunity
for especiallywomen and childrenof thearca
to earn some cash (Fig. 18). As more and
more restdctions are imposed on hunting
wild animals,
the demand of insects as
'wild
food' is increasing and chances to make
money from selling them are also
increasing.
Not surprisingly, 'middle women' set up
businesses to buy the insect
ptoduct and sell
it to shops, snack bars, restaurants and other
outlets in the big cities (Fig. 19). Perhaps
suqprisingly, with 1
0 crickets costing 2,500
Kip
(i.e., Laotian cuffency: 10,000 Kip = 1.06 US$)
and 1 kg of meat costing 25,000 Kip, crickets
are actually
more expensive.
Än analysis of the income derived from col-
lecting crickets dunng the most active month
of the yearthateach fooditemwas avatlable
(Irb. 1) shows that the sale of edible insects
generates a higher income than that obtaina-
ble from selling mammalian meat, wild edr-
ble plants, and rice. On the basis of 76 ans-
wers ftom 92 persons questioned, it was
found that on ^ver^ge 3.6 occasions petweek
exclusively crickets wete collected for o-ver ^
period of 3.9 hours a day. During that time
^n ^verage of 109
crickets was collected, which,
according to answers
received, fepfesents a
weekly earning of 37,569 Kip. Usually a consi-
derable proportion of the collected crickets
was used for home consumption.
On the basis ofinformation received from 5
middle women, it was learned that marke-
ting of edible
insects
surted 18
1'ears
ago.F,ach
middle u/oman was the recipient of insect
products from an average
of 8.8 persons.
A
middleu/omanwould sell ^fl^ver^ge of 1,700
crickets during market day in the big ctqr.Ha-
ving bought the crickets for a price of 1,000
-
1,600 Kip per 10 individuals and selling them
Tab.1: Einkommen aus natürlichen Resourcen (basierend auf dem besten Monat des
Jahres).
Table 1: Income from natural resources (based on best month of the year).
Product l{ouschold lncomc/tnonth (x 1000 Krp)
Aquatic products u1 636.0
l\lush rriotn s/ b,.rtnlrr
lr
l roofs 76 389
lnsccts +.) 315
N{ammals a306
Wild cdiblc plants o302
Fircrvood 2l 569
Salt 18 147
F'armecl vergetablcs 3I 533
Rrce 53

Insects and their Impact on Human Societies 21
for 2,500 per 10 individuals, a middle wo-
man returns home with an earning of 1.,200
Kip per 10 crickets
sold.
Although this is not
exactly a fortune, it must be remembered that
rice and vegetables are quite cheap and, thus,
the income from selling crickets can make a
difference to a household, especiallywhen all
of the crickets taken to market are being sold
the same day.
In conclusion, edible insects
like stink bugs
(Fig. 20) and the crickets of the Laottan
Xaytharu District (Fig. 21), must be regarded
as
a cultural and economic bio-resource
wonh
retaining. In order to use this resource in a
sustainable
way,
research
into the ecological
impact of insect harvests from the wild are
required and perhaps to be supplemented
with insect rearing under controlled conditi-
ons. An eady attempt towards this end has
apparendy been made by Australian Abongr-
nes,
who were reported to have
not only col-
lected various edrble grubs from trees, but
who deliberately damaged host plants to fa-
cilitate colonization by the cerambycid beede
Bardistas
cibarius,
so that the latter could grow
and mature S.nn'l 1,9
62).
Äctions approaching
cultivation or domestication of another edi-
ble insect, the sago-paim grub, were
reported
byTowNsnNo (1970), citedin OrNsn (1989)
and total domestication, mayb e as Lresult of
entomoph agjcal, pncices QrluNolm 1 988), was
achieved with the silkworm moth, for which,
according to Sanskrit literature, an industry
existed in India possibly "as early as 4,000
BC" (CIouDSLEY-THoMPSoN
1,97
6).
10.
Final Remarks
So much remains to be done, so much is still
unknown, and so much will forever remain
unknown, because
we have badly neglected
the interrelationship between humans and
insects in the past. What has evolved over
millennia with regard to folk medicinal reme-
dies involving insects, could ail of that just
have been nonsense?
\We
will not knoq if
we do not investigate such practices. Was, for
Entomologre heute 20 (2008)
example, the death of all kinds of latge in-
sects from the Moluccan Island of Ceram,
which the famous 19th century zoologist
Arrneo Russpr- Warr-,tcl (1,823-1,91,3) in 1883
called "a zoologjcal deset" surrounded by
smaller
islands on which there was no shor-
tage of spectacular
insects, the result of over-
exploitationof aresource by the Melanesian
inhabitants of the sizable land mass of
Ceramorwere othet causes
tesponsible?
We
still do not have an answer to that puzzle
and many other ethnoentomological questi-
ons, including those that deal with references
to insects in the idioms, songs, myths and
legends of different ethnic and linguistic
groups. The economic value insects fepresent
to communities, in which insects form part
of the diet, and what insect collecting for
human consumption means to the eco-
system,
in which it is practiced, are aspects
that have hardly been studied at all. But let it
be noted that avenues
for a
responsible envi-
ronmental pohcy are nou/ earnestly being
sought (R-lrsroN 2000) and that wildlife,
which includes
insects
and other invertebrates,
has at last been recognized as valuable in its
own dght (Cu.r,nooNNEr
et aL.2002). !7e are
now dealingwith questions
that have
begun
to recelve greater attention and recognition
wotldwide (the FAO-sponsored conference
in Chiang Mai on Edible Forest Insects in
February 2008 is testimony of that new atti-
tude). In the words of SaIro Q002) "we
need to cultivate an ecologicallyinformed na-
ture aesthetics.
. .to maintain. . .ecological
health and well-being". It seems then that
ethnoentomological and cultural entomol-
ogical studies have finally come of age.
Hav-
ing inspired anthropologists, social scien-
tists, geographers,
linguis ts, zoologists, and
historians in the past, may they now be an
inspiration for our employers and funding
agencies
as welMn this context the FÄO-
sponsored international workshop on "Ed-
ible Forest Insects" in Chiang Mai (February
1,9-21,2008)
signifies
a
promising develop-

22 Vlcron BeNNo Msi'sn-RocHo\r. I{.nNtcst NoN,q,rn & St>wtrtr B()ULIDÄM
Acknowledgements
Fot their assistance
in the field and as
infor-
mants in matters of insects and human cul-
tures, we wish to thank numerous infor-
mants and helpers. Part of the research in
Laos involved fieid assistance
by Mt. SoNN.q.-
sacr and Ms. CH,q.sav,{Ns
andwas supported
by a grant from the "Research Institute for
Humanity and Nature" to K.N., while eady
research byVB. M.-R. in PapuaNew Guinea
and India had benefited from financial sup-
port by the Australian National Universiry in
Canbena (Australia) and the Society for the
Promotion of Science
inJapan.The authors
are indebted to Professor
T. Ronnml Sacobs
University Bremen) for information on 'in-
sects
in literature'.
Finally I wish to thank the orgarizers of the
"\X/estdeutscher
Entomologentag 2007
" and
in particular Prof. Dr. H. GnsveN (Jniversity
of Düsseldorf) for having invited me to pre-
sent this lectute.
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School of Engineering and Sciences
Jacobs University
Campus Ring 6
D-28759 Bremen
Germany
E-Mail: b.
meyer-ro chow
@jacob s
-university.
de
and
Department of Biology @,Iäinmuseo)
Universiry of Oulu
SF-90014
Oulu
P.O.Box
3000
Finland
E-Mail: vmr@cc.oulu.fi
Prof. Dr. Kenichi Nonaka
Research Institute for Humaniry and Nature
Riklryo University
3-34-1, Nishi Ikebukuro, Toshima,
Tokyo 1,71.-8501.
Japan
E-Mail: k-nonaka@za2. so
- net ne.
i
p
Mrs. Somkhit Boulidam
D epartment of Geography
National University of Laos
P. O.Box 7 3z2,Dongdok, Vientiane
Laos
E-Mail: kkkhith@yahoo. com
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