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Rafflesia mixta (Rafflesiaceae), a new species from Surigao del Norte, Mindanao, Philippines

July 2014
Phytotaxa 174(5):272-278

DOI:10.11646/phytotaxa.174.5.3

Authors:

Julie F Barcelona

University of Canterbury

Muhmin Michael Manting

Mindanao State University – Iligan Institute of Technology

Romel B. Arbolonio

Government of the Philippines

Rolly Caballero

Department of Environment and Natural Resources

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Rafflesia mixta Barcelona, Manting, Arbolonio, Caballero & Pelser is described as a new species from the Caraga Region of northeastern Mindanao, Philippines. In their general morphology, the flowers of this species most closely resemble those of R. mira, but they are different in details of the perigone warts and processes, disk color, and relative size of the diaphragm opening. This discovery brings the total number of Philippine Rafflesia species to twelve, of which four are found on the island of Mindanao.

Distribution map of Rafflesia in Mindanao, Philippines. White circle: type locality of R. schadenbergiana, presumably locally extinct. An unknown small-sized Rafflesia species was collected from Mt. Matutum in the 1980s (Central Mindanao University Herbarium!; Barcelona et al. 2009b).

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Phytotaxa 174 (5): 272–278

www.mapress.com/phytotaxa/

ISSN 1179-3155 (print edition)

ISSN 1179-3163 (online edition)

272 Accepted by Zhi-Qiang Zhang: 1 Jul. 2014; published: 28 Jul. 2014

http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/phytotaxa.174.5.3

Article

Rafflesia mixta (Rafflesiaceae), a new species from Surigao del Norte, Mindanao,

Philippines

JULIE F. BARCELONA1, MUHMIN MICHAEL E. MANTING2, ROMEL B. ARBOLONIO3, ROLLY B.

CABALLERO3 & PIETER B. PELSER1

1School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand. E-mail: pieter.pelser@

canterbury.ac.nz, julie.barcelona@canterbury.ac.nz

2Department of Biological Sciences, College of Science and Mathematics, Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology,

9200 Iligan City, Philippines. E-mail: muhmin.manting@g.msuiit.edu.ph

3Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) Regional Office XIII, Barangay Ambago, Butuan City, Philippines. E-mail:

melarbolonio@gmail.com; caballero.rolly@gmail.com

Abstract

Rafflesia mixta Barcelona, Manting, Arbolonio, Caballero & Pelser is described as a new species from the Caraga Region of north-

eastern Mindanao, Philippines. In their general morphology, the flowers of this species most closely resemble those of R. mira,

but they are different in details of the perigone warts and processes, disk color, and relative size of the diaphragm opening. This

discovery brings the total number of Philippine Rafflesia species to twelve, of which four are found on the island of Mindanao.

Key words: Caraga Region, Mainit, Mamanwa tribe, parasitic plants, taxonomy

Introduction

Rafflesia Brown (1821: 207; Rafflesiaceae) is a genus of endophytic holoparasites that exclusively infect lianas of the

genus Tetrastigma Miquel (1863: 72; Vitaceae) and inhabit the tropical rainforests of southern Thailand, Malaysia,

the Philippines, and Indonesia. In the Philippines, we currently recognize eleven species (Teschemacher 1844, Blanco

1845, Hieronymus 1885, Barcelona & Fernando 2002, Fernando & Ong 2005, Barcelona et al. 2006, 2008, 2009a,

2009b, 2011, Galang & Madulid 2006, Balete et al. 2010, David et al., 2012, Pelser et al. 2013). Except for one, all

of these are endemic to individual Philippine islands. Only R. speciosa Barcelona & Fernando (2002: 648) is known

from two islands (Negros and Panay). Although Rafflesia is found in most of the larger Philippine islands, this genus

has, thus far, not been reported from Bohol, Cebu, Masbate, Mindoro, Palawan, and smaller islands. Mindanao is the

second largest island in the Philippine archipelago and home to three described Rafflesia species (Fig. 1). Of these, R.

schadenbergiana Göppert ex Hieronymus (1885: 3) stands out by having the largest flowers of any Philippine species.

Rafflesia verrucosa Balete, Pelser, Nickrent & Barcelona (2010: 50) is characterized by its relatively small flowers

and large warts on its perigone lobes and diaphragm, whereas flowers of R. mira Fernando & Ong (2005: 267) display

remarkably polymorphic disk processes and a smooth diaphragm lacking ornamentation.

In April 2009, during a resource assessment project that was part of the Ancestral Domain Sustainable Development

and Protection Plan (ADSDPP) for the Mamanwa (= Mamanua) tribe’s Certificate of Ancestral Domain Title (CADT)

application, a team led by Jerwin T. Resola and Catherine Mae Buctuan-Jandug discovered a new population of

Rafflesia in the mountains east of Mainit in Surigao del Norte Province. In March 2014, photos of a plant from this

population were posted by one of the authors of this paper (RBA) on the Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines (CDFP)

Facebook Group. This group functions as a medium of correspondence between users and contributors of the CDFP

website (www.philippineplants.org, Pelser et al. 2011 onwards). CDFP is a citizen science project in which amateurs,

students, and professional botanists edit an online checklist of Philippine vascular plants and illustrate it with in

situ photographs that are deposited at the PhytoImages website (Nickrent et al. 2006 onwards). During subsequent

fieldwork in April, May, and June 2014, flowers and buds of this species were collected and preserved. Morphological

studies showed that these flowers are distinct from all presently known Rafflesia species in several characters that

traditionally have been used for species delimitation in this genus. Assuming that these morphological differences are

an indication of reproductive isolation, we name and describe these plants here as a new species under a biological

species concept (Mayr 2000). This new addition brings the total number of Philippine Rafflesia species to twelve.

FIGURE 1. Distribution map of Rafflesia in Mindanao, Philippines. White circle: type locality of R. schadenbergiana, presumably

locally extinct. An unknown small-sized Rafflesia species was collected from Mt. Matutum in the 1980s (Central Mindanao University

Herbarium!; Barcelona et al. 2009b).

Taxonomy

Rafflesia mixta Barcelona, Manting, Arbolonio, Caballero & Pelser, sp. nov. – Figs. 2 & 3.

Type:—PHILIPPINES. Mindanao: Caraga Region, Surigao del Norte Province, Mainit Municipality, Barangay Cantugas, loco dicto Sarawag,

lowland evergreen forest interior, on steep slopes with loose soil, 9°34’38.9” N, 125°27’7.3” E, c. 622 m, 7 June 2014, Arbolonio &

Caballero 5 (female flower; holotype: PNH; female flower; isotype: Mindanao State University - Iligan Institute of Technology).

Rafflesia mixta differs from R. mira in having flowers with substantially sparser and smaller warts on the perigone lobes, a more or less

uniformly reddish orange or maroon instead of yellowish-orange disk with longer and dimorphic instead of polymorphic processes,

and a relatively smaller diaphragm aperture through which the disk is only partially visible.

Mature flower buds to 19–22 cm diam. Flowers 40–55 cm diam. when fully open, 8.5–15 cm high, male and female flowers

similar in size, 1.25–2.25 kg fresh weight. Cupule to 11.5 cm diam.; bracts imbricate, orbicular, largest c. 13 cm long, 14.5

cm wide. Perigone tube 10–15 cm high. Perigone lobes 5, broadly orbicular, 9.0–19 cm long, 12–23 cm wide, reddish brown,

margins entire to irregularly sinuate; warts powdery white becoming concolorous with background with age, relatively

sparse compared to other Philippine Rafflesia species, largest ones concentrated at the base of perigone lobes, mostly wider

than long, to 0.6 by 1.5 cm wide, variously shaped, and becoming smaller and rounder towards the margin of perigone lobes,

interspersed by smaller warts of less than 1 mm diam. Diaphragm 15–25.5 cm diam., c. 3 mm thick, 5–7.2 cm wide from

aperture rim to base of perigone lobe, velvety and ferruginous throughout, devoid of warts or other forms of ornamentation

(Fig. 3A), windows absent; aperture 6.5–14.25 cm diam. in its widest dimension, rim white surrounded by a thinner dark red

band, aperture to disk diameter ratio less than 1 (0.72–0.95). Disk 9–11.5 cm diam., to 2 cm thick towards center, nearly flat

but with a prominently raised margin; margin c. 1.5–2.5 cm tall, shallowly incised or crenulate; disk only partially visible

through the aperture, reddish orange to maroon, darker near the margin, similar in color underneath. Processes 22–29,

more or less regularly disposed, largest c. 3.5 cm long and 2 cm wide at base, apex glabrous, tinged white in buds and fresh

flowers, dimorphic between a central and peripheral/outer zone; processes of the central zone 6–9, conical; processes of the

outer zone 16–20, somewhat radially flattened at base and more clearly so at apex, to 2 cm wide at base, to 1.5 cm wide at

apex (Fig. 3A, C & D). Column short, less than 1 cm long, c. 5 cm broad. Corona c. 2 cm wide, smooth, slightly paler in color

than the disk above, glabrous except in anther sulci of male flowers where sparse, white, filiform hairs are present similar to

those on the annulus interior. Annulus exterior less than 1 cm broad, 9–10 cm diam., smooth, yellowish and sparsely hairy

towards the interior, becoming golden to reddish orange and glabrous towards the exterior. Ramenta polymorphic, maroon,

concolorous with perigone tube, those on the floor of perigone tube filiform, to 2 cm long, dense, becoming stouter and

branched or cleaved apically towards the diaphragm aperture (Fig. 2C & E). Male flower without vestigial ovary; anthers

19 or 20, semi-globular, c. 5 mm diam., deeply immersed in anther sulci that are c. 1 cm long and c. 8 mm wide (Fig. 3E).

Female flower without vestigial anthers, disk becoming dome-shaped as it develops into fruit in senescent flowers, ovary c.

4 cm high, c. 8.5 cm wide, slightly lunate in longitudinal section (Fig. 3B). Mature fruits not seen. Host plant is Tetrastigma

sp. (Arbolonio et al. 3, CHR, Mindanao State University - Iligan Institute of Technology, PNH).

BARCELONA ET AL.

FIGURE 2. Rafflesia mixta. A. Open flower. B. Open flower with Ms. Mary Love P. Sanchez for scale. C. Longitudinal section through

an immature male bud showing ramenta distribution. D. Rafflesia mira, open flower. E. Rafflesia mixta, thin section of a male bud showing

details of ramenta (lower right: perigone tube, upper left: diaphragm). A. Arbolonio & Caballero 5 (isotype, collected 4 days after this

photograph was taken). B. Barcelona 4044 with Manting, Arbolonio & Caballero. C & E. Barcelona 4043 with Manting, Arbolonio &

Caballero. D. Photo courtesy of Department of Tourism, Region 11.

FIGURE 3. Rafflesia mixta. A. Open male flower showing partially visible disk processes through the diaphragm aperture. B. Longitudinal

section through a female flower showing ovary. C. Bud with perigone lobes removed to show the short column, blade-like processes, and

ramenta. D. Disk with regularly distributed processes in two zones. E. Anthers underneath the disk. A. Barcelona 4044 with Manting,

Arbolonio & Caballero. B. Arbolonio & Caballero 5. C–E. Barcelona 4043 with Manting, Arbolonio & Caballero.

BARCELONA ET AL.

Additional specimens examined (paratypes):— The following specimens were collected from the same site

as the holotype and isotype, the first two probably infected the same host and may represent the same plant as the

holotype: 9°34’38.9” N, 125°27’7.3” E, c. 622 m, 5 April 2014, Barcelona with Manting, Arbolonio & Caballero.

4042 (immature male bud; CAHUP), 4043 (mature male bud; CHR); 9°34’39.7” N, 125°27’6.6” E, c. 615 m, 5 April

2014, Barcelona 4044 with Manting, Arbolonio & Caballero (male flower; PNH), Barcelona 4045 with Manting,

Arbolonio & Caballero (immature male bud; Central Mindanao University Herbarium).

Diagnostic characters:—Rafflesia mixta is one of five Philippine Rafflesia species with flowers that grow larger

than 35 cm in diameter: R. leonardi Barcelona & Pelser (2008: 224), R. mira, R. schadenbergiana, and R. speciosa. Of

these, the range of flower sizes of R. speciosa from Negros and Panay ((31–)45–56 cm diam.; Barcelona et al. 2009)

is perhaps most similar to that of R. mixta (40–55 cm). Rafflesia speciosa also resembles R. mixta in the presence of

perigone warts that are generally less prominent than in the other three large-flowered species, although they are more

sparsely distributed in R. mixta. Both taxa can be easily distinguished by, amongst others, features associated with their

processes. These are monomorphic and cone-shaped in R. speciosa and dimorphic in R. mixta (cone shaped processes

in the central zone of the disk and apically flattened processes in the outer zone). The processes of R. speciosa are

usually crowned with golden tufts of trichomes that are absent in R. mixta. Furthermore, the disk of R. speciosa is

always paler in color than the diaphragm, whereas this is the opposite in R. mixta. The diaphragm of R. speciosa is

ornamented with whitish warts whereas it is uniformly colored and lacks ornamentation in R. mixta.

The range of flower size of R. mixta also overlaps with that of R. leonardi from northern Luzon (25.5–50 cm

diam.; Barcelona et al. 2011), but R. leonardi flowers have a diaphragm aperture that is much wider than the diameter

of the disk (1.2–1.5 ratio), whereas it is narrower than the disk in R. mixta flowers (0.72–0.95 ratio). Furthermore, R.

leonardi, when at all present, has fewer processes (up to 16 vs. 22–29) and these are considerably shorter in length (up

to 1.2 vs. up to 3.5 cm; Barcelona et al. 2011).

Rafflesia schadenbergiana of central and southern Mindanao has larger flowers (52–80 cm diam.; Barcelona et al.

2011) than R. mixta. Its conical processes are very similar in size and shape as those of R. mixta, but the outer whorl

of processes is less flattened at the apex. The warts on the perigone lobes and diaphragm of R. schadenbergiana are

variously shaped, often coalescent, and prominently raised.

Overall, R. mixta is most easily confused with R. mira and, in fact, to an untrained eye, the resemblance between

these species is quite striking. Both have a similar range of floral dimensions, a uniformly rust-colored diaphragm

devoid of warts and other ornamentations, a very faint scent, and polymorphic ramenta. However, R. mixta markedly

differs from R. mira in its sparser and smaller variously-shaped warts on the perigone lobes, longer (up to 3.5 vs. up

to 2.3 cm long), and dimorphic disk processes in two zones (polymorphic and in four zones in R. mira), and a nearly

uniformly-colored, reddish orange to maroon disk that is only partially visible through the diaphragm opening (entirely

visible and yellowish-orange with a dark-red margin in R. mira).

Etymology:— Named for its flower morphology, which shows a combination of features characteristics of three

other Philippine Rafflesia: the shape and size of the conical processes of R. schadenbergiana, the floral size and

sparsely distributed perigone warts of R. speciosa and the overall resemblance, floral size, faint scent, and diaphragm

and ramenta morphology of R. mira.

Distribution and habitat:—Only known from the type locality in the mountains east of Barangay Cantugas, loco

dicto Sarawag, Mainit Municipality, Surigao del Norte Province, in the Caraga Region (Region XIII) of Mindanao.

The area flanks the northeast side of Lake Mainit and is an important watershed of Mainit Municipality. The habitat is

a relatively intact lowland evergreen forest on very steep slopes with loose soil. This site is some 250 km away from

populations of Rafflesia mira of Compostela Valley (Fig. 1) to which it is most similar in general morphology. Whereas

R. mira plants inhabit the elevational range of 900–1300 m, R. mixta is found at much lower elevation (584–622 m).

Conservation:—Rafflesia mixta is only known to infect three Tetrastigma host plants within a 30 m radius

at the type locality, which is c. 100 m uphill from a recent kaingin (slash & burn farm) of more than half a hectare

and an abandoned small-scale mine. Hence, this species is Critically Endangered (CR B1ab(iii,iv); D; IUCN 2001;

Fernando et al. 2008). Rampant mining activities in the Caraga Region pose a major threat to the watershed area in

which R. mixta is found. In our opinion, it is in the best interest of the people of Mainit, and especially the Mamanwa

tribe, that this area be legally protected. In this way, future management of this biodiversity-rich forest can be decided

upon by all its stakeholders. Currently, efforts are being initiated by the DENR and the local governments of Mainit

Municipality and Barangay Cantugas as well as the Mamanwa tribe to declare the forest of Cantugas a Critical Habitat

and Community Watershed.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Mayor Ramon Mondano and staff of the Municipality of Mainit, barangay officials of Cantugas

led by Brgy. Captain Perfecto S. Galvez Jr., Datu Cain P. Hukman, chieftain of the Mamanwa tribe, and guides Teddy

Y. Hukman, Benjie H. Macopahon, and Targim M. Tiambong. Sergio S. Padilla, Ciriaco D. Sabandal, and Randy

B. Ruaya provided company in the field. Thanks to Avelita T. Pagaran, Ponciana G. Margin and Maria Remediosa

P. Sanchez and the people of Barangay Cantugas for their hospitality and providing accommodation during the

fieldwork. Foresters Jerwin T. Resula, DENR, CENRO-Surigao City and Catherine Mae Buctuan-Jandug, former

PAFID (Philippine Association for Intercultural Development) researcher and now with DENR, Caraga Region kindly

provided the first photos R. mixta. Distribution data for R. verrucosa was in part provided by Mr. Roel Dahonog and

Edgar B. Cañete, DENR-Region 10, Cagayan de Oro City. Director Mundita S. Lim, Josefina de Leon, and Cecile G.

Francisco of the Biodiversity Management Bureau (BMB), Dr. Antonio Manila (DENR-NCR), and Nonito M. Tamayo,

OIC-Regional Executive Director of DENR, Caraga Region helped facilitate the issuance of collecting, transport, and

export permits. Fieldwork was supported by the Marsden Fund Council from Government funding, administered by

the Royal Society of New Zealand.

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Rafflesia mixta

Data

March 2015

Julie F Barcelona · Muhmin Michael Manting · Romel B. Arbolonio · Rolly Caballero · Pieter B. Pelser

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Thesis

Oct 2019

In recent years, an increasing number of research projects involved non-scientist members of the community as 'citizen scientists' in science research projects. This study was done with the following objectives: 1) to identify individual marine turtles in Boracay Island; 2) to identify specific areas around Boracay island where marine turtles were sighted; and 3) to demonstrate the application of citizen science as a participatory approach for studying the marine turtle population in a specified location. Invitations to participate in the turtle identification project were sent to dive shops and disseminated through social media. Divers contributed photos used for photo identification of individual marine turtles using the unique pattern of scutes on the left side of the marine turtle's head. Through citizen science, this study was able to identify ten resident marine turtles (nine live and one dead) over a three-month period (February-April 2016). Eight turtles were encountered underwater during dives and two were found stranded. In total, five green turtles (Chelonia mydas) and five Hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricate) were identified. Most of the turtle encounters were in Baling-Hai Reef, suggesting that this reef has an important role as a possible habitat or feeding ground. Considering the recent move taken by the government to temporarily close Boracay to tourists to allow rehabilitation and restoration of the island, the identification of marine turtles in certain locations underscores the importance of restoring and protecting not only the beaches but also the reefs and surrounding areas for the protection of the marine turtle population. Through information provided by citizen science and evidence generated through photo-identification of marine turtles, proof of the existence of the marine turtles in Boracay should spur the LGU and the community to initiate and sustain conservation efforts such as the creation and implementation of Marine Protected Areas (MPA) in areas where marine turtles abound.

A “hairy situation” in Minas Gerais, Brazil: a striking new species of Krenakanthus (Bromeliaceae: Bromelioideae) covered with uniseriate trichomes

Article

Oct 2023

A new species of Krenakanthus, a member of the bromelioid “Cryptanthoid complex”, is described based on plants discovered through collaborative citizen science. Krenakanthus ribeiranus and its only congener K. roseolilacinus are endemic to the “João Pinto Center of Biodiversity”, a still poorly explored region with Campos Rupestres and associated vegetation in the Rio Doce Valley, in eastern Minas Gerais state, Brazil. The unusual combination of morphological characters of K. ribeiranus, highlighted by plant delicacy and almost all leaf and flower parts covered by uniseriate, hair-like trichomes, is illustrated and discussed in comparison with K. roseolilacinus, including leaf and seed anatomy, as well as pollen morphology. This micro-endemic species is assessed as Critically Endangered, reinforcing the need for strategy to protect the biodiversity of the region. The morphology of the new species validates and strengthens the diagnostic flower characters used in the circumscription of Krenakanthus, suggesting as secondary diagnostic characters the habit, stature, and leaf conformation.

Most of the world's largest flowers (genus Rafflesia) are now on the brink of extinction

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2023

Societal Impact Statement Rafflesia is the genus that contains the world's largest flowers. Despite their global appeal, most of the 42 known species are now at risk of extinction. Urgent action is needed to protect these remarkable flowers. A combined approach to conservation is recommended, including a greater level of habitat protection and support for local community action groups. Rafflesia is a suitable new icon for conservation in the Asian tropics. Summary The genus Rafflesia, which includes the world's largest flowers, has aroused curiosity among scientists for centuries and features prominently in local culture across Southeast Asia. The plant has long been used in ethnobotanical medicine and, more recently, as a source of revenue from ecotourism. But despite its acclaim, Rafflesia remains poorly understood in many respects. Taxonomy is disputed, new species are described each year, and the plant has proven recalcitrant to cultivation. This has hindered conservation, and most of the 42 known species are now severely threatened, yet only one is listed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). We estimate that 60% of Rafflesia species face a severe risk of extinction (equivalent to Critically Endangered [CR]). Moreover, we predict that at least 67% of known habitats fall outside protected areas, exacerbating their vulnerability. Alarmingly, recent observations suggest taxa are still being eradicated before they are even known to science. We present recent scientific discoveries and probable extinctions and highlight case studies of conservation success, with a focus on the role of local people. We propose a multi‐pronged conservation approach combining strengthened taxonomy, ex situ propagation, ecotourism, and an extension of protected areas. We suggest action devolved to local communities and awareness campaigns linked to social media networks will be crucial outside of protected jurisdictions. Finally, we propose to establish Rafflesia as a new icon for plant conservation in the Asian tropics. A combined approach might just save some of the world's most remarkable flowers, most of which are now on the brink of being lost.

Dissecting the Biology of Rafflesia Species: Current Progress and Future Directions Made Possible with High-Throughput Sequencing Data

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2023

The angiosperm Rafflesia exhibits a unique biology, including a growth strategy that involves endophytic parasitism of a specific host, with only the gigantic flower externally visible. The Rafflesia possesses many unique evolutionary, developmental, and morphological features that are rooted in yet to be explained physiological processes. Although studies on the molecular biology of Rafflesia are limited by sampling difficulties due to its rarity in the wild and the short life span of its flower, current advances in high-throughput sequencing technology have allowed for the genome and transcriptome level dissection of the molecular mechanisms behind the unique characteristics of this parasitic plant. In this review, we summarize major findings on the cryptic biology of Rafflesia and provide insights into future research directions. The wealth of data obtained can improve our understanding of Rafflesia species and contribute towards the conservation strategy of this endangered plant.

Assessment on the Phylogenetic Position of Rafflesia aurantia with the Endemic Rafflesia Species in the Philippines

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2021

Rafflesia aurantia is the most recently discovered Rafflesia that can be found on the Philippines which makes it the only species to not have a phylogenetic position in the phylogenetic tree of the endemic Rafflesia species in the Philippines. The study seeks to provide an analysis on the closest relative of Rafflesia aurantia with the endemic Rafflesia species in the Philippines. Specifically, the study aims to reassess the phylogenetic relationship of Rafflesia aurantia with the endemic rafflesia species in the Philippines in terms of its molecular data and morphoanatomy. The researchers formulated phylogenetic hypotheses on the construction of a new tree that specifies where Rafflesia aurantia is placed on the proposed phylogenetic tree. The researchers used a descriptive quantitative approach to this study and the data gathered were collected through a bibliographic technique and molecular data were gathered from GenBank. The collected FASTA format of nucleotide sequences of the twelve Rafflesia species were placed in the MEGA software with a bootstrap of 100. Significant relationship among species was found even though morphology and molecular analysis are both different factors. This is due to the avoidance of gamete wastage and hybridization which are coping mechanisms of the Rafflesia in order to conserve gene even with the ecological condition. It is found out that using morphological assimilation on determining the phylogenetic position of Rafflesia species are closely correlated to the phylogenetic tree constructed using molecular data of the different species. The data showed that Rafflesia aurantia belongs in the clade between Rafflesia baletei and Rafflesia lobata in terms of its morphology. Since DNA sample of Rafflesia aurantia is not yet available, it is recommended for future researchers to further prove and solidify the proposed position Rafflesia aurantia among the phylogenetic tree of Rafflesia species. Keywords: Rafflesia aurantia, endemic rafflesia species, Philippine rafflesia

What explains the high island endemicity of Philippine Rafflesia ? A species distribution modeling analysis of three threatened parasitic plant species and their hosts

Preprint

Full-text available

Jul 2023

Premise Rafflesia are rare holoparasitic plants. In the Philippines, all but one species are found only on single islands. This study aimed to better understand the factors contributing to this distribution pattern. Specifically, we sought to determine whether narrow environmental tolerances of host and/or parasite species might explain their island endemicity, or, instead or in addition, the limited distribution of Rafflesia species is the result of a narrow overlap between the environmental requirements of host and parasite. Methods We used Maxent species distribution modeling to identify areas with suitable habitat for R. lagascae , R. lobata , and R. speciosa and their Tetrastigma host species. These analyses were carried out for current climate conditions as well as two future climate change scenarios. Key results Whereas species distribution models indicated suitable environmental conditions for the Tetrastigma host species in many parts of the Philippines, considerably fewer areas have suitable conditions for the three Rafflesia species. Some of these areas are found on islands from which they have not been reported. All three species will face significant threats as a result of climate change. For R. lagascae and R. lobata , these may include a loss of suitable area as a result of changes to the distribution of their host species. Conclusions Our results suggest that limited inter-island dispersal abilities and/or specific environmental requirements are likely responsible for the current pattern of island endemicity of the three Rafflesia species, rather than the environmental requirements of their Tetrastigma host species.

Deep in the web, up in the hills: the discovery of Drosera magnifica, the 'Facebook sundew'

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2016

Paulo Gonella

Social media are part of the daily life in the modern society: we follow the news on Twitter, share funny gifs on Tumblr, post selfies on Facebook, spread scientific papers on ResearchGate, and share experiences and trade plants in the discussion forums. Among all possible connections achieved by the social media, one that has always captivated me is the bridge they created to connect professional biologists to “citizen scientists”. From the age of the forums to Facebook, I’ve been following with keen interest posts with photos of carnivorous plants in their natural habitats in Brazil and abroad, and many new regional records were found that way, and even species discoveries and re-discoveries.

Rafflesia baletei, another new Rafflesia (Rafflesiaceae) from the Philippines

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2006

A new species of Rafflesia, R. baletei, from Mt Isarog in the Bicol Region, Southern Luzon, Philippines, is described. Rafflesia baletei is the fifth endemic species and the second of the small-sized species of the genus in the Philippines to have been described so far. It differs from the presumably closely related R. tengku-adlinii from Borneo in flower colour and size, perigone ornamentations, and number of anthers. Furthermore, it differs from the similarly-sized R. manillana from the Philippines in diaphragm and ramenta morphology and ornamentations, and flower habit.

Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines: plant identification and conservation through cybertaxonomy

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2013

A compilation of an unpublished checklist of Philippine vascular plants prepared by the late Leonardo L. Co and the plant photographs he took are the core contents of the Co's Digital Flora of the Philippines (CDFP) website (www.philippineplants.org). The aim of CDFP is to present a continuously updated account of all native and naturalized species of vascular plants in the Philippines with diagnostic photographs for each taxon. The CDFP checklist currently contains c. 9956 species in 1986 genera and 257 families. Of these, c. 249 (96%) families, 1453 (73%) genera, and 2522 (25%) species are illustrated with photographs. To facilitate discussions on Philippine botany, a CDFP Facebook group was also created. It aims to popularize botany and increase the appreciation of plants in the wild. It also instills awareness in the Filipino people of the threats to the forests upon which their existence and survival greatly depends. Members of the group provide plant identification services to the general public free of charge. It is also a platform where members share plant photographs from all over the country for identification purposes and a tool for connecting students with professional botanists, regardless of their physical location. As such, CDFP in conjunction with this forum provides a conduit for citizen scientists to contribute to our understanding of the botanical diversity of the Philippines.

Mt. Banahaw reveals: The resurrection and neotypification of the name Rafflesia lagascae (Rafflesiaceae) and clues to the dispersal of Rafflesia seeds

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2013

The southeast Asian holoparasite genus Rafflesia Brown (1821: 207; Rafflesiaceae) is famous for producing the largest flowers on record (Kuijt 1969). Following a series of discoveries of new Rafflesia species and populations, the Philippines recently emerged as one of the centers of its diversity. It is home to no less than ten currently recognized Rafflesia species (Barcelona et al. 2009, Balete et al. 2010). Here, we report two discoveries that resulted from recent fieldwork in the Mts. Banahaw - San Cristobal Protected Landscape in Luzon and show how these new data impact the taxonomy and biology of Philippine Rafflesia.

The genus Rafflesia R.Br. (Rafflesiaceae) in the Philippines

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2005
ASIA LIFE SCI

A review of the Philippine species of Rafflesia R.Br. is presented, including the description of a new species, Rafflesia mira, from Mindanao Island. A key to the identification of all four Philippine species is provided.

An amended description of Rafflesia leonardi and a revised key to Philippine Rafflesia (Rafflesiaceae)

Article

Full-text available

May 2011

The taxonomic identity of Rafflesia banaoana from Kalinga Province in northern Luzon (Philippines) and its affinity with R. leonardi of the adjacent Cagayan Province are discussed. Both taxa share a unique combination of morphological characters pertaining to the color and shape of the perigone lobes, their warts, the diaphragm aperture, the size and number of disk processes, and anther number. The only notable difference between R. banaoana and R. leonardi is flower size and characters correlated with size. Because Rafflesia species show large intraspecific variation in flower size, and because R. banaoana and R. leonardi share a number of other morphological features, we conclude that these two taxa are conspecific. The name R. banaoana should therefore be considered a synonym of the earlier name R. leonardi. Here, we present an amended description of R. leonardi. An updated key to all ten known species of Philippine Rafflesia is also provided.

Rafflesia aurantia (Rafflesiaceae): A New Species from Northern Luzon, Philippines

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2009

A new Philippine species of Rafflesia from the Sierra Madre Mountain Range of northeastern Luzon is described. Rafflesia aurantia is the ninth presumed endemic species thus far described from the Philippines, and the fifth reported from the island of Luzon. This species is apparently allied to R. tengku-adlinii of Sabah - both are small-sized and their overall color is similar. Biogeographical considerations and the morphological differences between our new species and R. tengku–adlinii, however, strongly support the recognition of two distinct evolutionary lineages/species. The conservation status of the fast disappearing lowland dipterocarp forests in northeastern Luzon, particularly the type locality in the Quirino Protected Landscape (QPL) is also discussed and suggests that the new species may be highly threatened.

Rafflesia magnifica (Rafflesiaceae), a new species from Mindanao, Philippines

Article

Jan 2005

The biological species concept

Article

E. Mayr

A New Species of Rafflesia (Rafflesiaceae) from Panay Island, Philippines

Article

Jan 2002

One new species of Rafflesia, R. speciosa, from Panay Island, Philippines is described. A discussion of its similarities with two other species, R. patma Blume from Borneo and Sumatra, and R. kerrii Meijer from S Thailand and Malay Peninsula, is provided. The conservation status of the two other Philippine species, R. manillana Teschem. and R. schadenbergiana Göpp. is also discussed.

XV. An Account of a new Genus of Plants, named Rafflesia

Article

Jan 1821

Robert Brown

Rafflesia mixta (Rafflesiaceae), a new species from Surigao del Norte, Mindanao, Philippines

Abstract and Figures

Supplementary resource (1)

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